Morphological features used form. Morphological features. Constant morphological features of verbs

Words differ from each other not only in lexical meaning. All of them are usually divided into groups - parts of speech. This gradation occurs on the basis of the grammatical meaning of words and their special features - morphological.

Morphology - section of the Russian language

A whole branch of science, called morphology, deals with parts of speech. Any word has its own characteristics: general meaning, grammatical, as well as morphological and syntactic features. The first indicates the same meaning of a particular part of speech. For example, the designation of an object by nouns, its attribute by adjectives, verbs - action, and participles - a sign by action.

Syntactic signs is the role of a particular part of speech in a sentence. For example, verbs, as a rule, are predicates, less often - subjects. Nouns can be objects, circumstances, subjects, and sometimes predicates in a sentence.

What are the morphological features

The group of morphological features, permanent and non-permanent, is much more extensive. The first characterize the word as a specific part of speech. For example, a verb is always determined by conjugation, aspect, transitivity. Variable morphological features indicate that the part of speech has the ability to change. For example, a noun changes in cases and numbers - these will be its non-permanent signs. But the adverb and participle are unchangeable parts of speech, respectively, they only need to indicate constant signs. The same is true for service parts of speech and interjections.

Before analyzing the morphological features of parts of speech, it is worth noting that it is necessary to distinguish between a word and its form. Words differ from each other in lexical meaning, and when they change, their forms are formed. For example, the word "site" has lexical meaning“fenced part of the area”, and its forms will be a change in cases: plot, plot, plot, about the plot.

Noun

Indicating the constant morphological features of a noun, we talk about whether it is a common noun or proper, animate or inanimate, we also determine the type of its declension and gender.

Common nouns denote a set of any objects, without highlighting their individual features. For example, with the word "river" we denote all rivers: large and small, northern and southern, full-flowing and not very. But if we indicate a specific river, the only one of its kind, for example, the Neva, the noun will be its own.

Living things belong to animate noun, all the rest - to the inanimate. These are constant morphological features of the noun. Dog (who?) - animated; table (what?) - inanimate. Also, the nouns of these categories differ in the forms of accusative and genitive cases. Endings in the genitive and accusative cases plural coincide in animate, inanimate - accusative and nominative.

Let's take an example. Genitive: no (who?) cats; accusative: I see (who?) cats. Compare: I see (what?) chairs; there are (what?) chairs.

The following genders are distinguished: male, female and middle. To determine these morphological features of a noun, it is necessary to substitute the pronouns mine - mine - mine, respectively, for the word.

We present the declension of nouns in the table:

Non-permanent morphological features of a noun are its case and number. These categories form the forms of the word-noun.

Adjective

Just like a noun, the morphological features of the adjective are divided into permanent and non-permanent.

The first are its rank, degree of comparison and form, full or short.

Adjectives are divided into qualitative, relative and possessive. The first may be in the subject to some extent, they can act in full or short form, and also form degrees of comparison. For example: beautiful is an adjective of quality. Let's prove it. It is characterized by such morphological features of the adjective as the degree of comparison (more beautiful, more beautiful) and the short form (beautiful). Relative adjectives cannot have these categories (golden, hazy, shaving). Possessives denote belonging, they answer the question "whose?".

The degrees of comparison are divided into comparative and superlative. The first shows a large or lesser degree any quality: tea more sweet - less sweet - sweeter. The superlative degree denotes the highest or lowest degree of a feature: the shortest, the funniest, the smallest.

The long and short forms are inherent quality adjective. It should be remembered that short ones do not decline, but they can be changed by numbers and gender: cheerful ( long form) - oars (m. genus, singular) - oars (female, singular h) - oars (plural).

The inconstant morphological features of the adjective are the case forms, number and gender in which it is used. The category of gender can only be determined for adjectives in the singular.

Numeral

Permanent morphological features of the word, which is a numeral, are its category and structure characteristics.

Allocate quantitative and ordinal numerals. The former require an answer to the question "how much?" (ten, fifteen, twenty-five), the second - "what is the number?" (tenth, fifteenth, twenty-fifth).

• Simple (five, second).
• Complex (thirteen, fifteenth).
• Compound (twenty-two, three hundred and forty-one).

The non-permanent signs of the name of the numeral are largely determined by its category. So, quantitative numbers are characterized by a change in cases only. Ordinal numbers are similar in grammatical parameters to adjectives, therefore they can form case forms, change in numbers and genders.

Pronoun

If we talk about a pronoun, then its morphological features largely depend on which part of speech it is close in grammatical meaning. They can gravitate toward a noun, adjective, or numeral. Let's analyze the pronouns and their morphological features in this context.

Pronouns-nouns are characterized by an invariable category of person (personal) and formative gender, number, case.

Pronouns-adjectives can also be changed by gender, number and case. The exception is the words her, him, them- they do not change in cases.

Only pronouns have a case form - numerals.

So, when determining what morphological features a pronoun has, it is first necessary to look at the category and, accordingly, indicate the rest of the characteristics.

Verb: constant signs

The constant morphological features of the verb are its form, transitivity, reflexivity and conjugation.

Verbs come in two categories, perfect and imperfect. The first involves the question "what to do?", the second - "what to do?". For example, move (what to do?) - perfect view; shift (what to do?) - imperfect view.

The category of transitivity suggests that the verb governs a noun in the accusative case without a preposition. All other verbs will be intransitive. Let's give an example: to hate (whom, what?) the enemy, lies, fog - a transitive verb. Go to the house, fly through the sky, jump over a step, get a sore throat - these verbs are intransitive, nouns with prepositions, and the form of the accusative case cannot be made.

The reflexive verb has the suffix -sya (-s): swim, swim (reflexive); bathe - irrevocable.

We present the conjugation of the verb in the table:

Verb: fickle signs

Non-permanent morphological features of the verb are its number, mood, gender, tense and person. These categories are largely defined by others. For example, verbs change at times indicative mood. Imperfective verbs are the only ones that have three forms of tense.

Russian verbs have three mood forms: indicative (I bake, I will bake, I baked), imperative (peki) and conditional (would bake).

Verbs also change by gender: he swam, she swam, it swam. This category is typical for past tense verbs.

The person of the verb indicates by whom the action is performed: by the speaker (I remove), the interlocutor (you remove) or the subject / person of the conversation (she removes).

As with a pronoun, you first need to look at the category and, accordingly, indicate the rest of the characteristics.

Participle

Permanent morphological features of the participle are aspect, transitivity, recurrence, pledge and time.

Just like verbs, participles are perfect and imperfective: working (what to do? work) - imperfective; built (what to do? build) - a perfect look.

If the participle is formed from a transitive or reflexive verb, the same signs will remain with him. For example, the participle "locking" (locking) is formed from the transitive verb "lock" - it also has this category. From the reflexive verb "to lock" the participle "locking" is formed, respectively, also reflexive.

Participles can be real (the sign is made by the object itself: the thinker is the one who thinks) and passive (the object experiences the action of the sign: a written book is a book that is written by someone).

Two forms of tense can be distinguished from participles: present (playing) and past (playing).

Non-permanent morphological features of the participle are similar to the adjective: gender, number, case, form (short or full).

gerund

The participle is an invariable part of speech, therefore, it has exclusively constant features:

• View. Perfect (doing what? - reading) and imperfect (doing what? - reading).
• Transitivity. Transmitted from the verb: having decided (to decide is a transitive verb); going (to go is an intransitive verb).
• Recurrence. Distributed - reflexive participle; distributing - irrevocable.

Adverb

Just like a gerund, an adverb does not form a form. Thus, only constant morphological features are indicated in it: a rank by meaning and if the adverb is qualitative, i.e. formed from the name of an adjective, indicate the degree of comparison.

For example, the adverb "fun" is formed from the adjective cheerful, so the formation of degrees of comparison is possible: fun (positive); more fun (comparative); the most fun of all (excellent).

In Russian, the verb is characterized by constant and variable features. The article describes these signs in detail, indicating which forms of the verb they correspond to. Also given illustrative examples to check the learned material.

Morphological features are a number of grammatical categories inherent in a certain part of speech. Morphological features of the verb in Russian are permanent And changeable.

Constant morphological features of verbs

Permanent grammatical features of verbs are inherent in all forms of the verb, regardless of the speech situation word is used. They are characteristic of conjugated forms of verbs, infinitives, participles and gerunds.

• View- perfect (examples: subtract, collect) and imperfect (read, run);
• recurrence– returnable (share, gather), irrevocable (get up, speak);
• Transitivity– transitional (take, meet) and intransitive (go, make noise);
• Type of conjugation– I (work, grow) and II conjugation (feed, stand).

Non-permanent morphological features of verbs

Non-permanent grammatical categories of verbs are inherent only in conjugated forms of verbs and participles. These morphological features depend on the specific speech situation.

TOP 2 articleswho read along with this

• Mood- indicative (examples: read, love), imperative (read love) and conditional (read, love); inherent in conjugated forms of verbs;
• Number- plural (drawn, made) and the only (drawing, done); characteristic of conjugated forms and participles;
• Time- the category is inherent in conjugated forms of the indicative mood (I did, I do, I will do, they taught, they teach, they will teach);
• Face- the sign is characteristic of conjugated forms of the indicative mood of the present (I buy, she buys) and future tense (you buy, you buy), as well as the imperative mood (buy, buy);
• Genus- the category is inherent in participles (modified, specified), as well as past conjugated forms singular indicative mood (altered, indicated) and conditional mood (I would remake, would indicate).

Introductory theme

Morphology (from the Greek morphe "form" and logia "teaching"). Literally: the doctrine of form. This is a section of grammar in which the word is studied in terms of its grammatical properties. Morphology studies the rules for changing words, the knowledge of which is necessary to build a sentence. We will study the grammatical structure of the Russian language. Its Feature:

On the one hand, morphology (M) and syntax (C) are very clearly distinguished in the language,

And on the other hand, M. and S. are closely interconnected and interdependent.

Morphology considers the word in the totality of its forms, while studying not only the mechanism (model) of inflection, but also the nature of its participation in the organization of communicative units. Ex: in Morphology, on the one hand, it is determined how nouns change according to cases, and on the other hand, it establishes what meanings in RL can be expressed by means of one or another case.

Morphology studies the forms of words and their semantics, which is usually called grammatical (grammatical semantics = grammatical meaning).

Morphology also defines and describes parts of speech, since the nature of inflection in the PR is closely related to the part-of-speech attribution of the word. Ex: only the verb changes in declensions, cases and persons. By gender, numbers and cases: adj., adj., order. counts. Only by cases do the numbers change. counts. Specificity: there are a number of GPs (morphological features) that may be inherent in not one, but several parts of speech. Ex: Verb, adj., noun change by number. and etc. In addition, there are invariable parts of speech in PR. Therefore, when defining and characterizing, it is not worth relying only on the nature of inflection.

Unchangeable CH: adverb, gerund, auxiliary (preposition, conjunction, particle, interjection).

The grammatical properties of a word are 1) its part-of-speech affiliation, 2) the ability to change or be unchanged in a certain way, 3) grammatical meanings words.

As a result, Morphology can be defined as a section of grammar that describes parts of speech, their grammatical (morphological) forms and grammatical meanings. This Morphology Vinogradov called "the grammatical doctrine of the word."

Basic concepts of morphology

I. Morphological form of the word.

The linguist Smirnitsky drew attention to the fact that each word represents a unity of lexical and grammatical. Each word is somehow defined in accordance with the grammatical structure of the language. In this sense, every word has a linguistic (grammatical) form. No form, no word. Not all words have a morphological form, but only those words that change.

MFS is such a change in a word that preserves its LZ. Ex: student, student, students. This is all different forms one word, those one lexeme. Because the lexical meaning is one. Forms of one word differ in grammatical content (GZ). In this regard, two terms are used in Morphology: "inflection" and "shaping". The term "shaping" is used both as a synonym for the term "inflection", and more widely, that is, to refer to any morphological forms. In most cases, morphological forms (MF) are combined into one lexeme quite obviously (smart, smart), but there are such changes in words when the identity of LZ (not all scientists agree with this), with a grammatical difference, does not prevent us from considering the forms as different lexemes, and determining the nature of the corresponding form formation turns out to be not an easy task.

Ex: eat - eat; erase - erase. Are these forms of one word or words with different LZ?

Some scholars believe that verbs different kind- This different words and they have different LZ, while others believe that these are forms of one word. This example shows that the boundary between form formation and word formation in the language is not always clearly marked.

The grammatical form is the unity of the PG and the MP of its expressor (GP = GP/MP).

Ex house - houses: house - singular / ð, houses - plural / a

Synthetic and analytical forms

1. Synthetic forms - these are forms that have a synthetic MP in their composition. A synthetic material indicator (SMP) is such an MP that is part of the sound shell of a word. In the Russian language, the main MT is the ending, less often the formative suffix (the suffix of past tense verbs -l-; suffixes of degrees of comparison of adjectives and adverbs). Because the most frequent SMP in the RL is the ending, then the Russian language is called the language of the synthetic type.

The formation of synthetic forms can be accompanied by various concomitant phenomena that take part in the expression of the CG:

a) morphonological alternations in the area of ​​vowels and in the area of ​​consonants. Ex: drive - drive; oven - bake; call - call; finger - fingers.

b) change the place of stress: hand - hands, grass - herbs.

c) accretion, truncation of the stem or change of the suffix in the stem: chair - chair[ j a] – buildup; cox Well– sox - truncation; tel enok– tel yata - suffix names

d) suppletivism, i.e. root names: I - me, go - walked, child - children, man - people. In these pairs, the forms of one word, but formed from different roots.

*Synthetic forms are primarily created by morphemes (ð and Ù)

2. Analytical forms - these are forms in which the material indicator is outside the sound shell of the word. Analytical material indicators (AMP) are auxiliary words that function similarly to morphemes that form synthetic forms. This:

Complex form of the future tense (will laugh);

Complex forms of degrees of comparison of adjectives and adverbs (most Beautiful, more interesting);

Conditional form of the verb (did would) ;

When selecting analytical forms (AF) it should be borne in mind that the analytical expression of a certain GB cannot always be identified with the formation of a morphological form. In order for a combination of elements to receive the status of a morphological form (MF), at least two conditions are necessary, namely:

a) The regularity of the use of a combination to express a given meaning.

b) The service element (auxiliary word) does not have a separate (own) DL.

* Not all linguists refer to analytical forms comparative degree adjective names, because the element "more" in their opinion retains its LZ. The word “more” enters into an antonymic relationship with the word “less” in the PR, ® means it has a LZ. Those who believe that this is still an analytical indicator believe that this is a residual phenomenon and that the word “more” will soon lose its LZ.

II. The concept of morphological paradigm (MPS)

Paradigmatic relations are relations that manifest themselves at all levels of the language.

Morphological paradigm is a set of forms of one word. Ex:: at the noun 12 (6 case forms singular and 6 case forms plural); at adj. 24 case forms (6 zh.r., 6 sr., 6 m.r., 6 pl.). Number of forms in the morphological paradigm different parts speech is different, it can change within the CR.

Why is a system of word forms called a paradigm? The essence of paradigmatic relations is that the elements of a series are united and opposed for the same value. In the lexical paradigm, the elements of a series are united and opposed according to the LZ, and in the morphological paradigm, according to the grammatical meaning.

Morphological paradigms are of two types: general paradigms and particular ones:

a) General paradigms include all morphological forms of the word;

b) Particular paradigms combine forms based on one CG. Ex: paradigm of case or number of nouns.

*How many particular paradigms are in the general paradigm of the verb? Time, number, mood, person, gender ® 5.

CR system RYA

The modern idea of ​​the CR was formed over a very long time, one can say throughout the development of the science of the grammatical structure of the RL. Starting literally from the very first "Grammar" of Lomonosov (this is the first scientific description RY), and ending with AG-70, AG-80, parts of speech were the object of description all the time.

On this moment the nomenclature of the CR is defined, which includes the following names of the CR: nouns, adjectives, numerals, pronouns, adverbs, category of state, verb, participle, participle, modal words, prepositions, conjunctions, particles, copulas, interjections, onomatopoeia. These terms are found in different classifications. However, the number of HR in different works, including different educational literature, is not the same (textbooks - 9, 11, 13). Problem groups: state words, modal words, gerunds and participles (AG-80 - participles and gerunds: verb forms, modern textbooks - separately). This is explained by the fact that the above-mentioned syncretic discharges of lexemes and word forms receive different interpretations with part-of-speech characteristics. Syncretic discharges - combine signs of different CRs (participle - signs of a verb and an adjective). Importance of the adjective: "in cold water cannot be bathed", "he caught her sad(the meaning is distorted if the adjectives are removed).

The idea of ​​PR as classes derived on the basis of a set of features was fixed and became widely accepted after the work of the classic grammarian V.V. Vinogradov (the ability to generalize and classify everything - the work is deep and quite understandable). Based on previous experience and, first of all, on the ideas of Academician Shakhmatov ("Syntax of RL" - looks at the CR from the point of view of syntax), L.V. Shcherby ("About the Chechen Republic in the Republic of Ya"). Relying on these basic works and others allowed Vinogradov to reach A complex approach to the distribution of words in the CR, allowed him to show the need for a comprehensive analysis of the word with its part-of-speech characteristics. The system of PR described by Vinogradov in his book "PR" is taken as the basis for most modern morphological descriptions of the NRS.

At the first stage of the classification of PD, one can distinguish four semantic-grammatical types of words, that is, we base grammatical semantics and grammatical characteristics. This:

1. Independent CRs (significant, meaningful). Specificity:

a) they express concepts

b) they are morphematically designed (they have inflection patterns and morphological methods of formation)

c) they are members of the sentence and form syntactic links

d) they cannot be given by closed lists (number of words that cannot be counted)

2. Service CR (non-self-sustaining, according to Vinogradov, following Shcherba, - particles). Specificity:

a) they do not express concepts. Their meaning is formed on a syntactic basis, and not on the basis of a nominative sign function. Ex: Preposition "C" - with R.p. - conveys the meaning of the spatial relationship (from the mountain) with V.p. - comparative value (a cone the size of a nut), s T.p. - meaning of compatibility, etc. The syntactic functioning of the preposition influences what meaning it will manifest.

b) they do not have morphological forms and are not formed by morphological methods

c) they are not members of a sentence and do not form syntactic links, although they are used like a morpheme as language tool expressions of syntactic relations.

d) function words can be given by closed lists

3. Modal words . According to the signs indicated by letters b, c, d similar to service parts of speech (V.V. Vinogradov noted the proximity of modal words to some modal particles). But they differ from official words by the nature of their personal knowledge. "Modal words determine the point of view of the speaking subject on the relation of speech to reality or on the choice of their functions of individual expressions in the composition of speech. In this regard, a feature of the semantics of most modal words is that they are so-called folded sentences of a modus nature" (Vinogradov). Ex: "in my opinion" = "I think". "I suppose" = "I suppose", "it seems" = "I suppose". The LZ of modal words indicates that a special type of lexical semantics is formed in the RL on the basis of the syntactic function of introductory words. "Modal words lie, as it were, in a different grammatical and subjective-stylistic plane in comparison with all other elements of the utterance" (Vinogradov).

4. Interjections, which adjoin onomatopoeia . They form a special and very specific type of words, located on the periphery of the part-speech system of the language. Reason: interjections, unlike other CRs, are not called, but depicted. Considering their function in the language - a very specific type of words PR, located on the periphery of the part-speech system (because the main function is naming, language is communication). We supplement speech with them. They do not express concepts, they are signs of emotions. Ex: "oh" - fright, amazement, annoyance. There can be diametrically opposite meanings, depending on intonation. ("eh"). Onomatopoeia is not distinguished as CR, it is a specific lexical group words, which is adjacent to interjections, onomatopoeic words imitate, depict sounds. Shchebra, calling interjections "an obscure and vague category," reduced their formal, that is, categorical feature, to complete syntactic isolation, the absence of any connections with preceding and subsequent elements in the flow of speech.

*When defining the boundaries of the fourth semantic-grammatical class of words, it must be borne in mind that Vinogradov uses the term "interjections" broadly, denoting different (peripheral) groups of words, united by the fact that they do not have 1) conceptual semantics and 2) a specific grammatical structure.

** Checkmate is very close to interjections.

***To distinguish between functional homonyms!!

Further breeding of PR is carried out within the identified four types and in each type is carried out on different grounds. As for modal words, interjections and onomatopoeia, they are divided into groups only according to LZ.

* Vinogradov relied on a system of word classes

Composition of independent Czech Republics

Independent words are divided into CR, taking into account their semantics (grammatical - the meaning of CR), morphological forms (+ a system of paradigms), structural and word-formation features (specific ways of word formation of a particular CR), syntactic functions and syntactic links. It is possible to distinguish with varying degrees of validity of the PD, indicated on the diagram of the PD system (the pronoun in AG is considered in the adjective section; adj and number - in AG-3 as countable adj, the problem of assigning pronominal adverbs). There are problems with the volume of concepts (some understand the concept of an adjective already, others - wider). But no one denies the existence of these parts of speech.

In many grammars, following Shcherba and Vinogradov, the category of state stands out as an independent part of speech ("predicative adverbs", "predicatives"; predicate = predicate). At the same time, there is a broad and narrow understanding of this part of speech. In a broad sense - the category of state includes all lexemes that, not being verbs, are used only as a predicate (I'm glad, I must, I must, I can't, I can, etc.). In the second case, in the case of a narrow understanding, the composition of words is limited by the function of the predicate in impersonal offer, moreover, those sentences in which one main member is expressed by the infinitive are also considered impersonal ("You can't be silent", "it's hard to understand", "it's warm outside", "it's sunny outside", "I don't have time"). More adherents have a narrower understanding. The grammatical features of the state category are considered to be the semantics of the state (the semantics of the ineffective (!) state), and the use in the position of the link. With a narrow understanding, the sign of immutability is added to these signs. There are non-verbs in the language that have taken on the function of the verb to be a predicate. But it is still problematic to single out the words of the state category as separate PRs. There are reasons to correlate the concept of predicative (state category) with the syntactic function of non-verbal word forms. These grounds are as follows:

1. There are few predicatives that would not be homonymous with SF of other parts of speech in the language.

2. The position of the connection from the point of view of the CR delimitation does not have a differentiating property. It cannot be replaced by the finite form of the verb and the non-prepositional VP with the meaning of the object. The use with a link does not change the part-speech attribution of the SF, because without a link, a variety of CRs can be used. All nominal PRs as part of a nominal predicate can be used without a link, without it there can be an infinitive. Ex "All Mr. Golyadkin's efforts were to wrap himself (!) in his overcoat as tightly as possible" - "Wrap up" works with a bunch, but remains a verb. "Poems? The devil knows what it is" - "the devil knows what it is" - an interjection with a bunch).

3. The position in the connection does not create conditions for the formation of the state value as a special type of categorical semantics. In general, SF with an indicative value are combined with a bunch; the same SFs with the same indicative meaning can be used both in conjunction and in other syntactic places, that is, with a noun, with a verb (Ex: "It's quiet in the next room" - a phrase, "The wind quietly sways the branches of birches - an adverb). There is essentially no categorical semantics for all independent PDs in the state category (arguably). Many linguists, namely Galkina-Fedoruk, Zolotova, Meshchaninov, Raskopov, note the lexical-semantic heterogeneity of Predicatives, which can denote both a state as such and various kinds of relations, namely, modal, spatial, temporal. Vinogradov, describing different types LZ in the word, noted that the position of the nominal predicate contributes to the development of evaluative semantics in the word (predicative-evaluative type of meaning), which usually does not lead to the formation of homonyms Ex: "A hat is a feast for the eyes" (n). According to the observations of Voinkova and Zolotova, among the words belonging to the category of state, a large array is formed by evaluative units, which are more likely to correspond to short adjectives than adverbs. Evaluative predicatives differ from lexemes with a state value and constructive-syntactic properties. They express appreciation in relation to an action called the infinitive; moreover, often, as Zolotova showed, they cannot be used as an adverbial definition of the same action. Ex: "It's interesting to study", but not "He studied interestingly", "It's a sin to complain, but not "He complained sinfully". "Walking is useful", but not "he was useful to walk". Dividing the categories of state into three groups: 1) words in -o (with the meaning of the state of a person or environment); 2) words with evaluation value 3) words with modal meaning, - And besides, having evaluated the role of each group in the organization of the sentence, Zolotova came to the general conclusion that these groups cannot belong to the same lexico-grammatical class (to one CR).

4. Invariable predicatives that do not have homonyms in other CRs, that is, lexemes that are the formal basis of the state category (it is impossible, it is necessary, it is a pity, it is possible)- they depict not a state, but a modal assessment. The composition of the SF in sentences like "It was a sin not to help" does not mean the loss of their grammatical properties by nouns, since the link here conditionally agrees with the infinitive, which occupies the position of an independent main member. The evaluative meaning of nouns is associated with the obligatory choice of I.p., but this is also observed in other cases of expressing the evaluative-predicative semantics of substantives. Ex: "You're not a hero, but a hat", "Masha was such a crow." L.V. Shcherba, who proposed the term "state category", and for the first time described the words of this group in sufficient detail, was not very sure of the correctness of his opinion: "Maybe we are dealing here with a special category of states."

& Babaitseva introduces the term "categories of state" in the textbook. The non-recognition of the part-verbal status for the state category leads to the need to single out separate lexemes in non-verbs that do not have a main function.

& Analysis of the concept of a part of speech

* It is more difficult to apply to official parts of speech.

**Analysis of textbooks should be in comparison.

*** Any phenomenon of reality, including linguistic, can be assessed from three sides:

Essence, content - GZ

Expression Plan

Functional plan - the functions of a linguistic phenomenon in speech or in some larger unit.

**** In a traditional textbook - point by point, Babaitseva has everything in the text - a separate paragraph.

NOUN

ADJECTIVE

adjective like CR

Yakubinsky said that the closest part of speech to the verb is the adjective, because it, like the verb, is capable of conveying dynamics. You can say "the table was red" and "the table is red", "the table will be red when we paint it." At school - an adjective - for the special expressiveness of our speech. But besides this, the adjective performs another important function - clarifying (a girl in a blouse - in a striped blouse)! The main function of the adjective is to clarify the concept of the subject. The topic is very complex - so there is little literature.

Adjective - nominal part speech.

Partial meaning. The general categorical and grammatical meaning of an adjective as a part of speech is signification. V.V. Vinogradov: "The semantic basis of the adjective is the concept of quality." But in the Russian language, not only the adjective denotes the quality of features - there is a group of feature words (adjectives, participles, ordinal numbers). They all denote some kind of sign and change in the same way. All adjectives, like any indicative word, designate a sign of an object, but differ from other indicative words in that they designate a sign inherent in the nature of the object. In school, this characteristic is called a "permanent feature." Fifth (order number - quantitative ratio between objects, but does not indicate the properties of houses) house. Under construction (participle - denotes non-permanent feature, that is, a sign that appears in an object in certain moment time) house. Vysoki (adjective - denotes a sign that is inherent in an object constantly, that is, inherent in its nature) house. Peshkovsky once wrote that an adjective denotes features inherent in the nature of an object and always preserved by the carrier. And he said that this special characteristic is especially visible in verbal adjectives. A fidgety child (from spinning) - if he gets sick - at this time he will not spin, but this sign is characteristic of his nature, even if he does not show it at the moment. Hot-tempered and so on. There are nuances - a group of words that show qualities to the fullest, but there are words that are on the periphery of the CR. But if you look at how the adjective works in a sentence, they are heterogeneous.

*to distinguish between functional homonyms.

NUMERAL

Formation of the Name of the numeral. Development trends (+ textbook).

LOCAL WORDS.

ADVERB

Adverb like CR

An adverb is an independent PR, which denotes a secondary feature, therefore, this PR does not change and, in the vast majority of cases, performs the syntactic function of a circumstance in a sentence. As an independent CR, it was made in ancient grammar, and the term "adverb" in translation means "with a verb." Primarily it was understood as a verb determiner (in Latin grammar). In the same sense, it was accepted by Roman grammarians, and then passed into European grammarians with the same meaning.

But even the linguist Barsov in the 18th century noted that the etymological meaning of the term adverb does not correspond to the later functions of this category, because in more later times the adverb refers not only to the verb, but also to other PRs (for example, to an adjective - especially a group of power adverbs, less often adverbs refer to nouns - soft-boiled egg).

However, when interpreting the category of adverbs, different researchers proceeded from different grounds. Until the middle of the 19th century, the adverb, on the basis of one feature, namely, paradigmatic immutability, was combined with service CRs into one broad category of particles. Buslaev adhered to this point of view. In the second half of the 19th century, the syntactic criterion (Aksakov, Potebnya, Shakhmatov) prevailed in the views on the dialect. The syntactic point of view on the nature of the adverb in the Russian language was opposed to the morphological one. essence morphological theory- all adverbs were divided into two categories:

Grammatical adverbs with inflection forms

Non-grammatical adverbs without inflection forms

Goes back to the teachings of Fortunatova. Another name is formal.

There have been attempts to define the adverb as a negative category. The essence of this approach: an adverb is every word that is neither a name nor a verb (Kartsepsky).

The adverb is a special, specific CR, this specificity is overshadowed by the fact that the adverb is a CR, which was formed later than other CR. This determines its properties. Definition of V.V. Vinogradova ("Russian language") - "The adverb is grammatical category, under which non-inflected, non-conjugated and non-consistent words are summed up, adjacent to the verb, to the category of state, to nouns, adjectives and their derivatives (for example, the same adverbs) and acting in the syntactic function of a qualitative definition or adverbial relation. Adverbs are morphologically correlated with nouns, adjectives, verbs, pronouns and numerals.

Problems: the scope of the concept of an adverb at the moment it is understood differently - narrowly or broadly. Eat different variants scientists.

1) The problem is whether to consider as part of adverbs pronominal adverbs (somewhere, sometime, sometime, etc.). Even school textbooks convey this information in different ways - some pronominal adverbs are considered as adverbs, others as pronouns.

2) How to treat words of state .

More L.V. Shcherba said that the words of the state are an independent Czech Republic. Where to attribute them - to adverbs or to single them out as a separate CR.

AG-3 considers predicative adverbs (words of state) as part of adverbs. School textbooks also deal with this problem in different ways.

The educational and methodological complex of Babaitseva-Chesnkova in the list of significant CR does not contain such a CR as a word of state. The material on state words is dealt with after adverbs, but with that said, the first phrase in the paragraph on state words "should not be confused with state word adverbs". It turns out that once there is no PR in the list, but this group of words has a special status. The idea of ​​the team of authors: Babaitseva and Chesnokova, publishing the textbook, tried to give us the language as a living, dynamically developing system. And since everything lives and develops in a language, we can assume that the CR system is also alive and is also developing. It turns out that there are PDs that arose long ago and their features do not intersect with the features of other PDs (nouns and verbs). On the basis of these PRs, other PRs arose (adjective, numeral, etc.) and these connections can be established. But these CRs also arose long ago, and even adverbs in this historical perspective can be attributed to CRs that appeared in the language quite a long time ago. And later, PRs arose on the basis of existing ones, in which we can easily see signs of various PRs (participle and gerund) - using their example, it is easy to understand how PRs arise (on the basis of other PRs + something specific, at least a meaning, syntactic function). In Babaitseva, even the paragraphs devoted to participles are called "signs of the verb in participles", "signs of adjectives in participles" - that is, secondaryness is emphasized and on the basis of which they arose.

Today, according to the State Standard, in the school textbook, participles and gerunds (although the issue is problematic in science) are considered as separate CRs. Therefore, the old, traditional textbook in the latest editions says that the sacrament is an independent CR. It turns out: PDs that arose before all ® then PDs that arose on their basis (arising a long time ago, but we still see how they arose) ® logically this chain is completed by the category - state words. They were not included in a separate CR, but in the paragraph itself they are not classified as adverbs. That is, these are CRs that, on the one hand, have already passed more than halfway and there is no turning back, but apparently there are still problems, this is a CR that has not yet been fully formed.

There are other positions. In Babaitseva's textbook (grades 5-8) - in it she introduces the words state into the list of independent CR and characterizes it as an established independent CR.

Conclusion: the problem of the scope of the concept of adverb as a CR.

*see seminar on the words of the state

The adverb as CR means non-procedural sign , that is:

1) a sign of an action or state called a verb (gets old early, writes beautifully)

2) a sign of a state called the word state (it is hot in the south in the street)

3) a sign of a quality called an adjective or participle (too cold, loudly singing nightingale)

4) a sign of a sign called by the adverb (it smells very nice)

5) a sign of participle (friendly goodbye)

6) a sign of an object called a noun (soft-boiled egg)

VERB

“In verbs, our types and inextricably linked combinations of verbs with prepositions give the Russian verb such liveliness and certainty of shade in relation to the mode of action that no language known to us is able to express.”

N.G. Chernyshevsky

Verb classes

The class of verbs are verbs united by the nature of the ratio of variants of stems. For example, thinner t - lose weight wow, more t - pain y, pity t - sorry y, etc. Verbs that have the same ratio of stem endings constitute a class of verbs. The classes of verbs are:

1)Productive classes of verbs are characterized by such a ratio of form-building bases, which is used today in the formation of new verbs.

2)Non-productive verb classes are characterized by such a ratio of stems with which new verbs are not formed.

Productive classes of verbs.

1) the ratio of options for the bases a-ay(read - read, mature - mature, be late - be late)

2) ratio of bases e - her - th(to be able - they will be able, to be in time - they will succeed,

3) ova (eva) - uy(draw - draw, wander - wander, grieve - grieve)

4) well - n(shout - shout, push - push)

5) t" and - t"(feed - feed, love - love

Given the class of the verb, you can determine the conjugation. Verbs from the first to the fourth productive class will belong to the I conjugation. Class 5 verbs will be in the second conjugation. In unproductive verbs with a stressed ending, the conjugation is determined by the ending. Unproductive ones with unstressed endings will have I conjugation, except for 11 exception verbs and their prefixes.

Abstractness in language in general presupposes a broad generalization; verbal categories are very generalized, i.e. they do not reflect real meaning.

Ex. Tell - swim - jump out. All these verbs have different LZs, i.e. they differ from each other in terms of LZs, but they will all be united by specific semantics, in this case, by the meaning of effectiveness.

Ex-2. Thought - would think - think. Verbs are different, each has its own LP, but all verbs, without exception, can take the form of any mood, correlating the action with reality.

Would come I. Verb; denotes an action; answers the question what would you do? II.