There is a twofold attitude to participle in linguistics. Some philologists consider it special, while other linguists are sure that it is an independent part of speech in the Russian language.

However, participles, regardless of their specific definition, denote the signs of objects by their action. They combine the properties of two parts of speech - an adjective and a verb. Questions are asked for participles: “Which one?” (“What?”, “What?”, “What?”), “What is he doing?”, “What is he doing?”, “What is he doing?”.

Like adjectives, participles in gender, and only in the singular, both in number and in case, agree with nouns. Their initial form, just like adjectives, is the nominative case for example: closed, standing, walking.

There are two categories of this passive and real participles. Let's consider them separately.

Real Communion denotes the attribute of an object that is created by its action. Eg, the running boy is the one who runs himself, the running boy is the one who ran himself.

In this case, the real participle has the form of the present and past tenses.

Another category of participles is passive, they show the sign that an object is created under the influence of another object.

Examples: a book read by a boy - a book read by a boy; house built by builders - a house that builders built.

So we see here two different forms participles and two completely different situations: in the first case, the action is performed by the noun, the object that is the word being defined, in the second, the action is performed by someone over it.

The real participle differs in speech by a number of features, including the type of its formation.

In Russian, the word formation of the participle is interconnected with those differences in the verb, which are expressed in their form and transitivity. Thus, it is impossible to form all four forms of participle from one verb.

Real participles are formed from transitive and intransitive verbs, but only from transitive verbs - passive participles.

Real participles of the present tense are created only from and in no case - from which do not have a present tense form. The same can be said about the passive participles.

Examples: cry - cry - crying; love - love - loving.

Thus, intransitive perfect verbs form only real participles, and in the past tense.

Examples: running, jumping.

Passive participles used in the present tense cannot be formed from such verbs as weed, reap, shave, bake, etc.

Consider the suffixes with which this part of speech is formed.

In the case of formation from the corresponding verb of the first conjugation, suffixes are used - yi, -yusch(melting - melting, creeping - creeping, swaying - swaying, etc.) and - ash, -box- from the second conjugation (depending - depend, praying - praying, stinging - stinging, praising - praising, gluing - glued).

The real participles are the basis of the indefinite verb form. The suffixes that are used are: -vsh based on a vowel: shout - shouted - screaming; -sh- based on a consonant sound.

It must be remembered that the verb "to go" forms a real participle in the past tense: go - walked - walked.

Participles, just like adjectives, have full and short forms. Their full forms vary by gender, number and case.

We live in a state that occupies one sixth of the land.

A variety of dark, almost black cherries, bred in France, is called Mirabelle.

Short forms do not have cases, they only change number and gender.

The book has long been written and sent to the printer.

They are divided into two large categories: independent and service. Among independent ones, participles are considered to be one of the most difficult to understand. The main difficulty for pupils and students is the division into passive and real participles. In fact, this task will be within the power of anyone who knows the identifying features that all representatives of this part of speech possess. In order to distinguish between passive and real participles, you need to remember two simple formulas:

A) The real participle serves to indicate the sign of the object that performs the action.

B) The passive, in turn, is necessary to designate the subject of the action, that is, the object to which this action is directed.

Sometimes the real participle is difficult to distinguish from the passive only in meaning. In this case, you need to pay attention to the grammatical and morphemic characteristics of the word. To form this part of speech, special identifier suffixes are used, by which we can confidently judge whether we see a real participle or a passive participle in front of us.

Active present participles

They take their stem from present tense verbs ( imperfect form) with the addition of suffixes -usch, -yushch (for I conjugation) or -ash, -yashch (for II conjugation). For example, the participle "running" is formed from the verb I of the conjugation to run. Picture 1: Girl cooking soup (cooking is a valid present participle).

Real past participle

It is formed from the stem of the infinitive of verbs in the past tense (perfect form), with the addition of suffixes -sh, -vsh. For example, participle "asleep"derived from the verb "sleep". Verbs with the suffix -nu are somewhat out of this rule, since the actual participles formed from these verbs have the corresponding suffix missing. Example: get wet - wet.

Passive participles

They are formed according to the same rules, but differ from the real ones by identification morphemes. So, the passive participles of the present tense, formed from the stem of the infinitive of past tense verbs, are characterized by such suffixes as -nn, -enn, -yonn, -t. Examples: say - said (suffix -nn), heat - red-hot (suffix -yonn).

The participle is a special form of the verb with the following features:

1. Denotes a sign of an object by action and answers the questions which? What is doing, what is done?, What is done?.

2. Possesses morphological features verb and adjective.

The features of the verb are

Type (SV and NSV),

Transitivity (the sign is relevant for real participles),

recurrence,

Time (present and past).

Voice (active and passive).

In school grammar, voice is considered as a feature that is not characteristic of all verb forms, but only participles, while in scientific grammar the feature of voice is seen in the verb in any form (cf.: Workers build a house - The house is built by workers) - see reflexivity of the verb .

The features of the adjective are

Case (for full participles),

Completeness / brevity (only for passive participles).

3. Participles agree with nouns like adjectives and in the sentence they are the same members as adjectives, that is, the definition and nominal part of the compound nominal predicate(short participles - only part of the predicate).

Dependence of the number of participial forms on transitivity and the form of the verb

A verb can have from one to four participial forms, depending on its transitivity and aspect.

Transitive verbs can have forms of real and passive participles, intransitive verbs have only forms of real participles.

ST verbs have only past participles (that is, ST verbs cannot have any present tense forms - neither in the indicative mood, nor in participial forms), NSV verbs can have both present and past participles. Thus,

transitive verbs NSV have all 4 participles (reading, reading, reading, reading),

intransitive verbs NSV have 2 participles - real present and past tense (sleeping, sleeping),

transitive verbs CB also have 2 participles - real and passive past tense (read, read).

intransitive verbs CB have only 1 participial form - the real participle of the past tense (overslept).

Valid participles

Real participles denote a sign of an object that itself produces an action: a boy reading a book.

The real participles of the present tense are formed from transitive and intransitive verbs NSV from the stem of the present tense using suffixes

Usch-(-yushch-) for verbs of the I conjugation: run-yush-y, run-yush-y,

Ash-(-box-) for verbs of the II conjugation: lying-ash-th, hundred-box-th.

The real past participles are formed from the transitive and intransitive verbs NSV and SV from the basis of the past tense using suffixes

Vsh- for verbs with a stem ending in a vowel: chita-vsh-y,

Sh- for verbs with a consonant stem: carried-sh-th.

Verbs can form real past participles from another stem:

Some verbs in -sti (to lead, to acquire) form the participles under consideration from the stem of the present / simple future tense (and not from the stem of the past tense): who has found (the stem of the future tense has found-ut, the stem of the past has found-la), who led;

The verbs to go and fade form these participles from a special stem that is not equal to any other: walked-sh-th, fade-sh-th.

Some verbs can form two participles from different stems: one from the stem of the past tense dried up and the other from the stem of the infinitive dried up, and the choice of the suffix is ​​carried out in accordance with the above rule.

Passive participles

Passive participles denote a sign of the subject to which the action is directed: a book read by a boy.

Passive present participles are formed from the transitive verbs of the NSV, from the basis of the present tense with the help of the suffix

I eat- (sometimes -om) for verbs of the I conjugation: read-em-th, ved-ohm-th,

Im- for verbs of II conjugation: store-im-th.

Passive participles can be formed from single intransitive verbs: led and managed are formed from intransitive verbs to lead and manage (the meaning of the object with these verbs is expressed by the noun in the form not V. p., but T. p.: to manage, manage the plant).

The passive participles of the present tense do not have verbs to beat, write, sew, revenge and others.

The passive present participle of the verb to give is formed from a special stem (give-em-th).

The verb move has two passive participles in the present tense: moved and moved.

Passive past participles are formed from transitive verbs NSV and SV (participles from NSV verbs are few) from the stem of the past tense using suffixes

H (n) - from verbs on -at, -yat and -et: read-nn-th,

En (n) - from the bases to the consonant and -it: carried away-yonn-th, built,

T- from the bases to -nut, -ot, -eret and from monosyllabic verbs and their derivatives: close-t-th, ring-t-th, locked-t-th, bi-t-th, break-t- th.

Not formed passive participles the past tense of the verbs love, seek, take.

For some verbs in -sti, -st, passive past participles are formed from the basis of the present / future tense: given, acquired, spun, stolen.

Passive present and past participles can also be formed by adding the postfix -sya to the active form:

Passive participles have a full and short form: a letter written by me - a letter written by me. Short participles have the same grammatical properties as short adjectives, that is, they do not change by case and act in the sentence mainly as a nominal part of the predicate.

Participles and verbal adjectives

Both forms of participles and verbal adjectives can be formed from the same verb. If suffixes of different sound (letter) composition are used to form participles and adjectives, it is not difficult to distinguish them: from the verb to burn with the help of the suffix -yash- the participle is formed, and with the help of the suffix -yuch- - the adjective combustible. If both participles and adjectives are formed using suffixes that have the same sound (letter) composition (for example, -enn- or -im-), it is more difficult to distinguish between them.

However, there are differences between participles and adjectives in this case.

1. Participles denote a temporary sign of an object associated with its participation (active or passive) in action, and adjectives denote constant sign subject (for example, “arising as a result of the action”, “capable of participating in the action”), cf .:

She was brought up in strict rules (= She was brought up in strict rules) - communion;

She was educated, educated (= She was educated, educated).

2. The word in full form with the suffix -n-(-nn-), -en-(-enn)- is verbal adjective, if it is formed from the verb NE and has no dependent words, and is a participle if it is formed from the verb NE and / or has dependent words, cf .:

unmowed meadows (adjective)

not mowed slanting meadows (participle, because there is a dependent word),

sloping meadows (communion, because ST).

3. Since passive participles of the present tense can only be found in transitive verbs of the NSV, words with the suffixes -im-, -em- are adjectives if they are formed from the verb CV or an intransitive verb:

waterproof boots (adjective, because the verb to get wet in the meaning of “let water through” is intransitive),

invincible army (adjective, since the verb is to defeat the NE).

S. S. Sai, 2014

Real Communion- this is a participle that is formed with the help of suffixes -ysh(-yusch) / -ash(crate) (setting, influencing, rotating, under construction; such attachments are called real participles of the present tense) or suffixes -vsh/ -sh (calling,influenced,revolving,under construction,who wrote,frightened,come; such attachments are called real past participles).

Substantially real participles are united by the fact that in constructions with them the subject is relativized (see Relativization). For more information on the definition of valid participles, see Participle / clause 3. Active and passive participles. On the syntactic properties of revolutions with real participles, see the article Syntax of participial revolutions.

b) the question of the actual participle as one of the possible means of subject relativization (clause 4).

1. Real participles of the present tense

The basis of the real participles of the present tense is formed by attaching suffix verbs to the basis of the present tense - yi(spelling also - Yusch) for verbs of the first conjugation and - ash(spelling also - crate) for verbs of the second conjugation. The real participles of the present tense are formed only from imperfective verbs.

Within the system of real participles, present participles are often described as a kind of unmarked member [Isachenko 1965/2003: 542]. Indeed, these participles can be used to denote a variety of situations: actual-long, multiple, prospective, etc. (See, for example, [Knyazev 2007: 478–481]). However, in order to understand exactly what expressed these forms, it is necessary to consider them not in isolation, but within the framework of the paradigm in which they enter, comparing them with other forms that the speaker can use in speech. Therefore, a discussion of the aspectual, temporal, and taxis potential of these forms will be undertaken after considering the real past participles, in .

Active present participle.

2. Real past participles

The real past participles are formed from the stem of the past tense of the verb with the help of suffixes - vsh(for vowel stems, cf. who wrote,shrunken,split,washed up) or - sh(for consonant stems, cf. crawled,departed,shriveled).

There are no significant restrictions on the formation of real participles of the past tense in Russian. Unlike all other types of participles (see Participle / clause 7. A set of participle forms depending on the grammatical characteristics of the verb), these participles, in principle, can be freely formed from verbs of both types, from transitive and intransitive (including reflexive) verbs, etc. .d.

If the real participles of the present tense often behave as unmarked on the basis of time (they denote situations that do not have a specific temporal reference), see paragraph 1, then the real participles of the past tense are almost always endowed with tangible temporal semantics and localize in time the situation they designate as the previous one starting point. However, the solution of the question of the nature of the category of time for these participles does not involve their isolated consideration, but the establishment of the nature of the opposition between the real participles of the past and present tenses, to which paragraph 3 is devoted. Contrasting real participles of the present and past tenses.

For more information about this type of participle, see the special article Real Past Participle.

3. Contrasting real participles of the present and past tense

This section discusses the problem of the temporal, aspectual and taxis potential of real participles. In solving this problem, several conditional assumptions and simplifications will be made.

1) Such relatively marginal formations as real participles of the future tense (see the Real participle of the present tense / clause 1.2 about them) and participles of the subjunctive mood (see about them) will not be considered.

2) We will proceed from the fact that the category kind in real participles, in general, it has the same potential as in finite forms (about this approach and about some problematic cases that do not fit into its framework, see Participle / clause 6.1.1. Type).

3) We will proceed from the fact that the very choice of the real participle in speech (as opposed to the passive participle) is not connected with aspectual, taxis and temporal semantics.

With all these assumptions accepted, the task posed in this section will be reduced to establishing the nature of the opposition between the real participles of the present and the past tense, that is, to clarifying the nature of grammatical categories of time for real participles.

3.1. A brief overview of existing points of view on the problem of the category of tense of real participles

The problem of the category of tense in participles is considered one of the most difficult in Russian grammatical semantics, extensive literature is devoted to it, however, a consensus in these long discussions has not been reached, see [Chuglov 1990], [Demyanova 1991], [Knyazev 2007: 479– 482], as well as a review of earlier views on the problem of participle time in [Bogdanov et al. 2007: 530–531], [Krapivina 2009: 11–12], [Rusakova 2008: 238–241].

There are researchers who take an extreme position: they recognize the participle time relative time, that is, they argue that the grammes of time in participles always express not reference to the objective past or present, but the precedence or simultaneity of the action expressed by the participle, the action expressed by the support form (on the opposition of absolute and relative time, or taxis, see Time for more details) . However, it is interesting that sometimes such a semantic opposition is postulated not as the grammatical content of the category of participle tense, but as the meaning of the aspect of participles, while for the participles of CB verbs the meaning of precedence is postulated, and for NSV verbs - simultaneity [Bulanin 1983: 106] .

At the other extreme are researchers who believe that participles are able to express both absolute and relative time. So, for example, N. A. Kozintseva links the opposition of these two possibilities with the category of aspect, arguing, in particular, that the real past participles of CB verbs convey relative time, while the real past participles of NSV verbs express absolute time, and the meaning of precedence in them are “conditioned by the context” [Kozintseva 2003: 184–185]. According to A. Timberlake, the real participles of the present tense of NSV verbs express the meaning of simultaneity (relative time), and the past participles of the same verbs express the meaning of "remote past" (absolute time).

In a sense, between these two poles there are those researchers who believe that, in general, real participles express relative time, but they are still marginally able to express absolute time [Peshkovsky 1956/2001: 127], [Kalakutskaya 1971: 8– 25], [Vinogradov 1947/2001: 232].

Another possibility of a “compromise” approach is presented in the work of K. A. Krapivina, where the opposition of the two discussed types of interpretation of participle time is linked to their syntactic position(See about them Communion / clause 6.3. Syntactic functions of participles). In particular, K. A. Krapivina claims that “participles in the complementary function<см. Причастие / п.6.3.3 >can be considered a specific means of expressing taxis relations (present participles are used to express simultaneity, past participles to express precedence...)” [Krapivina 2009: 48] .

[show note]

This statement is confirmed in the work of K. A. Krapivina both by case examples and experimental data. Thus, in particular, data are given according to which the respondents assessed constructions of the type I first saw my husband crying on stage or Rita considered her able to live, that is, structures in which the past participles denoted events simultaneous with the action of the supporting form.

Apparently, however, the generalization of K. A. Krapivina has the status of a strong statistical trend, but not an absolute rule. IN individual cases with the complementary use of the real participles of the NSV verbs in the conditions of the simultaneity of the action expressed by the participle, the action of the matrix verb used in the past tense form, nevertheless, the past participle is chosen, as in the following example:

(1) I was in London in 1952 and saw her standing on the Thames at Greenheath, next to the old Worcester. [AND. A. Efremov. Cutty Sark (1942-1943)]

The following discussion will be devoted to the problem of the tense of real participles used in a concordant position, that is, as definitions. This discussion will aim to establish patterns relating the meanings of a certain set of semantic and grammatical parameters to the choice between past and present participles. Controlled parameters will include:

1) the type of verb from which the participle is formed;

2) the time plan to which the action expressed by the support form belongs;

3) the time plan to which the action expressed by the participle belongs;

4) taxis relations between the situations expressed by the participle and the supporting form.

Of course, not all combinations of these features are logically possible. For example, the combination of the taxis meaning of simultaneity (parameter 4) and the relation of the action expressed by the support form to the plan of the future (parameter 2) makes it logically possible only that the action expressed by the participle is also related to the plan of the future (parameter 3).

The proposed approach reflects the complex nature of the opposition under study, which does not fit into the binary opposition discussed in the literature: absolute time vs. relative time(see Time).

The present

Past

The two possibilities shown in Table 2 can be illustrated by the same example:

(4) Prize will be awarded to the first phoned listener.

Such a sentence can also be used in a situation where some viewer has already phoned by the time of the speech and now he will be awarded a prize in the future (lower left cell), and in a situation where the call will take place in the future and after the listener calls radio station, he will receive a prize (upper left cell).

3.2.1.3. The real participles of the verbs CB with the support form in the past tense

With a support form related to the plan of the past, the real participle SV usually corresponds to the action preceding the one expressed by the support form, and also related, thus, to the plan of the past:

(5) Be that as it may, Adrian immediately announced deceased lover god and even named one of the constellations after him. ["Izvestia" (2002)] - the death of a lover precedes the declaration of his god

In this example, the death of a lover (cf. deceased) preceded his being declared a god, and, of course, refers to the plan of the past.

Marginally, there are cases when the participle denotes an action that is in some sense simultaneous with the action expressed by the supporting form (and thus related to the plane of the past in terms of absolute time). This occurs when those relations between two predications arise, which is sometimes called “pseudo-simultaneity” [Polyansky 2001: 250–253] or “co-incident” [Wimer 2004], for example, in the context of circumstances such as thereby,Thus etc:

(6) Now she served as one of the "evidence" that it was on that night that Eden recruited Molotov, thus becoming the most valuable agent of the Intelligence Service. [IN. Berezhkov. Next to Stalin (1998)]

In this example, the recruitment of Molotov itself is the event that made him the most valuable agent, and in this sense, about the simultaneity of two individual it is impossible to speak of events: rather, we are talking about two views on the same event.

Occasionally, cases are recorded when the action expressed by the participial turnover follows the action expressed by the supporting form, but precedes the moment of speech. This is possible, for example, if there are circumstances such as later,after that,after so much time(7), or in some contexts in which such a reading is imposed by the semantics of the verbs involved in the construction, as in example (8) where the situation indicated by the verb form I loved, pragmatically can only refer to the moment before the event that is transmitted by the participle deceased.

(7) Together with this party came which later became famous American businessman Armand Hammer as a representative of the Ford firm. [A. Mikoyan. So it was (1971-1974)]

(8) Most often, daughters-in-law sue their mothers-in-law, finding out who loved more deceased miner. (ura.dn.ua/24.12.2007/42816.html)

The considered possibilities of using the participles CB in the context of the past tense support form are summarized in Table 3 (possible but rare interpretations that arise due to interaction with other components of the utterance are given in brackets).

Table 3

So, when using the real participles of CB verbs, the reference point is usually the action expressed using the support form, but in some contexts requiring further study, it becomes the moment of speech.

3.2.2. Real participles of NSV verbs

From NSV verbs, both past participles and present participles can be formed, respectively, the question arises about the patterns of choice between two participles, depending on the properties of the context and the expressed meaning. As will be shown below, in general, the patterns of choice between the real participles of the present and the past tense come down to the fact that the participle of the present tense Maybe be used when performing at least one from the following two conditions: 1) the participle denotes an action taking place at the moment of observation; 2) the action expressed by the participle, at the same time as the action expressed by the supporting form. It is essential that the second condition is not always sufficient for the choice of the present participle. A remarkable fact is that the temporal characteristic of the supporting form, as can be seen from the above generalizations, does not directly affect the choice between two participles. The complex picture outlined does not allow us to reduce the opposition between the two compared types of participles to opposition along the lines of only absolute or only relative time (and, thus, it is difficult to say that the category of time for real participles “expresses” one or another type of opposition). In order to be convinced of all that has been said, it is necessary to sequentially consider various types of combinations of relevant features, which is undertaken in the following sections.

3.2.2.1. Real participles of NSV verbs with a support form in the present tense

The situation is simplest if the form of the present tense acts as a reference; in such a situation, the absolute and relative time values ​​are indistinguishable, as can be seen from the following examples:

(9) I know people next such a diet and very satisfied with it. [AND. I. Mechnikov. Studies on the nature of man (1903-1915)]

(10) But no one, including you and me, knows the names of Russian gardeners, created miracles on Russian land. ["Landscape Design" (2001)]

In this case, the present participle is used when the action expressed by it is simultaneously the action denoted by the supporting form and the moment of speech, i.e. refers to the plan of the present. The past participle is used in case of preceding the action denoted by the support form and the moment of speech, i.e. in case of reference to the plan of the past, see Table 4:

Table 4

3.2.2.2. Real participles of NSV verbs with a support form in the future tense

In contexts where as the support form uses the future tense form, the choice of real participles of NSV verbs is a little more difficult. In the case of precedence of the action expressed by the participle, the action indicated by the support form, the past participle is usually used:

(11) There will People, who knew Nazarova is better than me, they will tell you a lot of interesting things about him. [L. Butler. Jackals (2000)]

However, if the participial turnover denotes an action that takes place in the present speaker, in the vast majority of cases the present participle is used:

(12) Gifts are coming, and if this continues, we will really provide for everyone working today, at least on amendments to the law "Production Sharing Agreement" with everything necessary for honest life. [« New Newspaper» (2003)]

It turns out to be quite difficult to find natural examples that correspond to such complex semantics as the antecedence of a future action, expressed by the participle of NSV, to an action expressed by the supporting form of the future tense (see about this combination of features in [Chuglov 1990: 58]). However, the construction of such statements shows that if the participle can be used in such cases, then it should be the past participle:

(13) (In September, students will have an internship at the school). In October, all students working <*working> at school, will have to report on the work.

[show note]

The discussed combination of features is observed in the following example from the Corpus, in which, however, the support form of the future tense is used not in a direct futuristic, but in a hypothetical sense (see Non-future uses of future tense forms):

(14) These same groups of individual words ... can serve as the first written exercises, which should always accompany exercises in spoken word and reading. At the end of the reading, the teacher orders the students to write three or four names of toys and educational things. Children, read attentively, write no error. [TO. D. Ushinsky. native word. Book for students. (1864)]

Outside the Corpus, it is somewhat easier to find natural examples that fully satisfy the formulated conditions. They also use past participles:

(15) From this post I ask you to stop commenting on my personal life ...... later comments will be deleted and writers will be listed to ignore (http://mylove.ru)

Finally, with the support form of the future tense, the taxis of simultaneity (or pseudo-simultaneity) can also be observed. In such cases, the verb NSV appears in the form of the present participle:

(16) It is assumed that in polyclinics or in large enterprises, physicians will conduct cycles of classes in which they will teach present how to "run away" from a heart attack. ["Evening Moscow" (2002)]

Thus, very complex patterns of the use of real participles of NSV verbs in the context support form of the future time can be presented in Table 5.

Table 5

3.2.2.3. Real participles of NSV verbs with a support form in the past tense

It remains to consider the use of real participles of NSV verbs in the context of past tense support forms. Here, 5 combinations of signs of relative and absolute time are logically possible:

1) relative succession and absolute past;

2) relative following and absolute present;

3) relative following and absolute future;

4) relative simultaneity and absolute past;

5) relative precedence and absolute past.

In cases 1) and 2), the participles are chosen in accordance with the value of the absolute time:

(17) And the "exodus" began, continued until about 1910 and led in 1907 to a shortage in the officer corps of the army up to 20%. [A. I. Denikin. The Way of the Russian Officer (1953)]

(18) In the murder that a man committed, located before you, we would search in vain for any romantic reason. [G. Gazdanov. Return of the Buddha (1950)]

Situation of type 3), as well as other cases when it is necessary to designate a future action, following behind the action expressed by the supporting form, apparently, cannot be expressed using the participle:

(19) The dean made a speech to the students, who will study < # students / # students> at the faculty.

In a situation of type 5), that is, when the relationship between two predications corresponds to a taxis precedence, while both actions refer to the past plan, the past participle is obligatorily used (that is, the present participle is impossible) if at least one of the two conditions is met: a) the action expressed by the participle is in a taxis relationship of distant precedence with the action expressed by the supporting form, as in example (20), or b) when participles, circumstances such as before,until etc. (even if the action expressed by this participle is in the taxis relationship of contact or interrupting precedence), as in example (21).

(20) He lay for several minutes with his eyes closed, and when he opened them, he saw the old Serpilin standing behind him, suitable to him in the forest of a lanky political officer from the newspaper. [TO. Simonov. The living and the dead (1955-1959)] - cf. * old, suitable for him ...

(21) What Matthew said was so firm and definite that it seems to have even died out. noisy before samovar on the table. [E. Perm. Grandma's lace (1955-1965)] - cf. * noisy before...

The most difficult situation is in a situation of type 4), that is, when with the help of the real participle of the verb NSV it is necessary to designate an action, simultaneous action expressed by the basic form of the past tense. In such cases, grammatically possible (and often semantically more or less equivalent to each other) are present participles, on the one hand, and past participles, on the other, as in the following constructed example:

(22) I saw a man well, outgoing / coming out from the house opposite.

The position of competition is also observed if between the action expressed by the participle and the action expressed by the supporting form, precedence relations are established, but neither the above condition a) nor condition b) is satisfied, that is, if there is a relationship of contact or interruptible taxis and in the absence of circumstances such as before,until. The patterns associated with the choice of participles in the position of competition will be considered in paragraph 3.3. The choice between the real participles of the past and the present tense in the position of competition.

Now we can summarize the rules for choosing between the real participles of the present and the past tense of NSV verbs with the support form of the past tense.

Table 6

3.2.3. Strict patterns regarding the choice of real present/past participles: a generalization

If we abstract from some of the complex cases mentioned above, as well as from the problem of choosing a participle in the position of competition, discussed below, then the rules for choosing participles for all the combinations of signs considered so far (both for the participles of the NE verbs and for the participles of the NSV) can be represented in the form of the following pivot table.

Table 7. The use of real participles of the present and past tense: summary data

As this table shows, the rules for choosing between present and past participles can be described, without referring to such a parameter as the grammatical form of the supporting predicate. This table also shows why the discussion about whether the grammatical category of the tense of real participles expresses the absolute does not give a convincing result. or relative time: it is fundamentally impossible to reduce the discovered patterns to one of these two interpretations (to a “horizontal” or “vertical” dimension in the framework of the table above).

A necessary condition for the use of a real present participle is the truth of one of two statements: 1) the participle denotes an action taking place at the moment of observation; 2) the action expressed by the participle, at the same time as the action expressed by the supporting form. If both of these conditions are not met at the same time, only past participles can be used (however, when designating an event in the future following another event related to the future plan, participles cannot be used).

In most cases, compliance with any of the above conditions 1) and 2) is also a sufficient basis for using the present participle. An exception is the position of competition, considered in the next section (clause 3.3): both present participles and past participles are possible in it.

From all that has been said, we can conclude that the speaker's present has a very special status in relation to the choice between a synchronous and retrospective reference point (see about this opposition [Paducheva 1996]): speaking of events that do not coincide with his "here" and "now" , the speaker can change the point of reference and consider them synchronously, “from the inside”, however, present participles are grammatically obligatory to indicate the events of the present, and the view “from outside” turns out to be (almost, see footnote 9 in clause 3.2.2.2) impossible.

3.3. The choice between real participles of the past and present tense in the position of competition

In this section, we will consider the patterns of choice between present and past participles in the position of competition (for the rules for the mandatory choice of one of the tense forms of participles, see paragraph 3.2). Necessary features The positions of the participle competition under consideration are as follows:

1) the supporting form refers to the past plan (for simplicity, only cases will be considered when it is a morphological form of the past tense verb);

2) the dependent predicate is expressed by a real participle formed from the verb NSV;

3) two actions are in a taxi relationship of simultaneity or contact / interrupted precedence (the action expressed by the participle precedes the action expressed by the support form).

[show note]

Particular statistical patterns regarding the choice of the participle in the competitive position were mainly established by analyzing the results obtained by the "standard query": verb form indicative mood in the past tense form, 1 or 2 word distance (i.e. contact arrangement or exactly one word between the requested forms), the actual participle of the NSV verb. Of course, not every example received by such a request contained a “competition position” (for this reason, in many cases, when solving specific problems, manual filtering of examples was used). Also, of course, not all examples in which there is a competition position can be obtained by this request. However, in order to identify parameters that affect the probability of choosing present participles vs. elapsed tense, working with the results obtained by the described request turned out to be productive.

The reality of the position of competition is well illustrated by examples in which situations with close actional characteristics and temporal reference are expressed by real participles of the present and past tense, acting as homogeneous members sentences or, more broadly, in semantically parallel contexts:

(23) As I remember now, a haircut cost five rubles, a lot of money for me, receiving then a hundred rubles and nurturing boy alone (D. Dontsova. Ghost in sneakers)

(24) These ten played the trumpets; followed by six who had on long poles along the skeleton, and behind them were two, bearing on the poles Earth <….>[M. D. Chulkov. Mockingbird, or Slavonic Tales (1766-1768)]

Moreover, according to the calculations given in [Rusakova, Sai 2009: 258], this position is also very frequent, accounting for about 26% of all cases of using real participles NSV. The same article also examines the main factors influencing the choice of participle in the position of competition. Here the main quantitative distributions used in the article will be given, as well as those conclusions of this study that relate to the use of participles proper, that is, participles that have not undergone adjectivation. Here we will not consider factors associated with the absence or difficulty of the formation of the necessary forms participles of the present or past tense (see the Real participle of the present tense / clause 1.2 and the Real participle of the past tense / clause 1.2 about this).

3.3.1. "Strong" factors

To the greatest extent, the choice between the present and past participles in the competitive position is influenced by the actional and / or modal characteristics of the situation denoted by the participle.

A1) In the case when the action expressed by the participle has habitual character (meaning ‘regular repetition’), the past participle is almost always used, as in the following example:

(25) At first, a red-faced, respectable gentleman sat next to him, every two minutes calling stewardess and asking red. [IN. Belousov. There lived a poor knight in the world (2000)]

A2) If the action indicated by the participle has timeless character (for example, refers to the number of predicates of the individual level), the present participle is almost always used:

(26) One has come up to me more than once speaking French Indian. [AND. A. Goncharov. Frigate "Pallada" (1855)]

It is about such cases that N. M. Lisina rightly notes that if you try to replace the present participles with the past participles, then the meaning of the timeless feature will disappear and such a replacement will translate “the narrative into the plan of a specific situation” [Lisina 1986: 78].

[show note]

Nevertheless, there are separate examples of the type (27) in which, in the presence of the discussed semantic features, the real participle of the past tense is used.

(27) When he left Japan, where it is customary to give gifts to guest performers, deputy impresario Azumo-san, speaking in Russian, presented Arnold Grigorievich with a pearl necklace for his wife Nina Nikolaevna. [AND. E. Keogh. Illusions without illusions (1995-1999)]

For such situations, the use of participles in the function of a non-restrictive definition is typical, as in the above example. .

A3) In the case when the action denoted by the participle does not belong to the real plan, that is, lies in the area irrealisa(see Modality), for example, a name that has a non-referential status is used as a participle, and the present participle is almost always chosen.

(28) All the skin was torn through, the stuffing was thrown out on the floor, and the springs protruded like forthcoming to a snake bite. [AND. Ilf, E. Petrov. Twelve Chairs (1927)]

3.3.2. "Weak" factors

B3) The nature of taxi relations. As already mentioned, the position of competition is fixed not only in a situation of simultaneity, but also in taxis relations of contact or interrupted antecedence, that is, in cases where the situation denoted by the participle continues up to the beginning of the situation denoted by the support form, while either naturally is replaced by it (contact precedence), or interrupted by it, i.e. stops just because of the (beginning) of the action indicated by the support form. The fact that in such cases there may be competition between participles is shown by the following pair of similar examples, in which, nevertheless, different participles are used:

(29) Boss woke up sleeping warriors and, sending them to the steering oars, he himself stood next to Pandion. [AND. Efremov. On the edge of the ecumene (1945-1946)]

(30) They returned only in the dead of night, woke up sleeping friends and enthusiastically told the bewildered half-asleep Andreev and Lopar how wonderfully they were met at the “forefront positions” (this was pronounced with incredible pride! [D. A. Furmanov. Chapaev (1923)]

However, in such situations, the probability of choosing the past participle is significantly higher [Rusakova, Sai 2009: 271] than when the actions expressed by the participle and the supporting form are simultaneous.

B4) The presence of the sacrament dependent. In this case, only cases of prepositional participle use, as in (31) and (32), were considered, since single participles in postposition are almost never used.

Table 9 provides data showing that for single participles in the competitive position, the probability of choosing the present participle is fundamentally higher than for participle turnovers.

[show note]

The hypothesis was tested on the material of the texts of 1950–1955. using the standard request. Cases of postpositive use of the participle in relation to the top were excluded from the output, since single participles in this position are almost never used. Also, participles "suspected" of adjectivization were manually removed.

Table 9. Relationship between the choice of a participle in a preposition and the presence of dependents in a participle (texts from 1950–1955)

Preferred combinations of signs - a single present participle and a past participle with dependent - are illustrated in examples (31) and (32).

(31) The door creaked a little, Andrei looked up and saw incoming Grigoriev. [D. Granin. Seekers (1954)]

(32) At first it seemed to her that everything was quiet, but then she heard coming from the second room shortness of breath [K. Simonov. The Living and the Dead (1955-1959)]

B5) Word order. This feature is closely related to the previous one, since single participles are used almost exclusively in preposition. Nevertheless, even if we consider only participial phrases (they can be both in preposition and in postposition), a weak connection between the linear position and the choice of the participle is still found: in phrases that are in preposition, they are more likely than in postpositive revolutions, the present participle is chosen. Quantitative data obtained in the same subcorpus and for the same queries as in the previous paragraph are given in Table 10.

[show note]

In this case, of course, participial phrases in postposition were not manually deleted, but single participles were removed (in order not to overestimate the share of present participles in prepositional participles due to the tendency of single participles to preposition and the correlation between the absence of dependents and the choice of the present time).

table 10

As can be seen from the data presented, for participle phrases, the position before the verb increases, albeit slightly, the probability of choosing the present participle. The same pattern was additionally confirmed in the course of an experiment with native speakers described in [Rusakova, Sai 2009: 274].

B6) Presence of time circumstances type Then,at that moment etc., as in example (33), increases the likelihood of choosing the past participle.

(33) The colonel came out of the next room, performing at the time duties of the correcting chief of staff and quartermaster. [TO. M. Stanyukovich. Sevastopol boy. A Tale from the Time of the Crimean War (1902)]

1) Sphere of functioning of the text. Participles are much more characteristic of written than of oral texts. According to M.A. Kholodilova, in the Main Corpus, where written texts are mainly presented, the participial strategy accounts for 68.1% of cases of relativization of the subject, and in the Oral Subcorpus - only 35.6% (in both cases, texts created by in 2005-2007).

The connection of participles with the written form of speech, with formal registers, with a high culture of speech, their “bookish” nature has been noted many times in the literature (see, for example, a recent discussion in [Rozhkova 2011]; this observation has been wandering from work to work since the time of M. V. Lomonosov).

2) Top presence. Participles can be used both in constructions with a nominal vertex and in constructions without a vertex. Relative clauses with which V literary language are used almost exclusively with vertices expressed by the name . Accordingly, participial revolutions used without a defined one cannot be replaced by relative revolutions with which :

(36) If someone suddenly asks for his name, he will not be able to stop and in a hurry will shout out the first came to mind. [YU. Buyda. City of executioners (2003)] - Compare: *…shout out the first thing that comes to mind

3) Meanings of unreality and temporal following. Elsewhere, the marginal status of those real participles that could be interpreted as real participles of the future tense is discussed (see Real participle of the present tense / clause 1.3. Restrictions on the formation of real participles of the present and “real participles of the future tense”) and as real participles of the subjunctive mood (see Participle / clause 6.1.3. Mood). This does not mean, however, that such relative sentences, with the help of which the subject is relativized and in which the personal forms of the subjunctive mood or the future tense are used, can never be replaced by turns with real participles. Indeed, the usual real participles of the present or past tense can denote situations in which finite forms would require explicit markers of the future tense (see) or the subjunctive mood (see Participle / clause 6.1.3. Mood).

However, there are situations when the relativization of the subject cannot be carried out with the help of the participle precisely because the system lacks the necessary grammatical form. Firstly, these are cases when it is necessary to designate an action that relates to the plan of the future and follows the action expressed by the verb in the main clause, which has already been mentioned (see clause 3.2. Mandatory choice of real participles of the past or present tense):

(37) We have our own staff in local factories, who do a great job with installation and commissioning!["Business Journal" (2004)] - Compare: ... # personnel who did an excellent job with installation and commissioning

Secondly, these are cases when the action indicated by the verb refers to the plan of the future and at the same time the adverb of time with a shifter component depends on the verb:

(38) 150 stage teams from 50 countries will take part in the World Theater Olympiad, which will open tomorrow in Moscow. (Google) – Compare: *… at the World Theater Olympiad, which opened tomorrow in Moscow

4) The length of the relative clause; number and nature of dependent verbs. Longer relative clause length correlates with the use of relative clauses with which, not participial revolutions. Another closely related factor, also correlated with the choice of relative clause with which, is the number of dependents in the verb. These two factors, of course, are closely related to each other, but it is possible to show that each of them is associated with the competition under discussion, regardless of the action of the other, see about this in [Kholodilova 2014].

In addition, there are such dependent verbs, the presence of which is especially strongly correlated with the choice of relative constructions with which. Such dependents include infinitives, introductory words, adverbs. So, for example, in the Syntactic Subcorpus there is only one undoubted example in which the gerund participle depends on the real participle:

At the same time, such examples where the gerund depends on a finite predicate in a subordinate clause with a relative pronoun which in the nominative case, in the same subcorpus there are much more (at least 33) [Kholodilova 2014].

5) Presence of a negative marker correlates statistically significantly with the choice of relative clause. Particle Not is fixed at 5.4% of the predicates of the discussed relative turns, in 4.0% of the postpositive participial turns and in only 1.5% of the prepositive participial turns.

6) Composition of verbs correlates with the choice of relative clause. In other words, the ratio of the frequencies of structures like (40) and (41) is increased in favor of the relative supply compared to the ratio of the corresponding frequencies, all other things being equal.

(40) He was deprived of the habits of a languid romantic genius, who creates by candlelight and in every woman sees muse. [Daily Symphony]

(41) This is not clear why emerging south and all intensifying the shooting was alarming. [The dead have no shame]

7) There is a weak positive correlation between reflexivity of the verb and the choice of a relative clause.

8) Apparently, there is a weak correlation between non-restrictiveness relative clause and the choice of strategy with a relative clause.

9) The choice of participatory strategy is positively correlated with nominative case peaks relative turnover and negative - with all indirect cases, except for the genitive.

10) The choice of participle is positively correlated with the so-called attributive contraction, that is, using a noun phrase with a dependent attribute construct "instead of" a subordinate predication, as in the following example:

(42) Glass, playing his music, a hypnotic and perhaps even narcotic spectacle. [A. Zhurbin. How it was done in America. Autobiographical Notes (1999)]

In this case, it means that the "hypnotic spectacle" is not actually "Glass", that is, special person rather the situation where he plays his music. Constructions with a pronoun which are almost never used in constructions of attributive contraction.

M. A. Kholodilova shows that most of the identified signs fit into the general pattern: participial turnovers in their characteristics (both absolute and relative, that is, quantitative), demonstrate a greater degree nominalization than relative clauses. By nominalization is meant the weakening of the properties of a separate clause and the strengthening of the properties characteristic of the name. If we also introduce the difference in the positional types of participial phrases into the opposition under discussion, then, according to the degree of nominalization, the compared structures form a hierarchy of the following type (from less nominalized to more nominalized):

(43) relative supply with which(always in postposition) > participial phrase in postposition > participial phrase in preposition

5. Bibliography

• Bogdanov S.I., Voeikova M.D., Evtyukhin V.B. etc. Modern Russian language. Morphology. Preprint (working materials for the textbook). St. Petersburg: Faculty of Philology and Arts, St. Petersburg State University. 2007.
• Bulanin L. The structure of the Russian verb as a part of speech and its grammatical categories// Controversial issues of Russian linguistics. Theory and practice. L.: LGU. 1983, pp. 94–115.
• Wimer B. Taxis and coincidence in dependent predications: Lithuanian participles in - damas// Khrakovsky V.S., Malchukov A.L., Dmitrenko S.Yu. (Ed.) 40th Anniversary of St. Petersburg Typological School. M.: Sign. 2004, pp. 53–73.
• Vinogradov V.V. Russian language. 4th edition. M.: "Russian language". 2001 (1st ed. – M. 1947).
• Vyalsova A.P. Types of Taxis Relations in Modern Russian (Based on Participial Constructions). Abstract of diss. ... k. philol. Sciences. M. 2008.
• Demyanova E.M. The relationship between the tense of the predicate and the tense of the attribute-participle with suffixes is yi-, -Yusch-, -ash-, -crate- at the morphological level // Dissertationes Slavicae. Sectio Linguistica, XXII. Szeged. 1991, pp. 11–17.
• Isachenko A.V. The grammatical structure of the Russian language in comparison with Slovak. Morphology. I-II. Second edition. M.: Languages ​​of Slavic culture. 2003 (Reprint edition Bratislava. 1965. 1st edition - 1954-1960).
• Kalakutskaya L.P. Adjectivation of participles in the modern Russian literary language. M.: Science. 1971.
• Knyazev Yu.P. Grammatical semantics. Russian language in a typological perspective. M.: Languages ​​of Slavic cultures. 2007.
• Kozintseva N.A. Taxis functions transmitted by participles and participial phrases in Russian // Bondarko A.V., Shubik S.A. (Ed.) Problems of functional grammar. Semantic invariance / variability. St. Petersburg: Science. 2003, pp. 175–189.
• Krapivina K.A. Participle taxis in Russian. Graduate work. St. Petersburg: St. Petersburg State University. 2009.
• Lisina N.M. The real participle as a component of the semantic structure of the sentence // The sentence and its structure in the language (Russian language). M. 1986. S. 74–83.
• Paducheva E.V. Semantic studies (Semantics of aspect and tense in Russian; Semantics of narrative). M.: School "Languages ​​of Russian culture". 1996.
• Peshkovsky A.M. Russian syntax in scientific coverage. 8th ed. M.: Languages ​​of Slavic culture. 2001 (1st ed. - M .: State Educational and Pedagogical Publishing House of the Ministry of Education of the RSFSR. 1928).
• Polyansky S.M. Simultaneity/diversity and other types of taxi relations // Bondarko A.V. (Ed.) Theory of Functional Grammar. Introduction. Aspectuality. Temporal localization. Taxis. Edition 2nd. M.: URSS. 2001, pp. 243–253.
• Rozhkova A.Yu. Participles and gerunds as markers of the level of the speaker's speech competence (based on the sound corpus of the Russian language). Graduation work ... master of linguistics. St. Petersburg: St. Petersburg State University. 2011.
• Rusakova M.V. On the position of indeterminacy and competition of real participles of the past and present imperfective form // Bulletin of St. Petersburg University. Ser. 9. Issue. 2. Part II. 2008, pp. 237–244.
• Rusakova M.V., Sai S.S. Competition of real participles of the past and present. Kiseleva K.L., Plungyan V.A., Rakhilina E.V., Tatevosov S.G. (Ed.) Corpus Studies in Russian Grammar. Digest of articles. M.: Probel-2000. 2009, pp. 245–282.
• Kholodilova M.A. Competition of Subject Relativization Strategies in Russian: Corpus Study. Course work. St. Petersburg: St. Petersburg State University. 2009.
• Kholodilova M.A. Competition of Subject Relativization Strategies in Russian // Acta Linguistica Petropolitana (Proceedings of OR RAN), VII(3). 2011, pp. 219–224.
• Kholodilova M.A. Competition of the main strategies of subject relativization in Russian // Say S.S., Ovsyannikova M.A., Oskolskaya S.A. (Volume ed.). Acta Linguistica Petropolitana (Proceedings of OR RAN), X(2). Russian language: grammar of constructions and lexico-semantic approaches. SPb.: Nauka. 2014, pp. 478–509.
• Chuglov V.I. Categories of voice and time in Russian participles // Questions of Linguistics, 3. 1990. P. 54–61.
• Timberlake A. A reference grammar of English. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 2004.

6. Basic literature

See the list of references for the article Communion.

For other functions, according to K. A. Krapivina, the situation is more complicated: in particular, as restrictive definitions, participles can express both absolute and relative values ​​of time.

When writing this and the next paragraphs, materials from the following works were used: [Rusakova 2008]; [Rusakova, Sai 2009].

For simplicity, in practice, contexts will be mainly used in which finite forms of the past, present or future tense in their own form act as references. direct meaning. In fact, the key role is played not by specific grammes presented in support forms, but by their semantic interpretation. However difficult cases(for example, situations when the form of the future tense, denoting a situation related to the plan of the past, etc., acts as a reference) will not be considered.

In [Chuglov 1990: 59-60] it is said that "the action called the participle, being related to the plan of the future, can also follow the action called the finite form of the future tense." However, the only example cited by the author contains a passive participle (and allows for ambiguous interpretation), and it is not possible to find contexts that correspond to the described conditions and contain a real participle in the Corpus. Therefore, in this and subsequent tables in the upper right corner, a “–” sign is placed, indicating the grammatical impossibility of such examples.

A meaningful analysis of cases with similar properties is presented in [Vyalsova 2008]. A. P. Vyalsova points out that not only pairs of situations that are objectively adjacent in time can be expressed with the help of means associated with taxis (such a situation is referred to in this work as one-planness, cf. opening the door, he went out), but also different pairs of situations, the relationship between which is characterized by diversity. Particular cases of diversity are, according to A.P. Vyalsova, firstly, situations when the combined predications relate to two events considered within different modes (for example, Soon the old coachman Anton appeared to Vladimir Andreevich, who had once led him around the stable.: here the first event belongs to the perceptual mode, and the second - to the mental one), and secondly, the cases when two predicates are combined, denoting the same event, but considered from the standpoint of different modes ( Daisy was shy and flirty a little, slowly raising her downcast eyes). It may be noted that this last case includes, in particular, such uses of participles that can be called pseudo-simultaneous.

A normal reading of this statement would suggest that Nazarov by the time of the speech is no longer alive.

In fact, there are isolated examples that reflect a kind of bifurcation of reference points, a look at the “now” of the speaker from an imaginary future: And will they then remember us, who lived in troubled times ...(network literary magazine rusedin.ru). Such usages are somewhat artificial, they are typical for futurological discourse.

The data was obtained by peer review of the first 500 examples returned by the query “actual participle NSV” when referring to a subcorpus of texts created in 2004. According to peer review, the participles were used in a competitive position (i.e., in principle, they could be replaced by a participle of another time without a significant change in meaning) in 130 of these examples.

It can also be noted that, unlike participial phrases, which can be both in preposition and postposition to the vertex name, subordinate clauses with which used almost exclusively in postposition. Therefore, if we regard the word order as an independent parameter, and the choice of the relativization strategy as a dependent one, then we could say that the relative turnover preposition is the most powerful factor correlating with the choice of the participial strategy. However, such modeling of causal relationships in this area can hardly be considered justified.

It does not discuss cases where a noun node undergoes an ellipsis; in such situations, use subordinate clause With which Maybe: He called the amount twice as much as the one on the check.. [AND. Grekov. Fracture (1987)], cf.: more than the amount indicated on the check.

This section discusses the competition between participles and relative clauses with which. Impossibility of subordinate clauses with which in such cases does not mean that the necessary meaning can be expressed only with the help of participial turnover: in such contexts, other ways of arranging the subordinate clause are possible, cf. the first thing that comes to mind.