Morphological norms of the Russian language theory. Grammar rules. Morphological norms of nouns

08.03.2018 23:27

The table is easy to print and use as a quick reference in preparation for task No. 6 of the exam. After all, this task is focused on knowing the rules for using words of many parts of speech.

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Everything is in one table. Morphological norms of the Russian language. Task number 6 of the exam. "

Task number 6. Morphological norms for the use of parts of speech

Belyakova Natalya Fedorovna, teacher at the All-Russian Children's Center "Orlyonok"

As in the field of pronunciation, in morphology and syntax there are strong and weak norms. The strong ones are respected by everyone who speaks Russian as a native language. Weak ones are easily influenced from the outside, poorly absorbed and often distorted. Their presence is determined by many reasons, in particular, the peculiarities of the development of the phonetic and grammatical systems of the Russian language.

For example, in the Old Russian language, there were originally ten types and subtypes of declension, and the type of declension was determined by the final sound of the stem and the meaning of the word.

In modern Russian - three declensions(depending on the gender of the noun and the ending of the word). The first declension is mostly feminine nouns in -a; the second - masculine with a zero ending and the middle gender in -o and -e, the third declension - feminine nouns with zero ending. From the point of view of the distribution of nouns according to declensions, depending on generic affiliation the third declension turns out to be "superfluous". That is why in speech quite often nouns of the third declension change gender and begin to decline like nouns of the second declension ( I caught a mouse). On the other hand, masculine nouns with a soft stem can change gender and decline in speech like third declension nouns ( i bought a new shampoo).

Similar reasons are due to fluctuations in the forms of the nominative case plural for masculine nouns of the second declension. In modern Russian, several endings are fixed, which go back to different Old Russian forms.

The original ending -i was preserved only in a few words with a solid foundation:

hell - hell, neighbor - neighbors.

The ending -a was originally the ending of the dual number. Now it is preserved in words denoting paired concepts, but is perceived as a plural ending:

sleeves, shores, eyes.

Type forms brothers, friends, leaves ascend to forms of collective feminine nouns.

Compare: the Old Church Slavonic version of one of these forms preserved in modern Russian: monastic brethren.

note to the fact that forms in -ya retain a collective connotation of meaning (cf.: sheets - leaves; teeth - teeth).

Finally, the ending -e of nouns in -anin is native, since these nouns already in the Old Russian language belonged to the category of heterogeneous ones and had special endings in the plural:

peasant - peasants, Christian - Christians.

Many similar examples can be given for other forms and other parts of speech.

So, in common speech, the absence of alternation of consonants in the forms of the present and simple future tenses is very frequent ( water flowing instead of normative water flowing; she bakes bread instead of normative she bakes bread). This is due to the general trend towards so-called warp leveling. Already in Old Russian period the language strove to make the stem the same in all forms of a single word.

This process went through quite consistently in nouns. And instead of the original forms - oh pastus, young pastus and- we are now using the forms - oh shepherd e, young shepherd and. In the verb, this process is much slower. In some forms, the alternation of consonants is lost (we say bake and bread instead of the original Old Russian - pie and bread), in others - the alternation of consonants is preserved in the literary language ( I baked bread; she bakes bread), but may be lost in dialects and vernacular ( she bakes bread).

There are other reasons that influence the appearance of a whole system of variants in morphology. The greatest difficulties are usually caused by the distribution of some nouns by gender, the formation of plural forms of nouns, the formation of a number of forms of verbs. Let's dwell on some of them in more detail.

Topic number 5. Morphological norms of the Russian language 1. The concept of morphological norms In previous lectures, we got acquainted with three types of norms: stress norms, pronunciation norms and lexical norms. The next type of norms of the Russian literary language is grammatical norms. Grammatical norms are usually divided into two types: morphological norms and syntactic norms. In today's lecture, we will talk about morphological norms. Morphological norms are the rules for using grammatical forms different parts speech. Morphological norms regulate morphology- a section of linguistics, which includes the doctrine of word forms and ways of expression grammatical meanings, as well as the doctrine of parts of speech and their features. 2. Morphological norms of nouns The main difficulty in studying morphological norms is the presence of variants that appear due to the constant interaction of old and new ways of forming grammatical forms. In the morphological norms of nouns, we turn to the categories of gender and case. Noun gender category. Despite the fact that we quite easily determine the gender in many nouns, guided by the ending (“null” /b, a / i, o / e), there is a group of words for which the definition of gender can be difficult. Most often, fluctuations are observed in attributing nouns to the masculine or feminine gender. As in the case of stress, these vibrations are distributed along different types, that is, they form variant forms of the word's gender :

Equivalent options: unt - unta, shutter - shutter, stack - stack.

Stylistic options (characterized by different stylistic affiliations): shoe(common)- shoes(colloquial), key(common) - keys(prof.).

Literary and obsolete variants: hall - hall, shoe - shoe, rail - rail.

Semantic variants (words in which the generic ending helps to distinguish lexical meaning): county(subdivision state territory) – districts(surrounding area) career(1) an open pit mining site or 2) a fast horse ride) - career(prominent position in society).

Differ word forms denoting male and female persons by profession, position, rank . Such nouns do not always have a full-fledged analogue for designating a female person. There are options:

Gender nouns are masculine nouns, but can also be used to refer to females: doctor, lawyer, deputy, professor, captain.

Parallel, stylistically neutral nouns: teacher - teacher, artist - artist, student - student.

Stylistic nouns, in which the feminine form is stylistically reduced, has a colloquial or vernacular character: doctor - doctor, conductor - conductor, director - headmistress.

Requires special attention assignment of gender to indeclinable nouns , since in many of them we cannot be guided by the ending, and the translation of these words into Russian is different. For example: what kind of word sconce? If we try to translate it, there will be different options: a lamp / night light is masculine, a lamp is feminine. It is impossible to use translation in order to determine the gender of a borrowed noun! There are rules:

Inanimate foreign nouns belong to the neuter gender: cafe, subway, taxi, interview, aloe. There are exceptions in this group: masculine: coffee, sirocco(dry wind), names of drinks (brandy) and languages ​​( hindi, dari). For the feminine: salami, kohlrabi, avenue. But gradually parallel forms begin to develop: whiskey, coffee, auto, penalty(and m.r. and s.r.), tsunami, madrasah(M.R. and F.R.).

Animated foreign nouns can be both masculine and feminine: my / my counterpart, this / this attache. In the names of animals ( cockatoo, kangaroo, chimpanzee, pony) the masculine gender acts as the main one, and the feminine as an additional one, depending on the context.

In words - geographical names, the genus is determined by the genus of the reality they denote: deep Mississippi(river → f.r.), multimillion dollar / festive tokyo(city → m.r., capital → f.r.).

In abbreviations and complex abbreviated words, the norm is unstable. But in general, gender is determined by the main word: IGHTU(university → m.r.), UN(organization → f.r.). But there are exceptions here too: university(s.r. → m.r.), NATO– North Atlantic Treaty Organization (f.b. → s.r.), Ministry of Foreign Affairs (s.r. → m.r.), etc. began to be perceived as independent words and "changed" the gender.

Noun case category. We can also meet various options in the case system of the Russian language. Nominative Variant endings may be seen S/I And AND I in plural forms of masculine nouns : agreements - contractA , locksmithAnd - locksmithI . The main one is the graduation rate S/I , while the option AND I most often acts as a colloquial. Genitive 1). For example, some masculine nouns in genitive case singular vary main ending variant AND I (tea, sugar) with additional options U/S (tea, sugar). Usually endings U/S can be used in the following cases:

for nouns with a real value when indicating their number - that is, to designate a part of the whole ( a glass of teaYu , kilogram sugarat , piece of cheeseat ). However, if the noun is accompanied by a definition, you need to choose the form with the ending AND I (cup of hot teaI , pack of dried tobaccoA );

in collective and abstract nouns with quantity value ( little peopleat , a lot of noiseat );

in phraseological units ( without a yearat week, out of sightat by eye, with the worldat on a string);

in negative sentences pocoYu no, rejectionat did not have).

2) In the Genitive plural, masculine nouns have four variants of case endings: OV/EV(a lot of tableov , museev ), TO HER(a lot of pencilto her ) And null ending(a lot of boot). rare zero ending have the following groups of masculine nouns:

names of paired items ( shoe, boot, stocking /But sockov /, shoulder strap);

names of some nationalities, mainly in nouns with a base on letters - n And - R (British, Armenians, Bulgarians);

unit names ( amp, watt, volt, But coulombs, grams, kilograms).

Prepositional In the Prepositional case to the main variant - the ending E in some cases an ending is added At: to the shope - to the shopat (in this case the option At - colloquial): grow into the forestat – know about the foreste (the ending distinguishes a shade in the meaning: circumstance and object), n and a checking accounte - be in good standingat (in expressions of a phraseological nature). Usually, when choosing an ending, one should take into account the context, that is, pay attention to what meaning is realized in the word. 3. Morphological norms of adjectives. In the normative aspect of the morphology of adjectives, two difficult issues are: the formation of forms of degrees of comparison and the difference between full and short forms of adjectives. Formation of degrees of comparison of adjectives. There are simple and compound degrees of comparison of adjectives. A simple comparative form is formed using suffixes - her And - to her(colloquial): faster - faster, some adjectives form a comparative degree with the help of the suffix - e: louder, louder, agile, sweeter. The simple form of adjectives in the superlative degree is formed with the help of suffixes –aysh(s) (Supreme), –eysh (most beautiful). The compound comparative form is formed using the word more, and excellent with the help of the word most ( This house is tall, but the next one is taller. This house is the highest in the city). Traditional speech errors in the formation of forms of degrees of comparison of adjectives are related: 1) mixing simple and compound forms of degrees of comparison ( the higher, the most beautiful) and 2) the absence of the comparison object ( This room is lighter. + than that). Full and short forms of the adjective There are differences between the full and short forms of the adjective, so these forms cannot always replace each other. 1) Stylistic difference: short forms are peculiar book speech, full - neutral in their stylistic coloring. 2) Semantic difference: short forms denote a temporary sign of an object, full ones - permanent. 3) Syntactic difference: short forms can have dependent words, full ones cannot. 4. Morphological norms of numerals. There are rules for the use of numerals: 1) In complex and compound cardinal numbers, all parts are declined (a book with stA fiveYu tenYu sixYu pages). 2) When declining complex and compound ordinal numbers, only the last word in the numeral changes (to be born in one thousand nine hundred ninety-two year). 3) Cardinal numbers (except for the numeral alone) do not combine with words denoting paired objects, such as: sleigh, scissors, day, trousers, glasses etc. (it is forbidden: twenty two days, thirty three scissors) – you should use editing the expression: The twenty-second day / twenty-two days have passed. Bought scissors in the amount of thirty-three pieces. 4) Collective numbers are combined only with animate masculine nouns (two young men, three men) and are not combined with feminine nouns (one cannot say: three girls, only: three girls). 5) When combining a noun with a numeral denoting a fraction, the noun must be in the genitive case singular(it is forbidden: 12.6 kilometersov , only: 12.6 kilometersA ). 6) Numerals one and a half And a hundred and fifty have only two case forms: in the Nominative and Accusative cases: one and a half – one and a half And a hundred and fifty, in all other cases one and a half And one and a half hundred. These numerals are combined with nouns in the Genitive case singular (Name and Vin. case): one and a half spoons, and in the plural (all other cases): about one and a half pages. 5. Morphological norms of pronouns. Their morphological norms apply when using pronouns: 1) Pronoun They does not correlate with collective nouns (people, youth, merchants). It is forbidden: The people unanimously went to the polls, because they understood how important it was. Should They → He or people → People. 2) Personal pronouns cannot be used as a second subject or object. It is forbidden: Plushkin, he is the negative hero of the novel. 3) In the presence of two subjects of action, personal and possessive pronouns require additional explanation or rephrasing of the sentence as a whole so that there is no ambiguity. It is forbidden: The professor invited the graduate student to read his report(whose? Professor or graduate student?). 4) B indefinite pronouns with suffixes - then, either, something suffix -That forms the value "unknown" suffix -or forms the value "any", and

suffix -anything - the meaning of "unimportant" (It is impossible: anyone or someone knocks on the door. Only: Someone is knocking). 5) Defining pronouns any, any And every cannot replace each other (You cannot: Every person is responsible for his own life.. Only: Everyone…). 6. Morphological norms of verbs. Let us briefly turn to the main morphological norms governing the use of verbs: 1) Verb pairs differ stylistically: see - see, hear - hear, lift - lift, climb - climb and so on. The first option is bookish - literary, the second - colloquial. 2) Verbs with alternation O//A at the base: conditionedO pour in - conditionA infuse, concentrateO read - focusA read and so on. also distinguished as book (form on O)

and colloquial (form on A). 3) In the so-called insufficient verbs ( conquer, convince, find oneself, dare, feel) the form of the 1st person singular of the future tense has a compound character ( I can / I can / I must win). 4) The so-called abundant verbs have two forms of the present tense with a stylistic or semantic difference. For example: waving - waving(book and colloquial version), moves(moves) - drives(leads, encourages). 5) For verbs in the past tense, the main form is without a suffix -Well (get wet - wet, get used to - used to). 6) The unity of the aspectual-temporal forms of verbs is the rule according to which all verbs within the same sentence must be used in the same grammatical form. It is forbidden: On vacation, he rested and again was engaged favorite thing. Only: got busy! 7) In a special form of the verb - gerund - suffix -V- normative, suffix – lice- spacious. It is forbidden: readlice book. Only: readV book. Thus, in this lecture we got acquainted with the concept of "morphological norm" and found out how to form the forms of words belonging to different parts of speech. In case of difficulty, it is recommended to refer to grammar dictionaries.

8. MORPHOLOGICAL REGULATIONS OF THE RUSSIAN LITERARY LANGUAGE

Morphology - this is a systematized set of word forms (paradigms of declension, conjugation), as well as the rules for their use, and at the same time it is a section of grammar that studies and describes these forms, rules.

Consider morphological norms according to their belonging to a particular part of speech.

Morphological norms of nouns

1. Those indeclinable nouns that name the profession, position, characteristic of men, belong to m. For example: referee, attache . Kind of those geographical names, which cannot be declined, depends on the gender of the nouns corresponding to them. For example: Missouri River zh.r., Lake Ontario s.r.

2. Abstract nouns that name a sign, action, but are not associated with specific persons or objects, can only be used in one of the two numbers.

3. Nouns of the 2nd declension can have two endings when they are in the form Tv. p.s.:head-head, page-page.

Morphological norms for adjectives

1. Possessive adjectives ending in-ov, -in , characteristic of colloquial speech ( babin, grandfather ). In other styles, they are replaced by a noun in R. p. For example:grandmother's teaching, grandfather's legacy.

2. quality adjective ending in a comparative degree to her , characteristic of colloquial speech ( more active), and its literary (more active).

3. If from an adjective to enny two short forms can be formed (on en and enen ), both of which are literary.

Morphological norms of numerals

1. Those that belong to the category of collectives can only be combined with those nouns m. R. that denote persons ( two teachers), cubs (five cubs ); with nouns always in plural form. h. ( three points ) or denoting paired objects ( four socks ); with personal pronouns ( there were seven of them).

2. If the cardinal numeral is compound, each word is declined in it. Combination one thousand buys on TV. n. form one thousand, not one thousand.

3. Numerals both and both from the category of collective, having forms of the genus, stand apart. When leaning both , the stem ends with-O , and when inclined both - on -e.

Morphological norms of pronouns

1. Pronoun such has a hint of amplification and is used mainly as a definition, and such is often plays the role of a predicate.

2. Pronouns everyone, everyone cannot be replaced by an adjective any , although they are close in meaning.

3. Pronoun self used in the meaning independently, and most used to draw the listener's or reader's attention to a particular feature.

Morphological norms of the Russian language in adverbs

Suffixes yva, - willow can form shapes imperfect form. At the same time, alternation of sounds is possible in the basis oh-ah . In this case, parallel forms are often obtained. For example:condition-condition. Then the first has a literary use, and the second colloquial.

Morphological norms of the Russian language verbs

1) When forming imperfective forms from perfective verbs with the help of a suffix-yva(-iva) can happenalternation of sounds o/a at the base. In this case, parallel forms are formed:condition - condition, empower empower etc. Forms with o- basically correspond to strictly literary usage, and forms with a- used in colloquial speech. When in doubt, consult a dictionary.

2) In modern Russian there is a group of redundant verbs that form variant personal forms, for example:move - move, move; rinse - rinse, rinse;

Similar forms may differ either in meaning or stylistic coloring. For example, partial or complete discrepancy in meaning occurs with verbssplashes - splashes, shines - shines, gnaws - gnaws, moves moves.

Some forms differ stylistically: the stylistically neutral forms are the formsdozing, waving, splashing, roaring, and forms like roar, whip, pinchare colloquial.

3) Some verbs in-nut form variant forms of the past tense with the suffix-well, and without it: got used to it and got used to it, faded and faded ; in modern style, the latter are preferred.

4) Verb to appear requires after itself the setting of an adjective or participle in the instrumental form:The table was set. The replacement of the verb turned out to be the verb was allows you to use the short form participle: The table was set . Mixing participle forms leads to an error:The hospital was closed.

Morphological norms richest

The use of participles and gerunds give speech a tinge of bookishness. Some participles, such as passive participles with the suffix - om- have a book-ceremonial sound.

The real participles of the past tense, formed from prefixed verbs, are similar in meaning to adjectives:blue - blue, sweaty - sweaty, shy - shy, tanned - tannedetc. In live speech, they are often interchanged, but it should be remembered that the use verbal adjectives is conversational.

1) Errors in the use of participles are associated with their formation:

a) for example, "illegal" forms - otdatats, naslats, ubrats, etc.;

b) when forming participles, the postfix may be lost sya, cf .: non-breaking dishes, etc .;

c) erroneous contamination of the degree of comparison and participle:important, overriding and etc.;

d) the formation of the subjunctive mood of the verb from the past participle:wishing to spend holidays abroad...;

e) real participles with suffixes usch (yushch), ashch (yashch) are not formed from perfective verbs (examples of erroneous formation:: doing, writing, etc.).

2) Possible erroneous replacement passive participles valid:nations oppressed by an inhuman system...

3) Erroneous combination of participial turnover and subordinate attributive sentence:people who know...

4) When constructing sentences, the author must take into account the correlation of the times of the participle and the verb-predicate. A sentence like "All the patients who were then in the clinics were examined., since the correlation of the time of the definition-participle and the verb-predicate is not observed.

5) It is necessary to avoid stringing participial phrases that make the sentence cumbersome, cf.:The mechanical properties of steel, tested on samples made from rods forged from a piece cut off from under the profit of ingots, presented in table No. 2, meet the requirements of TU.

6) Must be respected correct order words in the participle. So, the suggestion would be wrong -Incoming delegates to the conference must register.

Morphological norms gerunds

1) Participles on - lice ( taking - taking, giving - giving) are common in colloquial speech and undesirable in book and writing. In variants sticking out - sticking out and so on. the second form (archaic) is used only in phraseological turns.

2) Participles on - learn(-yuchi) ( looking, walking, walking, walking) bear the coloring of folk poetic speech and archaism and therefore are used for stylization purposes.

3) Mistakes in the use of gerunds:

a) erroneous formations (imperfect gerunds are formed from the stem of the present tense with the suffix a (z); perfect gerunds are formed from the stem of the infinitive with the suffix c):saluting, noticing, looking closely, scratching and etc.;

b) erroneous combinations of perfect and imperfect participles are possible as homogeneous members:by determining the quantities and measuring the force of gravity…;

c) discrepancy between the type of circumstance expressed by the gerund or participle turnover and the verb-predicate (Approaching the river, we stopped the horses);

d) the following rule is often violated: the subject, denoting the person, performs the action indicated by the predicate, and the action indicated by the gerund (Having prepared the ship for sailing, the departure is carried out as follows ...);

e) can't be consumed participial turnover V impersonal offer(For example:Seeing off a friend, I felt sad). However, if the impersonal construction allows the action of an active subject, which is not named in the sentence, but is assumed, then the use of a participial phrase is possible:Looking at his behavior, you might think...

f) constructions in which the adverbial turnover refers to a verbal noun are unacceptable (The teeth of the snake are used to hold the egg without crushing the shell.).

Accent norms

The features and functions of stress are studied by the section of linguistics called accentology(from lat. accentus - stress). Stress in Russian is free, which distinguishes it from some other languages ​​in which stress is assigned to a particular syllable. For example, in English language the first syllable is stressed, in Polish - the penultimate one, in Armenian, French - the last one. In Russian, stress can fall on any syllable, which is why it is called heterogeneous. Stress in Russian is mobile and fixed. If in various forms words stress falls on the same part, then such stress is motionless (shore, save, save, save, save, save - the stress is assigned to the ending). An accent that changes its place in different forms of the same word is called mobile (right, right, right; I can, you can, they can). Most of the words of the Russian language have a fixed stress.

The stress has great importance in Russian and performs various functions:

The semantics of the word depends on the stress ( cotton - cotton; cloves - cloves).

It refers to the grammatical form ( hands - Nominative case plural, and hands- genitive singular).

Stress helps to distinguish the meaning of words and their forms: protein- the genitive case of the word protein, and protein- the nominative case of a word that names the component of the egg or part of the eye. The difficulty in determining the place of stress in a particular word increases, since for some words there are variants of stress. At the same time, there are options that do not violate the norm and are considered literary, for example, sparkling - sparkling, salmon - salmon, cottage cheese - cottage cheese, thinking - thinking. In other cases, one of the accents is considered incorrect, for example, kitchen, tool, solicitation, wrong: kitchen, tool, petition.

Orthoepic norms

Orthoepic norms are pronunciation norms oral speech . They are studied by a special section of linguistics - orthoepy (Greek orthos - correct and epos - speech). Orthoepy is also called the set of rules for literary pronunciation. Orthoepy determines pronunciation individual sounds in certain phonetic positions, in combination with other sounds, as well as their pronunciation in certain grammatical forms, groups of words or in individual words. Maintaining uniformity in pronunciation is of great importance. Orthoepic errors always interfere with perceiving the content of speech; the attention of the listener is distracted by various irregularities of pronunciation and the statement in its entirety and with sufficient attention is not perceived. Pronunciation, corresponding to orthoepic norms, facilitates and speeds up the process of communication. That's why social role correct pronunciation is very large, especially at present in our society, where oral speech has become the means of the widest communication at various meetings, conferences, and congresses. Consider basic rules of literary pronunciation that must be followed.

Pronunciation of vowels. In Russian speech, among vowels, only stressed ones are pronounced clearly. In an unstressed position, they lose their clarity and clarity of sound, they are pronounced with weakened articulation. This is called the law of reduction. Reduction can be quantitative (when the sound changes only the length of the sound) and qualitative (when the sound changes its quality). Vowels [a] and [o] at the beginning of a word without stress and in the first pre-stressed syllable are pronounced like [a]: ravine - [a] enemy, autonomy - [a] vt [a] nomia, milk - m [a] l [ a] to. The letters e and i in the pre-stressed syllable denote a sound that is intermediate between [e] and [i]: nickel - n [i] so, pen - n [i] ro. The vowel [and] after a solid consonant, preposition, or when pronouncing the word together with the previous one is pronounced as [s]: medical institute - medical [s] institute, from a spark - from [s] hide.

Pronunciation of consonants. The basic laws of pronunciation of consonants are stunning and assimilation.

In Russian speech, voiced consonants are obligatory stunned at the end of a word. We pronounce bread [p] - bread, sa [t] - garden, lyubo [f '] - love, etc. This stun is one of characteristic features Russian literary speech. It should be noted that the consonant [g] at the end of the word always turns into a paired deaf sound [k]: le [k] - lay down, vice [k] - the threshold, etc. The pronunciation in this case of the sound [x] is unacceptable as a dialect. The exception is the word god - bo[x]. [G] is pronounced like [x] in combinations of gk and gch: le [hk ’] y - easy, le [hk] o - easy. You should pay attention to the combination of ch, since mistakes are often made in its pronunciation. There is fluctuation in the pronunciation of words with this combination, which is associated with a change in the rules of the old Moscow pronunciation. According to the norms of the modern Russian literary language, the combination ch is usually pronounced like this [ch], especially this applies to words of book origin (greedy, careless), as well as to words that appeared in the recent past (camouflage, landing). The pronunciation [shn] instead of the orthographic ch is currently required in female patronymics in -ichna: Ilini[shn]a, Lukini[shn]a, -Fomini[shn]a, and is also preserved in separate words: kone[shn]o, transfer[shn]itsa, laundry[shn]aya, empty[shn]y, square[shn]ik, eggs[shn]itsa, etc.

Some words with a combination of ch in accordance with the norm are pronounced in two ways: order [shn] o and order [ch] o. IN individual cases the different pronunciation of the combination ch serves for the semantic differentiation of words: heart [ch] beat - heart [shn] friend. Pronunciation of borrowed words. They, as a rule, obey modern orthoepic norms and only in some cases differ in features in pronunciation. For example, the pronunciation of the sound [o] is sometimes preserved in unstressed syllables (m [o] del, [o] asis, [o] tel) and solid consonants before the front vowel [e] (s [te) nd, ko [de] ks, porridge [ne]). In most borrowed words, before [e], the consonants are softened: ka[t ']et, pa[t']efon, faculty[t']et, mu[z']her, [r']ektor, pio[n' ]ep. Back-lingual consonants are always softened before [e]: pa [k '] et, [k '] egli, s [x '] ema, ba [g '] et. Take a look at the table that shows spelling errors, the list of which was not explained in the previous material:

EXAMPLES OF SPELLING ERRORS

1. Assimilation(similarity of sounds) laboratory(instead of laboratory); fireboat(instead of hose); corridor (corridor); biton (can); cardon (cardboard).

2. Epenthesis(unjustified insertion of sounds): b extraordinary ( norm: unprecedented); military leader (military leader); dermatin (dermatin); porcupine (porcupine); competent (competent); compromise (compromise); competitive (competitive); state (state); reckoning (chronology); perspective (perspective); perEturbation (perturbation); to slip (to slip); light performance (light doomsday - the light is reposed, i.e. dies); sTram (shame); extraordinary (extraordinary), yaVstva (dishes).

3. Diereza(erroneous elimination of sounds): should be said keychainOka(R.p., singular), and not keychain; Azerbaijan(but not Azerbaijan); time forwarding(but not pastime)

4. Metathesis(changes of sounds), simplification: scrupulous(norm: scrupulous); tram (trauma); trauma (tram); colander (colander).

Lexical norms

Lexical norms, or norms of word usage, are the correct choice of a word from a number of units that are close to it in meaning or form, the use of a word in the meanings that it has in the language, the appropriateness of its use in a given situation. Compliance with lexical norms is the most important condition for the correctness of speech. Right choice words and using it in the right meaning always allow you to accurately express the content, the meaning of the statement.

Mastering the norms of word usage occurs throughout a person's life, because vocabulary language includes according to, for example, the Dictionary of the Russian literary language in 17 volumes (Big Academic) 120480 words. And this is far from a complete volume of vocabulary, moreover, the vocabulary of only the literary language. The lexical system is constantly evolving, replenished with new, including borrowed words. It is difficult to formalize and unify. That is why it is impossible to give a list of difficult cases of the implementation of the norms of word usage, some kind of set of rules. Turning to explanatory dictionaries, thoughtful reading of fiction and other texts contribute to the expansion of your vocabulary, the development of language flair.

1. Remember the need to accurately understand the meaning of the word, in case of difficulty, refer to explanatory dictionaries or look for a replacement given word the equivalent you know. The applicant, who wrote in the essay: “He vegetated in the evenings in the theater,” obviously did not know the exact meaning of the word “vegetate” - to lead a miserable, meaningless, aimless life.

2. It must be borne in mind that incorrect word usage may be due to the indistinguishability of shades of the meaning of synonyms, that is, words that are close, but not identical in meaning. For example, the use of the word extensive in the context: “It remains to be surprised at his extensive (instead of great) love” is incorrect, since the adjective “extensive” is synonymous with the adjective “large” when denoting size, magnitude ( large territory, vast territory), but not when indicating the strength of feeling.

It is useful to refer to special dictionaries of synonyms. So, in the "Dictionary of synonyms of the Russian language" Z.E. Alexandrova, the word extensive is given as a synonym for the adjective large with appropriate clarifications: extensive - large in volume.

3. We must not forget about such a phenomenon as the polysemy of a word. Many words in the language have this property, that is, the ability to be used in different meanings. Different meanings of words are given in explanatory dictionaries: the main is indicated first (it is also called direct, primary, main), and then derivatives from it (portable, secondary). For example, the verb touch has the primary meaning "to touch someone or something" and two figurative, secondary meanings - "to relate to someone or something" (This does not concern you); “to touch on some issue in the presentation” (to touch on a topic, problem, question). A word taken in isolation, out of context, is perceived in its main meaning, while derivative meanings are revealed only in combination with other words.

4. Remember that polysemantic word can have different lexical compatibility, that is, the ability to connect in meaning with other words. In the language, the prohibition on combining words with each other is imposed primarily by their inherent meanings, as well as by the tradition of use, a historically established norm. For example, the word round in its basic meaning - “having the shape of a circle” is combined with the words table, box, face, etc. But, speaking in the meaning of “whole, whole, without interruption (about time)”, the word round is combined only with nouns year, day, and in the meaning of “full, perfect” - with such as an ignoramus, an excellent student, an orphan. Violation of lexical compatibility often occurs in speech.

Examples from the essays of applicants: “to produce a special interest in the reader” (instead of “to make an impression” or “arouse interest”), “to apply folk art in their works” (instead of “to address in their works to folk art”), “to wear a symbolic image” (instead of “to have a symbolic meaning”). In some cases, the reason for limiting lexical compatibility is the consolidation of the word in stable expressions. Stable combinations (that's why they are called so) have well-defined connections that cannot be destroyed: pay attention or attach importance, and not “pay attention”; play a role or make a difference, not "make a difference"; protest, not protest. That is why the following usages are wrong: moral problems is now given great importance. The novel played a great role in Pushkin's life. Going on a date, Katerina makes an open protest to the dark kingdom.

5. It is necessary to take into account the existence of paronyms in the language (from the Greek para near + onoma - name), that is, similar, consonant cognate words with different values, and paronomazov, that is, words of different roots, distant in meaning, but similar in sound. For example, dress and put on, economy and economy (paronyms); to accustom and tame (paronomases). The presence of a similar sound image creates additional difficulties in choosing a word if you know its meaning only approximately. Hence such violations of the norms of word usage, such as a monogram instead of a monograph in the following statement: “This is a thought worthy of the depth of an entire monogram” (a monogram is “a link of two or more letters”, a monograph is “ Scientific research dedicated to one issue, topic.

6. Be careful when using words that have recently entered our everyday life (neologisms), and especially vocabulary of foreign origin. You should not use borrowed words without special need, and even more so if the meaning of the word is not entirely clear to you. It can hardly be considered correct, for example, to use the word vernissage in the following context: "At least a hundred people visit the vernissage of this artist's paintings every day." Referring to the dictionary S.I. Ozhegov, it is not difficult to find out that the vernissage is “the solemn opening of an art exhibition”, which cannot be held every day. It would be appropriate to replace the word vernissage in our proposal with the word exhibition.

7. Avoid semantic redundancy in speech. When using words that are superfluous in meaning, so-called pleonasms arise (from the Greek. pleonasmos overabundance) - speech excess, interspersed in speech with words that are unnecessary from a purely semantic point of view, partial coincidence of the meanings of words that form the phrase: my autobiography (auto = mine), most the best (best = the best), memorable souvenir (souvenir = keepsake), joint cooperation (collaboration - teamwork), price list (price list - reference book, list of prices). Failure to comply with the rules leads to errors and curiosities.

TO lexical norms also include the rules for the use of phraseological units. Phraseologism is an indivisible, holistic in its meaning, stable combination of words, reproduced in the form of a finished speech unit. It is also called an idiom, or sustainable combination words. If the author of a phraseological phrase is known, then the latter is called a winged word.

It is impossible, as a rule, to insert a new word into a phraseological unit or throw out any component, it is impossible to replace a word even with those close in meaning and structure. Therefore, such an expression is erroneous, how to take care of your mind(necessary: take up mind). For example, in the phrase: Distributing honors, the chairman began to measure everyone with the same brush(necessary: or cut with the same comb, or measure by one arshin).

Morphological norms of the Russian language

Morphology - a section of grammar that studies the grammatical properties of words, that is, grammatical meanings, means of expressing grammatical meanings, grammatical categories. The peculiarities of the Russian language are that the means of expressing grammatical meanings often vary. At the same time, the variants may differ in shades of meanings, stylistic coloring, scope of use, correspond to the norm of the literary language or violate it. Skillful use of options allows you to more accurately express an idea, diversify speech, testifies to speech culture speaker.

most large group make up options, the use of which is limited by the functional style or genre of speech. So, in colloquial speech, there are often forms of the genitive plural orange, tomato, instead of oranges, tomatoes; at her, from her instead of from her, from her. The use of such forms in official written and oral speech is considered a violation of the morphological norm. Real nouns sugar, fuel, oil, petroleum, salt, marble are usually used in the singular form. In professional speech, the plural form is used to designate varieties, varieties of substances: sugar, fuel, oil, oil, salt, marble. These forms have a stylistic connotation of professional use. There are many morphological variants in the Russian language that are considered identical , equivalent. For example: turners - turners, workshops - workshops, in spring - in spring, doors - doors. In other cases, one of the forms violates the norm of the literary language : Right rail, but not rail, Right shoe, but not shoe and shoe. There are many masculine and feminine words in Russian to designate people by their position, profession. With nouns denoting the position held, profession, rank, rank, the difficulties that arise in speech are explained by the peculiarities of this group of words.

The words professor, doctor have the meaning "professor's wife", "doctor's wife" and a colloquial connotation, and as the titles of the position become colloquial. Generic Parallels cashier, watchman, accountant, controller, laboratory assistant, janitor, usher qualify as colloquial, and doctor- as spacious. Difficulties arise when it is necessary to emphasize that we are talking about a woman, and there is no neutral feminine parallel in the language.

As linguists note, not only in oral speech, but also in newspaper texts, business correspondence more and more often, a syntactic indication of the gender of the called person is used, when, with a masculine noun, the verb in the past tense has a feminine form. For example: the doctor came, the philologist said, the foreman was there, our bibliographer advised me. Such constructions are currently considered acceptable, not violating the standard of the literary language. In the frequency-stylistic dictionary of variants “Grammatical Correctness of Russian Speech”, regarding such use of definitions, it is said: “In written strictly official or neutral business speech, the norm of agreement on the external form of the noun being defined is adopted: the outstanding mathematician Sofya Kovalevskaya; Indira Gandhi is the new Prime Minister of India. Thus, the most common grammatical errors associated with the use of nouns are:

1. Can be heard incorrect phrases: railway rail, French shampoo, big callus, registered parcel. But the nouns rail, shampoo- masculine and corn, parcel- feminine, so you should say : railway rail, french shampoo, big corn, registered parcel.

2. Foreign language indeclinable words, denoting inanimate objects, are, as a rule, of the middle gender: highway, cafe, coat.

3. In the genitive plural, the following forms are used:

masculine words: a pair of boots, boots, stockings (socks, oranges, eggplants, hectares, tomatoes, tangerines), Armenians, Georgians, Bashkirs, Tatars, Turkmens (Kalmyks, Mongols, Kirghiz, Uzbeks, Yakuts), ampere, watt, volt (grams, kilograms ); feminine words: barges, waffles, fables, shoes, weddings, sheets; neuter words: saucers, towels, blankets, mirror;

words without singular: manger, weekdays, twilight.

4. Prepositional case of type forms on vacation, on vacation preferable to -e(in -y - colloquial forms).

5. In the literary language, forms are used with an ending in -and I: director, inspector, doctor, professor, holidays, passports, etc.; with the end -i, -s: engineers, drivers, accountants, editors, contracts, cakes, workshops, etc..

6. Collective numbers two, three etc. are used in the following cases: with nouns naming males (two friends); with nouns children, people, guys, faces(in the meaning of a person); with nouns that are used only in the plural (three days).

There are many variants in the verb inflection system.

Of the options raise - raise the second has a colloquial coloring: Gypsies ... raised their (horses) legs and tails, shouted, scolded (T.). Of the options to suffer - to suffer (to suffer, to suffer, to suffer etc.) the second is colloquial. Variant forms of prefixed verbs with the suffix - Well- and without it: withered - withered, disappeared - disappeared, got wet - soaked, arose - arose, subsided - subsided. The first ones are out of use.

Many verbs cannot form the 1st person : to win, to convince, to find oneself, to be weird, to be wonderful, to blow, to please, etc.

Verbs that have in the infinitive - whose: burn, flow, bake(total 16 word forms), form variant forms of the 3rd person singular: along with the literary ones: burns, flows, bakes - colloquial: burns, flows, bakes.

Separate verbs have no form imperative mood : want, be able, see, hear, go, crave, rot and others. The Old Slavic forms used in the 19th century, vizhd, were attentively archaic; colloquial variants can't go remain outside the literary norm, form drive is conversational. Literary form go, as well as forms derived from verbs listen, watch - listen (those), look (those). It is difficult to form comparative and superlatives: Can't say the closest.

Pronouns are often misused: Right - I think about you, miss you, miss us, I go to you, their choice (not theirs).

A large number of errors associated with the use of compound forms of numerals. 1. The rules for declension of this part of speech are simple - when declining compound cardinal numbers, all the words included in it change, when declining compound ordinal numbers - only the last word:

“The current of the river reaches 120 (one hundred and twenty) - 400 (four hundred) meters per minute”; "On the night of June 26 (twenty-sixth) it was raining."

2. Education phrases "numeral + noun, having only the plural form (day, sleigh, scissors, trousers, glasses)", Collective (up to 5) or quantitative (from 5) numbers are used: “two (three, four) days” - “five (six, seven, etc.) days”. You can’t say “twenty-two (three, four) scissors”, but you can say “twenty scissors and a couple more”, “twenty-two pieces of scissors”.

3. The declension of the numeral depends on the gender of the noun "one and a half". The masculine and neuter genders in the nominative and accusative cases take the form "one and a half" in other cases - "one and a half". Feminine in the nominative and accusative cases - "one and a half". In the rest - "one and a half". In this case, nouns change in accordance with the rules.

Violation of grammatical norms is often associated with the use of pretexts

because of and thanks. Pretext thanks to retains its original lexical meaning associated with the verb thank, therefore it is used to indicate the cause that produces the desired result: thanks to the help of comrades, thanks to the right treatment. With a sharp contradiction between the original lexical meaning preposition thanks with an indication of a negative reason, the use of this preposition is undesirable: did not come to work due to illness. In this case, it is correct to say - because of illness.