Morphological and grammatical norms of the Russian language. Morphological norms. orthoepic norms. The main mistakes that occur when orthoepic norms are violated

1. The use of nouns.

2. The use of adjectives.

3. The use of numerals.

4. The use of pronouns.

5. The use of verbs.

Morphology, like vocabulary, studies the word, but the word as a part of speech. Therefore, the main attention is paid to the structure of the word, its various forms.

1. USE OF NOUNS

Below are the main types of difficulties that arise when using nouns in speech.

1. use of gender forms

Difficulties arise in determining the genus borrowed nouns, especially indeclinable. For example, piano, surname, sconce, potato, coffee, rail, moth, tulle, corn, roofing felt, cafe, shoe, cockatoo, chimpanzee, coat, highway, metro, report card, depot, coupe, jam, bureau, bet, jury, etc. P.

Genus indeclinable nouns can only be defined in combination with definitions, since these definitions agree with nouns in gender: beautiful tulle, cozy coupe, highway, etc.

In Russian there are words of the so-called general kind, there are about 200 of them: good fellow, smart girl, sneak, slob, dirty, sweet, orphan, protege, counterpart ... They can be used both in the meaning of feminine ( round orphan), and in the meaning of the masculine gender ( round orphan).

There is a rule according to which the gender of nouns formed with subjective evaluation suffix, coincides with the gender of generating words. For example, nouns house, house, domina belong to the male gender.

Things are even more difficult with names of persons by profession position held. For example, how to say about a woman:

The chief accountant came to work.

The chief accountant came to work.

Chief accountant came to work.

The chief accountant came to work.

Many names of persons by profession, position, work performed form pairs of male and female kind: a nurse is a nurse, a tractor driver is a tractor driver, an interpreter is a translator.

But it must be remembered that in official business speeches And book styles words are used to designate professions male kind: engineer, director.

IN colloquial speech the form is used female: director, engineer, doctor, - since colloquial speech refers primarily to a specific person, often not only his occupation, but also gender. However, such forms give speech a reduced and somewhat familiar character, dismissive. And often forms like general, directorambiguous: first, it's a face; secondly, the wife of a man of this profession.

There are many names of persons in masculine, which no feminine matches: president, diplomat, ambassador, PhD...

Some nouns are feminine no matches in the masculine gender: ballerina (ballet soloist, ballet dancer), typist (typewriter), manicurist, pedicurist (manicure or pedicure master).

2) use of number forms

Errors appear when using nouns that have only the form singular in the plural form and vice versa.

Finally on scaffold everyone's favorite singer came out (necessary:on scaffolds).

In the Russian literary language, the following forms of nouns are used in genitive plural(some without endings, others with endings):

Nouns male kind: a pair of boots, felt boots, epaulettes, boots, stockings ( BUT: oranges, hectares, tangerines, tomatoes, rails, tomatoes); among Armenians, Georgians, Ossetians, Bashkirs, Buryats, Romanians, Tatars, Turkmens, Turks, Gypsies ( BUT: Kalmyks, Kirghiz, Mongols, Tajiks, Tungus, Uzbeks, Yakuts);

Nouns female kind: no barges, waffles, shafts, stakes, candles ( BUT: it is not worth it);

Nouns middle kind: there are no upper reaches, lower reaches, knees, apples, points, swamps, saucers, mirrors, towels.

In Russian words weekdays, rakes, frosts, twilight, nursery and others do not have singular forms.

3) the use of case forms

In many cases, nouns have variant endings. It depends on the choice of one of these options whether there is a speech error or not.

1. For masculine singular nouns, the genitive and prepositional cases are possible variant endings: a glass of tea - a glass of tea, a lot of people - a lot of people, to leave the house - to leave the house, to be on vacation - to be on vacation. The second option has more colloquial character.

2. Some nouns have variants accusative and genitive , which differ in meaning: Buy bread (genus case) - a little bread, a certain amount; partial coverage of the object. Buy bread (wine case) - full coverage of the object.

3. Some nouns masculine in the nominative in the plural case, depending on the style of speech, they have the endings -Ы (-И) or -А (-Я): director, chef BUT: engineers, physicians). Many nouns have variant norms: pennant (pennants, pennant), searchlight, tenor, tractor, paramedic. Sometimes endings indicate semantic differences: omissions (oversights) - passes (documents).

4. Foreign surnames on –OB and -IN have in creative case ending -OM, in contrast to Russian surnames with the ending -YM: familiar with Vlasov, but: familiar with Darwin, Chaplin.

If in doubt about the use of a particular form of a noun, you must refer to the dictionary!

2. USE OF ADJECTS

1. Short and long forms of adjectives and degrees of comparison adjectives when used in the text can lead to a speech error. For example: The girl was tall, beautiful and cheerful (Necessary: ​​The girl was tall, beautiful and cheerful); My brother is older than me and he studies well (Necessary: ​​My brother is older than me and he studies better.) As homogeneous members sentences cannot use full and short forms of adjectives, as well as simple and complex forms of degrees of comparison: He more capable And cleverer me (Necessary: ​​He is more capable and smarter than me).

2. Full and short forms of adjectives in the function of the predicate can differ both stylistically and in meaning:

Short forms are predominantly book stylistic coloring: The lecture is interesting and instructive.

Short adjectives sound more categorical in the text, they usually express an active and specific feature: Thoughts are clear, the girl is beautiful.

The full forms of adjectives are usually used in colloquial speeches: The lecture is interesting and instructive..

The full form indicates constant sign, short - on temporary: the girl is beautiful (in general), the girl is beautiful (at the moment).

Full and short forms of the adjective can differ in meaning: the boy is deaf - the boy is deaf (to requests).

1. Upon education short forms adjectives with unstressed - enny (natural, solemn) fluctuations are observed.

Artificial - artificial, artificial.

Solemn - solemn, solemn.

Currently, these options are equal, they are entrenched in all styles. But the truncated form is considered the most common (on - en).

2. With the full form of the adjective used in the nominative case in the role compound predicate, cannot, as a rule, be controlled words, and in a short form - they can (incorrect: He has a sore throat; correct: He has a sore throat).

3. Forms are not used better, worse etc., since the second word in itself already expresses the meaning of the comparative degree.

3. USE OF NUMBERS.

When using numerals, the following cases are the most difficult:

3. Often there are errors when using the numerals BOTH, BOTH. Both the girl needs to retake the exams (need: Both girls ...)

4. Collective numbers two, three, five etc. are used only:

WITH animate nouns male ( three students; wrong: three female students);

With nouns children, guys, people, as well as with the names of baby animals (three children, two kittens);

With nouns used only in plural (two tongs, three sleds) or denoting paired objects ;

With personal pronouns we you they(there were three of us).

2. Colloquial style allows sometimes " nondecline» complex and compound cardinal numbers. But in bookstores styles these words should incline. For example: About six hundred people became interested in this issue (incorrect: about six hundred people).

At declension composite quantitative numerals all the words included in their composition change; when declining compound ordinal numbers - only the last word:

R. p. - two thousand nine hundred and fifty-six (quantitative);

R. p. - two thousand nine hundred and fifty-six (ordinal).

4. USE OF PRONOUNS

3. Speech errors can be associated with the formation of non-normative pronouns: Their school won the competition (need: their school)

4. A fairly common mistake is an unsuccessful choice of one of the synonymous possessive pronouns (mine is mine, yours is mine): Does it help that you make yourself? (required: himself).

5. The jumble of pronouns sometimes creates ambiguity in the text: He had a hard time when he entered into a fight with him (it should be: Peter had a hard time when he entered into a fight with Ivan).

6. personal pronouns in oral speech often duplicate the subject : This student, she always attended classes (should: This student always attended classes).

7. The pronoun usually replaces the noun closest to it, so you need to be careful not to make such a mistake: Vitya and Sasha started a conversation, and he promised to come again (the conversation cannot come, so you need to say: Vitya and Sasha talked, and Sasha promised to come again).

8. Collective nouns such as students, poor, people cannot be replaced by a pronoun They.

1. USE OF VERBS

Verbal forms, as well as forms of other parts of speech, can be represented by variants that differ both in stylistic coloring and in meaning.

For example, saw And seen - The first option is common, and the second is colloquial. In a certain functional style, variants of the imperative mood of verbs are also used:

notify, clog - colloquial version,

notify, clog - book version.

But variants of the imperative mood can be equal in rights: throw it out, throw it out, put it out, put it out.

In the form of stylistic options, the forms of verbs can also be presented in the present tense rinse, splash, sway, hesitate, scour, wave, whip, pinch, pour, etc .:

a) with alternating consonants in the root ( splash, splash, wave) - stylistically neutral option;

b) without alternating consonants (rinse, splash, wave) - conversational option.

Difficulties arise in the formation of past tense forms: cox or dry, wet or wet?

The norm is the loss of the suffix -nu- in all forms of the past tense containing prefixes: get wet - wet, wet; plunge - plunge. BUT : wet, wet.

Lecture on the topic "Morphological norms"

What is a morphological norm?

Morphology is a section of grammar that studies parts of speech and their inherent ways of word formation.

Morphology - it is a systematized set of word forms (declension, conjugation), as well as the rules for their use

Morphological norms are the norms for the formation and use of words

Morphological norms of nouns

Compound words made up of the first letters (CNG) or sounds (ITAR) of the words from which they are formed have the gender of the main word:

ITAR (agency-sr.r.) reported

CIS (commonwealth - sr.r.) arose

Indeclinable nouns denoting a profession, position, title, traditionally associated with male labor (such as attache, referee), refer to m.r.

The gender of indeclinable geographical names is determined by the gender of the corresponding generic noun:

Tbilisi-city (m.s.), Ontario-lake (s.s.)

Nouns denoting a substance, a homogeneous mass (perfume, milk, iron) are used only in the form of a single number

Some inanimate masculine nouns in R.p. can have endings not only -a, -ya, but also -y, -yu. These nouns include:

• real, when indicating the amount of something: centner of sugar sand - sand
• real, when indicating the absence of something: not a gram of sand-sand
• nouns with diminutive suffixes: pour sand
• abstract nouns - in the same cases: how much squealing - screeching
• words included in stable combinations(phraseological units): no year week

Some inanimate nouns m.r. In and P. cases singular with prepositions in and on with spatial meaning can always have stressed endings -y, -yu: on the closet, in the corner

The most common of these nouns are:

coast, board (ship), Crimea, forest, bridge,

port, row, garden, corner, cupboard

When there are options endings -e, -y the first is neutral, the second is colloquial:

on vacation - on vacation

A number of nouns m.r. in I.p. pl. number has accented endings -а, -я:

address - addresses

The most common nouns that take this form are:

side, coast, century, evening, eye, voice, director, house, doctor, building, edge, camp, master, number, order, island, passport, train, professor, volume, color

Some groups of nouns m.r. in R.p. pl. numbers have the form I.p. units numbers (no ending). These groups are:

• separate names of persons of national identity: Buryats, Georgians, Turks, Gypsies (cf. Arabs, Mongols)
• individual names of persons associated with military service: hussar, partisan, soldier (but captains, colonels)
• separate names of paired items: boots, felt boots, boots, stockings (but cf. socks)
• separate names of units of measurement when indicating their quantity: ampere, watt, hertz, ohm, roentgen

Nouns have 2 declensions in T.p. units the numbers vary with the endings -oy, (-s) and -oy (-s):

Head, page - head, page

The latter forms are found, as a rule, in poetry, being due to the rules of rhyme

Nouns generic are inclined according to the model of the declension of the female, but are used most often in colloquial speech:

curmudgeon, bore

In animate nouns of all genders in the plural. number and m.r. in units the number of endings of V. and R. cases are the same

At the zoo, the children saw an elephant, a bear.

Inanimate nouns used in a figurative sense are perceived as animated

Wed: When daylight you can't see the stars. - At the gala concert, we saw real stars.

Among nouns there are indeclinable ones, i.e. preserving initial form in all cases. They belong to:

• words of foreign origin that end in a vowel: menu, metro
• foreign female names: lady, miss, frau
• Russian surnames ending in -ago, -ovo, -ykh, -ikh: Zhivago, Durnovo, Dolgikh
• compound words like RF, deputy director

If indeclinable nouns name objects, then they refer to cf. Genus: Kimono, Domino.

Exception-coffee (m.s.)

If indeclinable nouns name living beings, then their gender depends on the gender of the latter:

young kangaroo young kangaroo

In the absence of an indication of gender, the names of animals are masculine.

personal nouns with suffixes -sh-a And -their-a type the engineer has a conversational character

Morphological norms of adjectives

If it is possible to form short forms in -en and -enen from adjectives -enen, it should be borne in mind that although both forms are literary, the latter is more characteristic book speech:

immoral - immoral, immoral

Possessive adjectives in -ov, -in mean belonging to one person:

father's instructions, grandfather's household.

This is typical for spoken language.

In other styles, such adjectives are replaced by the R. case of the noun with the meaning of ownership:

father's instructions, grandfather's household

In the event that adjectives of this kind are included in stable combinations, they are also used in book speech.

Of the two variants of the simple comparative degree of qualitative adjectives in

She, - her last is characteristic of colloquial speech:

more active - more active

cannot be combined into one quality adjective simple and compound forms of degrees of comparison:

more beautiful (cannot be more beautiful) the most beautiful (the most

beautiful)

Morphological norms of nouns

Collective numbers are combined most often:

• with m. gender nouns with meaningfaces: two students, three teachers
• with cub names: four cubs
• with nouns that have only the plural form. numbers: two scissors
• with nouns denoting paired objects: two socks
• with common nouns: five judges
• with personal pronouns: there were six of them

Collective numerals both (m, cf.r.) and both (f.r.) have the form of gender. When declining the numeral, both, the base ends in o (both-them), the numeral both - in e (both-them)

In compound cardinal numbers, each word is declined:

Twenty eight - twenty eight

The word thousand in combination with the word one has in T.P. the form of a thousand

one thousand two hundred and thirty three

Morphological norms of pronouns

Interrogative pronouns WHO, WHAT do not have morphological categories of gender and number. With the pronoun WHO, the verb-predicate is used in m.p., with the pronoun WHAT - in cf. kind:

Who is late for class? - What happened?

In combination with the pronoun WHO, definitions such as SUCH, ANOTHER, OTHER take shape m, f. gender depending on the real gender of the person indicated by the pronoun:

Who it? Who is she?

If the subject is a noun or a pronoun of the 3rd person, then the possession acting person can only be expressed by the pronoun YOUR:

One of the passengers forgot their umbrella.

If personal pronouns 1,2 persons (I, you, we, you) act as the subject, then the belonging of someone or something to the acting person can be expressed by the pronoun own and the pronouns MY, YOUR, OUR, YOUR, although in live speech it is preferred first

It is necessary to distinguish in the use of the pronoun SAM, MOST.

CAM - means "independently" and is used with personal pronouns and animate nouns:

The rector himself decided to hold a meeting.

With inanimate nouns, the pronoun CAM can be used to clarify, highlight:

The meeting itself went well.

MOST - indicates the feature of the subject:

The meeting began to consider the most important issue.

SAMA - in V.p. has two forms: samoyo (bookish, outdated) and samu (more modern)

Differences between the pronouns SUCH and SUCH:

This is used most often as a definition and has a shade of enhancement:

This was the first time such a reception had been given.

Takov is used as a predicate:

That was his story.

The pronouns EVERYONE, EVERYONE and the adjective ANY are close in meaning, but not interchangeable

Athletes prepared for the competition every day (i.e. all days without exception).

That summer there were all sorts of competitions (i.e. various).

Athletes were ready to practice on any day (i.e., one of the days).

The accusative case of the reflexive pronoun SELF can refer to different persons mentioned in the offer:

Friends don't let me make fun of myself. (Pronoun can be applied to friends and to me)

This ambiguity must be avoided:

My friends don't let me joke about myself.

After prepositions in personal pronouns

3 persons appears H:

Them - in them

him - around him

The pronoun theirs does not have the form IHNIY

The pronouns YOU and YOUR can be used as a form of polite address to one person and are written in this case with capital letter:

Why do you think the audience will like your performance?

Morphological norms of adverbs

complex shapes superlatives adverbs can be formed from the basis of a complex form of the superlative degree of adjectives with the help of the suffix -е, but in modern Russian they are almost never used:

we humbly ask

Morphological norms of verbs

When formed from verb forms imperfect form with the help of the suffix - yva (-iva) there can be an alternation of sounds [o - a] in the base.

If in this case parallel forms are formed, then the first of them correspond to strictly literary use, and the second are used in colloquial speech:

condition - cause

Some verbs in -nut form variant forms with and without the -nu- suffix:

accustomed - accustomed, faded - faded

In modern Russian, preference is given to the latter

IN imperative mood verbs to put, ride, lie down have the following forms:

put - put (but there is no form of put),

put - put (but there are no lodge forms, put),

ride - go

lie down - lie down, lie down

Morphological norms require the correct formation of grammatical forms of words different parts speech (forms of gender, number, short forms and degrees of comparison of adjectives, etc.). A typical violation of morphological norms is the use of a word in a non-existent or context-inappropriate inflectional form ( analyzed image, reigning order, victory over fascism, called Plyushkin a hole). Sometimes you can hear such phrases: railway rail, imported shampoo, registered parcel post, patent leather shoes. In these phrases, a morphological error was made - the gender of nouns was incorrectly formed.

The use of nouns in the genitive plural. In the forms of the genus In the case, zero endings and endings -ov / -ev are possible.

Names of nationalities and peoples: Bulgarians, Georgians, Gypsies, Romanians, Turkmens, Buryats; Yakuts, Tajiks, Gypsies, Romanians, Greeks, Mongols

Name of paired items: stocking, trousers, boots, cuffs, epaulettes, golf; socks, glasses, straps

The name of vegetables and fruits: eggplant, pomegranate, apples; tangerines, tomatoes, oranges, bananas

Comparative forms of adjectives

Simple degree N.f. (im.p. singular) + -ee, -ee, -e, -she

Sharp - sharper, long - longer

Composite form N.f. + "more" / "less"

Hard - harder, weak - less weak

Superlative form of adjectives

Simple: strict (im.p.) + -aysh (-eysh)

Composite + most/most/least/all

Not allowed: the strictest

Ex. 1) Name of persons by profession

In business speech, there are more masculine words than feminine words. For most of the names of new professions included in the sphere of official business use, there is no analogue in the feminine gender: broker, manager, broker.

2)Indeclinable nouns have the same form for all cases: I enter the subway, I see the subway, I admire the subway.

Among them there are both common nouns (coffee, radio, coat, highway, dressing table) and proper names (Garibaldi, Goethe, Zola, Sochi, Baku). Indeclinable nouns include (Many nouns of foreign origin with final vowels -o, -e, -i, -u, -u and with final stress -a: radio, metro, pince-nez, stew, menu, boa, (novel) Dumas, (poem) Heine, (city) Oslo.

2. Foreign surnames denoting females and ending in a consonant: (poetry) Aliger, (novel) Voynich.

3. Russian and Ukrainian surnames with -o and -ih(s): Durnovo, Franko, Chernykh, Dolgikh.

4. Compound abbreviated words of an alphabetic and mixed character: HPS, VAZ, Moscow State University, GAI. It is important to know the gender of indeclinable nouns in order to avoid mistakes in word agreement.)

25. Report as a genre of book oral monologue speech.

26. The concept of "good speech." Its qualities and features.

The concept of the style and content of good speech, its main qualities and properties has changed in various eras but interest in the art of speech has always remained unchanged. The purity and correctness of the language in Rus' in all, even the most ancient times, were considered the key to high culture.

The concept of good speech includes at least three features: richness, accuracy, expressiveness. The indicators of the richness of speech are the large volume of the active vocabulary, the variety of morphological forms and syntactic constructions used.

If a person has a correct and good speech, he reaches the highest level of speech culture. This means not only avoiding speech errors, but also being able to build statements in the best possible way in accordance with the purpose of communication, choosing the most appropriate words and constructions in each case, taking into account who and under what circumstances he is addressing.

The properties of good speech include clarity, consistency, simplicity, conciseness, purity ... Reveal the essence of these concepts using synonyms and antonyms

D.E. Rosenthal lists the following signs of good speech: compliance with the literary and linguistic norms adopted in a certain era.

Speech accuracy, i.e. correspondence with the thoughts of the speaker or writer.

Clarity of speech, i.e. accessible to the listener or reader. Logic of speech, i.e. compliance with the laws of logic. The carelessness of the language is due to the fuzziness of thinking. Simplicity of speech, i.e. artlessness, naturalness, lack of pretentiousness, "beautifulness" of the syllable.

The richness of speech, i.e. variety of language tools used. Conciseness of speech, i.e. no unnecessary words, no unnecessary repetitions.

Purity of speech, i.e. the elimination of non-literary, dialectal, slang, vernacular, vulgar words, as well as words of foreign origin that are used unnecessarily from it.

Liveliness of speech, i.e. lack of patterns, expressiveness, figurativeness, emotionality.

The euphony of speech, i.e. compliance with the requirements of sounding pleasant to the ear, selection of words taking into account their sound side.

Morphological norms are the rules for using grammatical forms of different parts of speech. Morphological norms are regulated by morphology - a section of linguistics, which includes the doctrine of word forms and ways of expressing grammatical meanings, as well as the doctrine of parts of speech and their features.

Grammatical meaning is a characteristic of a word in terms of belonging to a certain part of speech, most general meaning, inherent in a number of words, not depending on their real-material content.

The words cheese and litter have different lexical meanings: cheese is a food product; rubbish - rubbish. A grammatical meanings these words are the same: noun, common noun, inanimate, masculine, II declension, each of these words can be determined by an adjective, change in cases and numbers, act as a member of a sentence.

The material expression of grammatical meaning is a grammatical means. Most often, grammatical meaning is expressed in affixes (prefixes, suffixes and endings). It can also be expressed with the help of function words, alternation of sounds, changes in the place of stress and word order, intonation.

Individual grammatical meanings are combined into systems. For example, singular and plural values ​​are combined into a system of number values. In such cases one speaks of the grammatical category of number. Exist grammatical categories tense, gender, mood, type, etc.

Morphological norms for the use of nouns

The main difficulty of learning morphological norms consists in the presence of variants that appear due to the constant interaction of old and new ways of forming grammatical forms.

Among the morphological norms for the use of nouns, the norms associated with the categories of gender and case cause the greatest difficulties.

The gender of many nouns is fairly easy to determine based on the ending (“zero”, -а/-я, -о/-е), however, there is a group of words whose gender is not determined in this way. Most often, fluctuations are observed in the attitude
nouns to the masculine or feminine gender. These vibrations form variant forms generic affiliation words.

1) equal options: unt-unta, shutter shutter, stack stack;

2) stylistic options: shoe (common) - shoes (colloquial), key (common) - keys (professional);

3) modern and obsolete options: hall hall, shoe boot, off-rail rail;

4) semantic options(words in which the generic ending helps to distinguish lexical meaning): district (subdivision of the state territory) - districts (surrounding area), quarry - 1) a place of open mining, 2) an accelerated walk of a horse - a quarry (prominent position in society).

There are different forms of words denoting male and female persons by profession, position, rank, since there are not always analogues for denoting persons of both sexes. There are the following options:

1) two-gender nouns are masculine nouns that can also be used to refer to females: doctor, lawyer, deputy, professor, captain;

2) parallel, stylistically neutral nouns: teacher - teacher, artist - artist, student - student;

3) stylistic variants in which the feminine form is stylistically reduced, has a colloquial or colloquial character: a doctor is a doctor, a conductor is a conductor, a director is a headmistress.

The assignment of gender to indeclinable nouns requires special attention: for many of them it is impossible to be guided by the ending, and the translation of these words into Russian varies. For example, what kind of word is sconce? Eat different variants its translation: lamp / night light - masculine, lamp - feminine. It is impossible to use translation to determine the gender of a borrowed noun! There are the following rules:

1) inanimate foreign nouns belong to the middle gender: cafe, subway, taxi, interview, aloe. Some exceptions: masculine: coffee, sirocco (dry wind), names of drinks (brandy) and languages ​​(Hindi, Dari); feminine: salami, kohlrabi, avenue. In a number of cases, parallel forms gradually develop: whiskey, coffee, auto, penalties (m.r. and sr.r.), tsunami, madrasah (m.r. and f.r.);

2) animate foreign nouns can belong to both masculine and feminine: my / my counterpart, this / this attache;

3) in the names of animals (cockatoo, kangaroo, chimpanzee, pony), the masculine gender acts as the main one, and the feminine as an additional one - it depends on the context: funny pony (m. R.), bright hummingbird (f. R.);

4) in geographical names the genus is determined by the genus of the reality they designate: deep Mississippi(river → female), multimillion-dollar festive Tokyo (city → m., capital → female);

5) in abbreviations and compound words, the norm is unstable. In general, gender is determined by the main word: USTU (university → m.r.), UN (organization → f.r.). But there are exceptions here too: a university (s.r. → m.r.), NATO - North Atlantic Treaty Organization (f.r. → c.p.), the Ministry of Foreign Affairs (s.r. → m.r.), etc. The above words began to be perceived as independent and "changed" the gender.

Various variants are also found in the case system of the Russian language.

Nominative

There may be variant endings -ы -и and -а -я in the plural forms of masculine nouns: contracts - contracts, locksmiths - locksmith. The norm is the endings -s -i, the variant -а -я acts as colloquial.

Genitive

1. For some masculine nouns in the genitive singular, the main variant of the ending -а -я (tea, sugar) and the additional variant -у/-ю (tea, sugar) vary. The endings -u -yu can be used in the following cases:

In nouns with a real value to denote part of the whole (a glass of tea, a kilogram of sugar, a piece of cheese). However, if the noun is accompanied by a definition, you should choose the form with the ending -а/-я (a cup of hot tea, a pack of dried tobacco)",

In collective and abstract nouns with the meaning of quantity (few people, a lot of noise)",

In negative sentences (there is no peace, there was no refusal).

In phraseological units, the ending is accepted - y: (a week without a year, eye to eye, with the world on a string).

2. In the genitive plural of masculine nouns, the following options case endings: -oβ!-eβ (many tables, museums), -ey (many pencils) and null ending (many boots). Zero ending have groups of masculine nouns:

Names of paired items (boots, boots, stockings (but socks, shoulder straps)",

Names of some nationalities, mainly nouns with the basis of the letters -н and -р (English, Armenians, Bulgarians)",

Names of units of measurement (amps, watts, volts, but: grams, kilograms).

Prepositional

In the prepositional case of the singular number of masculine nouns, there may be two variants of endings: -е and -у.

1) option -y - colloquial: in the shop - in the shop,

2) the ending indicates the difference between adverbial and objective meanings: to grow in the forest - to know about the forest",

3) in expressions of a phraseological nature: on a current account - to be in good standing.

When choosing an ending option, context should be taken into account: pay attention to what meaning is realized in the word.

Morphological norms of adjectives

The most complex issues in the morphology of adjectives from a normative point of view are the formation of forms of degrees of comparison and the difference between full and short forms of adjectives.

Formation of degrees of comparison of adjectives

There are simple and compound degrees of comparison of adjectives. A simple comparative form is formed using the suffixes -ee and -ee (colloquial): faster - faster. Some adjectives form a comparative degree with the help of the suffix -e \ smarter, louder, sweeter. The simple form of the superlative degree of adjectives is formed using the suffixes -aysh(s) (highest), -eysh(s) (most beautiful).

The compound comparative form is formed using the word more, and the superlative form is formed using the word most. This house is tall, but the neighboring one is taller. This house is the tallest in the city).

Traditional speech errors in the formation of forms of degrees of comparison of adjectives are associated with: 1) with a mixture of simple and compound forms of degrees of comparison (higher), 2) using simple and compound forms of superlatives (the most beautiful) and 3) with the absence of an object of comparison (This room lighter).

Full and short forms of adjectives

There are differences between the full and short forms of the adjective, so such forms cannot always replace each other:

1) stylistic difference: short forms are characteristic of book speech, full forms are neutral in their stylistic coloring (a child is capricious - a child is capricious);

2) semantic differences:

a) short forms indicate a temporary sign of an object, full ones - permanent (a person is sick, a sick person)",

b) short forms indicate a sign in relation to something, full forms - an irrelevant sign (the skirt is short - the skirt is short, the trousers are tight, the trousers are narrow);

3) syntactic difference: short forms have dependent words, full ones do not (the child has the flu). IN individual cases meaning of short and complete forms diverges so much that they are perceived as different words(A prominent scientist, specialist. - The house is visible from afar; Free wind. - He is free to do as he knows).

Morphological norms of nouns

1. In complex and compound cardinal numbers, all parts decline (a book with one hundred and fifty-six pages).

2. When declining compound ordinal numbers, only the last word changes in them (to be born in one thousand nine hundred and ninety-two).

3. Cardinal numbers (except for the numeral one) do not combine with nouns that are used only in the plural, such as sleigh, scissors, day, trousers, glasses, etc. It is impossible: twenty-two days, thirty-three scissors, follows: passed twenty-second day / twenty-two days. Bought scissors in the amount of thirty-three pieces.

4. Collective numerals are combined only with animate masculine nouns (two young men, three men) and are not combined with feminine nouns (one cannot say: three girls, only: three girls).

5. When combining a noun with a numeral denoting a fraction, the noun must be in the genitive case of the singular (not allowed: 12.6 kilometers, only: 12.6 kilometers).

6. The numerals one and a half and one and a half hundred have only two case forms: in the nominative and accusative cases - one and a half / one and a half and one and a half hundred, in all other cases - one and a half and one and a half hundred.

Morphological norms of pronouns

1. The pronoun they does not correlate with collective nouns (people, youth, merchants). It is impossible: The people went to the polls together, because they understood how important it was. Follows: people → he or people → people.

2. Personal pronouns cannot be used as a second subject or object. It is impossible: Plyushkin, he is the negative hero of the novel.

3. In the presence of two subjects of action, personal and possessive pronouns require additional explanation or rephrasing of the sentence as a whole so that there is no ambiguity. It is impossible: The professor invited the graduate student to read his report (Whose? Professor or graduate student?)

4. In indefinite pronouns with suffixes -something, -either, -anybud suffix -something forms the meaning of "unknown", the suffix -either - the meaning of "any", the suffix -nibud - the meaning of "unimportant" (Impossible: Someone or someone knocks on the door. Only: Someone knocks).

5. Definitive pronouns everyone, anyone and everyone cannot replace each other (It is impossible: Any person is responsible for his own life. Only: Every person ...).

Morphological norms of verbs

1. Verb pairs are stylistically different: see - see, hear - hear, raise - raise, climb, climb, etc. The first option is bookish, the second is colloquial.

2. Verbs with alternating o / / a in the stem (condition - condition, focus - concentrate, etc.) also differ as a book version (form with o) and colloquial (form with a).

3. In the so-called insufficient verbs (to win, to convince, to find oneself, to dare, to feel), the form of the 1st person singular of the future tense has a compound character (I can / I will be able / I must win).

4. The so-called abundant verbs have two forms of the present tense with a stylistic or semantic difference. For example: waving - waving (book and colloquial versions), moves (moves) moves (leads, encourages).

5. Some verbs in the past tense form forms without the suffix -nu- (get wet, get used to - used to).

6. The unity of the aspectual-temporal forms of verbs is the rule according to which all verbs within the same sentence must be used in the same grammatical form. It is impossible: On vacation, he rested and again did what he loved. Only: busy.

7. In a special form of the verb - gerunds - the suffix -v is normative, the suffix -lice is colloquial. Don't: After reading a book. Only; After reading a book.

In case of difficulties in the formation of forms various parts speech, it is recommended to refer to grammar dictionaries.

Morphology is a section of grammar that studies the grammatical properties of words, that is, grammatical meanings, means of expressing grammatical meanings, grammatical categories.

Morphological norms- rules for the use of morphological forms of different parts of speech.

The peculiarities of the Russian language are that the means of expressing grammatical meanings often vary. At the same time, the variants may differ in shades of meaning, stylistic coloring, scope of use, correspond to the standard of the literary language or violate it. The skillful use of options allows you to more accurately express an idea, diversify speech, testifies to the speech culture of the speaker.

The largest group is made up of variants, the use of which is limited by the functional style or genre of speech. So, in colloquial speech, there are often forms of the genitive plural orange, tomatoop, instead of oranges, tomatoes; from her, from her instead of her, from her. The use of such forms in official written and oral speech is considered a violation of the morphological norm.

Real nouns sugar, fuel, oil,oil, salt, marble are usually used in the singular form. In professional speech, the plural form is used to designate varieties, varieties of substances: sugar, fuel, oil, petroleum, salt,marbles. These forms have a stylistic connotation of professional use.

There are many morphological variants in the Russian language, which are considered as identical, equivalent. For example, turners - turners, workshops- workshops, spring- spring,doors- doors.

In other cases, one of the forms violates the norm of the literary language: rail, A rail wrong, shoe, A shoes And shoe wrong.

There are many masculine and feminine words in Russian to designate people by their position, profession. With nouns denoting the position held, profession, rank, rank, the difficulties that arise in speech are explained by the peculiarities of this group of words. What are they?

Firstly, in Russian there are masculine names and there are no feminine parallels to them, or (much less often) there are only feminine names. For example: rector, businessman, financier, parliamentarianter and laundress, nanny, milliner, manicurist, midwife, devildowry, lacemaker, seamstress-minder.

Secondly, there are both masculine and feminine names, both of which are neutral. For example: athlete- athlete, poet- poetess.

Thirdly, both forms (both masculine and feminine) are formed, but the feminine words differ in meaning or stylistic coloring. Yes, the words professor, doctor have the meaning "professor's wife", "doctor's wife" and colloquial connotation, and how job titles become colloquial. Generic Parallels cashier, watchman,accountant, controller, laboratory assistant, janitor, biletersha qualify as colloquial, and doctor- as spacious.

Difficulties arise when it is necessary to emphasize that we are talking about a woman, and there is no neutral feminine parallel in the language. Such cases are on the rise. According to scientists, the number of names that do not have a female generic parallel increases every year, for example: space physicist, TV commentator,TV reporter, bionic, cybernetician and others, while this position can be held by a woman.

What exit do writers and speakers find? As linguists note, not only in oral speech, but in newspaper texts, business correspondence more and more often, a syntactic indication of the gender of the called person is used, when, with a masculine noun, the verb in the past tense has a feminine form. For example: doctor atwalked, the philologist said, the foreman was there, she advised me our bibliographer. Such constructions are currently considered acceptable, not violating the standard of the literary language.

The use of masculine nouns that do not have a feminine derivational parallel as a name for women has led to increased fluctuations in the forms of agreement. The following options became possible: young physicist Yakovleva - young physicist Yakovleva.

In the frequency-stylistic dictionary of variants “Grammatical correctness of Russian speech”, regarding such use of definitions, it is said: “In written strictly official or neutral business speech, the norm of agreement on the external form of the noun being defined is adopted outstanding mathematician Sofia Kovalevskaya; new preIndian Prime Minister Indira Gandhi.

Most frequent grammatical errors associated with the use of the gender of nouns. You can hear the wrong phrases: railway rail, francuz shampoo, big callus, registered parcel. A because nouns rail, shampoo- male, corn, parcel- feminine, so you should say: railway rail, french shampoo, painshaya corn, registered parcel post.

Violation of grammatical norms is often associated with the use of prepositions in speech. Thus, the difference in semantic and stylistic shades between synonymous constructions with prepositions is not always taken into account. because of And thanks to. Pretext thanks to retains its original lexical meaning associated with the verb thank, therefore it is used to indicate the cause that produces the desired result: thanks to the help of comrades, thanksrya correct treatment. At a sharp contradiction between the original lexical meaning suggestion thanks and indicating a negative reason, the use of this preposition is undesirable: did not come to work due to illness. In this case, it is correct to say - because of illness.

Prepositions thanks to, in spite of, according to, towards according to modern standards, they are used only with the dative case.