Sentences with object pronouns in English. Him or His? Object and possessive pronouns in English. Nominative and object cases of personal pronouns

Accuracy is such a communicative quality of speech, which implies the correspondence of its semantic side (content plan) to the reflected reality and is manifested in the ability to find an adequate verbal expression of the concept.

Accuracy, therefore, includes the ability to: 1) correctly reflect reality and 2) correctly express thoughts and formulate them with the help of words. There are two types of accuracy: subject (actual) and conceptual (speech, communicative).

Subject accuracy is created due to the correspondence of the content of speech to the fragment of reality reflected in it. It is based on the relationship between speech and reality. The main condition object accuracy is knowledge of the subject of speech, without which it is impossible to give correct information about reality. An example of a violation of object accuracy is the statement the Sun revolves around the Earth. True, sometimes it is necessary to talk about the correspondence of thought to reality in a very conditional way. The speaker (writer) does not always convey to the addressee thoughts that reflect actually occurring events (for example, many thoughts expressed in works of art). From a linguistic point of view, it is important that thoughts (adequate or inadequate to the displayed reality) be correctly expressed, arouse in the mind of the addressee an adequate thought - a copy.

In order for speech to be accurate, subject-specific accuracy alone is not enough, it is also necessary that the content correspond to the system of concepts that is indicated in it, that is, conceptual accuracy is needed.

Conceptual accuracy is based on the connection: word-concept and consists in the correspondence of the semantics of the speech components to the content and scope of the concepts they express. It presupposes the ability to accurately designate the idea that has arisen with a word, to find the only correct word.

Conceptual accuracy depends primarily on the ability to choose words correctly and use them in exact meanings, that is, in those meanings that are assigned to them in the literary language system and recorded in special reference literature. This allows us to consider the accuracy of speech as lexical-semantic correctness, i.e., as compliance with the lexical-semantic norms of the literary language. However, accuracy, in contrast to correctness, which is based only on linguistic factors, also relies on extralinguistic factors; it is based on the connection: speech - reality, word - concept. A statement may be correct in terms of design, but not accurate in terms of content. For example, grammatically correct sentence The indivisible atom is inaccurate, since its content does not correspond to reality. Or compare the sentence from A.P. Chekhov's story "The Avenger" in the first and second editions:

Revenge is only sweet when you have the opportunity to see its fruits.

Revenge is only sweet when you have the opportunity to see and feel its fruits.

The replacement of the bookish contemplate (“behold, see someone in close proximity”) with the words see and touch is not dictated by correcting an error, but by striving for greater accuracy of expression.

T.P. Pleshchenko, N.V. Fedotova, R.G. Chechet. Stylistics and culture of speech - Mn., 2001.

1. Subject and nominative accuracy of speech.

2. The problem of lexical compatibility.

3. The problem of speech redundancy.

4. Appropriateness of word usage.

5. Logical errors of word usage.

6. Purity of speech.

As noted, lexical norms are understood as the rules of word usage. Compliance with lexical norms is the most important condition for correct, accurate and expressive speech.

1. In order to achieve the accuracy of speech, it is necessary, first of all, to have a clear idea of ​​the subject of speech itself, as well as knowledge of the meaning of the word used in the modern language. Often, speech errors occur precisely when the speaker or writer cannot adequately express his thought, using words in a sense that is unusual for them. Here are some examples of such errors from student essays: “Pechorin travels to Persia, having found no use for his mind and his resourcefulness (?)”; “He created around himself an area (?) of a well-read person”; “Matryona lives alone in an old hut. Her only cohabitants (?) are a cat, mice and cockroaches”; "Andrei Bolkonsky comes into contact (?) with Kutuzov and becomes his adjutant."

The problem of speech accuracy (subject and conceptual) is closely related to the ability to distinguish between so-called paronyms, i.e. words (most often with the same root) that are similar in sound, but have different meanings and are used in different ways, for example: enter - act, imagine - provide, distant - distant, human - human - humane etc. The indistinguishability of paronyms also leads to annoying and ridiculous mistakes, examples of which, alas, are numerous in the same works of applicants: "Lermontov showed the barrenness (barrenness?) of his hero's activities."; “The harmony of nature gives rise to thoughts about the inviolability of the moral structures (foundations?) of this world.”; “Tatiana is contraindicated (opposed?) to Onegin and Lensky.”; "Pushkin was bound by strong knots (ties?) with the Decembrists."

2. Compliance with lexical norms is impossible without knowledge of lexical compatibility, i.e. the ability of words to connect with each other. The fact is that in speech some words are freely combined with others if they fit them in meaning, while others have limited lexical compatibility. So, very similar definitions - long, lengthy, lengthy, lengthy, lengthy, lengthy- are “attracted” to nouns in different ways: you can say long (long, long) period; long (long) way; long fees; long-term (long-term) credit.

What determines lexical compatibility?

First of all, the semantics of words. If lexical meaning words are incompatible, then their combination is impossible, for example: walk, glass soup, lean against the wind. Although sometimes semantically incompatible words can be combined to create artistic image: let's remember the famous "aluminum pickles" V. Tsoi.

At the same time, it also happens that, according to the meaning of the word, they seem to be suitable for expressing one or another meaning, but they do not form phrases: we say bow your head And kneel, but not vice versa; you can say all year round , but not round hour; It happens deep night, but not deep day; possible deep autumn, but not deep winter etc.

Violation of lexical compatibility is often explained by contamination - an incorrect combination of elements of phrases similar in meaning. For example: give importance(from pay attention And attach importance); improve the level(from improve quality And to increase level); produce into soldiers(from promote to officers And demote to soldier).

3. Unfortunately, in an effort to make their speech expressive, many overload it with superfluous, empty words, i.e. suffer from verbosity. So there is a phenomenon called speech redundancy.

The negative aspects of this phenomenon were very clearly shown by V.G. Kostomarov, who analyzed an excerpt from a popular pamphlet:

"Proper mechanization of our construction is a powerful and effective means and the most important basis for a sharp increase in labor productivity." The phrase seems to be correct, but, the scientist notes, “the author of the brochure did not notice that adjectives ... in his speech only clutter up the sentence ... and distract attention. Indeed, what is the message of correct mechanization? After all, everyone understands that improper mechanization will not work for the future. The assertion of our construction is inaccurate, since mechanization will increase the productivity of labor not only in the given (our) construction, but also in any other construction. It would not be necessary to use two almost equivalent definitions: a powerful tool will always be effective. A stereotyped sharp increase does little to clarify the idea, and, finally, it is simply wrong to talk about the most important foundation, because there are no important and unimportant foundations: to be a foundation means to be the main, main, most important. .

Superfluous, redundant, are definitions in phrases like correct existing mistakes, congratulate on the successes achieved, welcome invited guests, discuss the results of the elections.

The phenomena of speech redundancy also include the so-called pleonasm, or partial coincidence of the meanings of the words that form the phrase. Expressions such as price list, unexpected surprise, come back, main point, anticipate etc., since they do not correspond to the lexical norm.

A tautology is also considered a gross speech error, i.e. unjustified repetition of words with the same root, words that are close in meaning, or even the same word within one sentence or a small fragment of text. Tautology makes speech clumsy, tongue-tied, dissonant. Here are just two examples of tautologies. One is from an essay by an applicant: “The independence of the motherland does not depend on the gender of the person (?) residing on its territory.”; the other - from "business paper": "Point 7 was followed by the following paragraph, which was subsequently deleted."

4. The value and correctness of this or that word, this or that turnover is determined only in connection with other elements of the given text. In other words, speech will correspond to lexical norms only when the principle of relevance is observed. Relevance should be understood as the requirement of such selection. language tools in which speech meets the goals and conditions of communication. Traditionally, contextual, stylistic, and personal-psychological relevance is distinguished. Let's dwell on this in more detail.

A. Contextual relevance is determined by the speech environment. The most characteristic in this sense are 2 types of errors:

- semantic inconsistency of the used word (phrase) with the general meaning of the statement (“Pavel Vlasov devoted his life to beating his wife.”; “What a gorgeous funeral!”; “Our birches are standing in a wedding shroud.)”;

- the use of anachronisms, i.e. words (expressions) that do not correspond to a given historical era (“Chichikov’s cruise around the landowners (?) ends (?) with Plyushkin”; “Liza was a housekeeper in the Famusov’s house”; “Pechorin is a fan of Russian landscapes”).

B. Stylistic (style) relevance is taking into account the methods of selecting vocabulary in accordance with the functional style used - scientific, business, colloquial, etc. The problem of stylistic appropriateness can be illustrated famous example L. Uspensky:

“When two boys at school talk among themselves, only a pedant will find an unacceptable remark:

Did you grab a couple again? Oh you! Either a couple, or a stake ... You cut yourself in the exam, and they put you out of school.

But if you see ... a letter from the director to parents, which says: “Dear comrades! Since your son grabbed a pair again, and in the report card he has either a pair or a stake, he will certainly cut himself on the exam, and I will have to put him out of school, ”you will decide that the director is at least a strange person.

The words are the same here and there, they all appear in our dictionaries, the content of what is said is the same. Everything is correct, but in one case it is customary to say so, and in the other it is not. Stylistically inappropriate." .

C. personal-psychological appropriateness requires to be expressed delicately and tactfully, kindly and respectfully. The so-called taboo words are associated with this aspect, i.e. lexical units, the use of which is prohibited for one or another non-linguistic reasons. In this case, we can talk about the ethical reasons for tabooing certain words. For example, in a conversation about an elderly person, it is tactless and inappropriate to call him an old man. In such situations, we use the so-called euphemisms, i.e. words and phrases that replace taboo: the word old man can be replaced by the expression elderly man.

5. Often, violation of lexical norms occurs as a result of so-called "logical failures".

Speech errors of this kind occur:

a) when comparing disparate concepts. For example: "The speech of Sholokhov's heroes is different from all other heroes (?)" It would be correct to write that speech some are different from speeches others;

b) when substituting concepts, for example: “Hospitable hosts fed us with a varied selection of (?) national dishes” Apparently the owners fed guests with a variety of dishes.

6. A. One of the important qualities correct speech- her purity. In the last two decades, due to fundamental changes in the political, social life country, as well as in the scientific and technical sphere of human activity, a powerful stream of words of foreign origin poured into our language. In this regard, when discussing the purity of speech, one cannot ignore the problem of attitudes towards borrowings.

In our opinion, this relationship should by no means be unambiguous. The fact is that borrowings can be divided into 4 groups that occupy an unequal position in the lexical system of the Russian language: 1) words that are the only names of the designated concepts that have not been recognized as foreign for a long time (school, bed, bath, locksmith); 2) words that are the only names of the designated concepts, but are perceived as foreign (bureau, office, headquarters, session, monitor); 3) names that have native Russian counterparts with their own special shades of meaning (dancing - dancing , problem - question , fantasy - imagination, dispute - dispute);
4) barbarisms - foreign words that have Russian analogues that coincide with them in meaning (goalkeeper - goalkeeper, presentation - performance, exclusive - exceptional, sound producer - sound engineer, summit - meeting at the top). It seems that the “right to exist” as an organic part of the dictionary of the Russian language, of course, have borrowings belonging to the first three groups. But barbarisms are often included in speech unnecessarily. It is alarming that in Lately there were too many of them. However, the Russian language, as a living and powerful organism, is itself capable of absorbing and subordinating to its system the best and really necessary of borrowings. recent years, and the rest, one-day, superficial - to be thrown away as unnecessary ballast. We, its bearers, are obliged to carefully treat the existing lexical norms, selectively and reasonably approach new phenomena and processes taking place in the language.

B. Another aspect of the problem of purity of speech is the role of various kinds of clichés, patterns, and stereotypes in speech. On the one hand, they are necessary and are in our memory as ready-made etiquette formulas expressions of greeting, gratitude, consent and other intentions. The stamp is quite appropriate in official business speech: in the language of documents, expressions are also generally accepted and natural, such as “due to the need for an urgent departure…”; “fight against negative phenomena…”; "for your information …"; "Please accept our sincere apologies..." and so on.

However, unfortunately, even such styles and genres that require expressiveness and individuality of the author's handwriting are “stamped”. In journalism, we often meet erased, faceless turns: "convincing victory", "sharp criticism", "hot support", "bloody coup"... In literary works and school essays we read that the author will certainly "convincingly shows", "talentedly reveals" such a character "vividly portrays" such and such a hero, such and such a social phenomenon; the most frequent stereotypical definitions "bright, exciting"(image), "juicy"(language). A number of similar patterns could be continued. Such a manner of presenting thoughts cannot be considered normative: similar expressions, similar, according to D.E. Rosenthal, for "erased nickels", should have strictly limited use.

In addition, an unconditional taboo for an educated person should be abusive, profanity. In modern conditions, when the notorious freedom of speech has reigned, there is not only no official ban on the use of such words and expressions, but, much worse, even the necessary self-control is often absent. That is why, undoubtedly, persons who have authority in society should not remain indifferent to the facts of outright lack of culture.

Quite characteristic on this occasion is the statement of the former chairman of the Russian television company O. Poptsov in the program "Vesti" on June 15, 1995, when the election campaign related to the election of deputies to the 6th State Duma. From the TV screen, profanity sounded, which the deputies used in the fight against competitors. O. Poptsov, who forbade the appearance on the screen of some fragments from TV debates, commented on his bans as follows: “Swearing is, of course, elements of vocabulary, but not elements of election campaigning. We have abolished political censorship, but moral censorship, nevertheless, no doubt, will be. Censorship will deal with elements of violence, rudeness, hooliganism and outright stupidity.”

In this regard, it is necessary to mention the Criminal Code of the Russian Federation, which contains special articles that provide for punishment for insult, i.e. humiliation of the honor and dignity of another person, expressed in an indecent form, as well as for slander, undermining the reputation of a person (Articles 129 and 130).

What has been said above is closely connected with the question of the purity of speech, the need to comply with the lexical norms of the Russian literary language.

Summarize. The main qualitative indicators of speech built in accordance with existing lexical norms are:

1) its subject and conceptual accuracy;

2) correctness in terms of word compatibility;

3) conciseness (lack of redundancy);

4) relevance;

5) consistency;

6) cleanliness.

However, it is necessary to strive to speak not only correctly, but also beautifully, expressively and convincingly. Only then will your speech evoke a response, create a certain mood, bring you closer to achieving the goal, solving the problem.

A.S. Pushkin, according to estimates, used more than 21 thousand words, Shakespeare - more than 20 thousand words. Modern man - much less - 5-9 thousand words. "The Consolidated Dictionary of Modern Russian Vocabulary" in 2 volumes contains more than 170 thousand words. It is a kind of guide to dictionaries, as it includes 14 dictionaries. This and other dictionaries reflect various aspects of language activity. modern period, language wealth. Use dictionaries: they will help you not only check yourself, but also replenish your vocabulary.

There are explanatory dictionaries, etymological, dictionaries of synonyms, antonyms, homonyms, foreign words, dictionaries of word compatibility, dictionaries of difficulties of the Russian language and many others that record the lexical norms adopted in the modern Russian literary language, as well as variants of these norms.

Questions for self-control:

1. What are lexical norms?

2. What are the requirements for speech in terms of compliance with lexical norms?

3. What is the subject and conceptual accuracy of speech?

4. What is the problem of lexical compatibility?

5. What typical mistakes associated with speech redundancy?

6. What is meant by the appropriateness of word usage?

7. What is the difference between speech and stylistic mistakes violating lexical norms?

8. What are the most important aspects of the problem of speech purity?

9. What dictionaries fix the lexical norms existing in the modern Russian literary language?

MORPHOLOGICAL NORMS (OPTIONS FOR THE USE OF NOUNS, ADJECTIVES AND PRONOUNS FORMS)

1. Norms for the use of nouns ( brief information about a noun, definition of gender, variants of plural forms, variants of case forms).

2. Norms for the use of adjectives (brief information about the adjective, the formation of a short form, the choice of full and short forms, the formation and use of degrees of comparison).

3. Norms for the use of pronouns (brief information about the pronoun, choice of personal form, features of the use of possessive pronouns, pronouns How many And myself).

1. Recall that a noun is a word that has the meaning of objectivity and has the categories of gender, number, case. All nouns can be divided into three semantic-grammatical categories: specific - non-specific, proper - common nouns, animate - inanimate. Concrete can be combined with numerals: quantitative, ordinal, collective, most non-concrete nouns do not have these properties. In terms of defining the norm, these are important concepts, since the presence or absence of variants of grammatical forms in it depends on which of the named categories a word belongs to, which are many in the Russian language. But why? The fact is that the system of Russian inflection is characterized by a variety of forms and amazing flexibility. These qualities are explained by the nature of the language, its prevalence and the state of society. Of course, such a phenomenon cannot but cause difficulties in the use of forms.

Let's comment on the most significant of them.

We begin our analysis with the grammatical difficulties of the gender category. As a rule, this category is stable (3 genders, the division of inanimate nouns is unmotivated, formal). However, language is a living, mobile substance, therefore all linguistic phenomena can change to a greater or lesser extent. This also applies to gender. So, there is a change in the gender of some nouns (forms shoulder strap, rail, sanatorium, banknote, hall, film etc., the feminine gender is supplanted by forms shoulder strap, rail, sanatorium male).

Note that such changes - from feminine to masculine - go in the direction of reducing the code (the number of characters), and this is a very typical manifestation of the law of linguistic economy for a modern language.

At the same time, the existence of parallel forms can be observed: about 100 words “fluctuate” between the feminine and masculine gender (N.S. Valgina): shutter - shutter, aviary - aviary, spasm - spasm, stack - stack, banknote - banknote etc. These options have the same stylistic coloring and scope of use, i.e. they are equal in language.

In some cases, the meaning of the word influences, indicates its generic affiliation, cf .: headset(furniture) - headset(fonts), heat - heat, quarry - quarry, skittle(typographic letter) - pin. Here we rarely make mistakes: usually the linguistic instinct tells us the correct form.

The greatest "foci of difficulties" arise in determining the gender of foreign words in -ь, indeclinable nouns, compound words, abbreviations and foreign geographical names. To make it easier to remember cases that cause difficulties, you can use this table:

Of course, there are words that are not included in the above groups and the definition of the gender of which is often difficult. Remember:

Masculine: boot, sneaker, hearse, corrective ...

Feminine gender: reserved seat, sideburn, slipper, shoe, sandal ...

If you have insufficient language experience, the word rarely occurred in your speech practice, you should refer to the dictionary.

Let's try to identify areas of difficulty in the formation of singular and plural forms. Not all words in Russian are used in two forms. This is usually characteristic of non-specific nouns that convey real, collective, abstract (abstract) meanings.

Yes, only in singular are used:

- real nouns: cottage cheese, pork, garlic, carrots, millet, radishes, iron;

–collective nouns: youth, relatives, poor, mankind, electorate, mosquitoes, foliage;

–abstract nouns: health, fragility, tact and etc.

Known nouns of the same meanings, which can only be used in the plural. Among them: yeast, sawdust, perfume, jungle, finance, quotes, canned food, day, machinations, nonsense, intrigues and etc .

Sometimes, to convey a special meaning, words that are usually used in the singular form may take the plural form. For example, various temperatures, heart murmurs, southern latitudes etc.; Chatsky and Molchalin.

Example: Who and what only do not express regarding the outcome of the championship.

But with many opinions, the outcome in this case can be one. This means that the use of the plural is unjustified.

Another example: He forced us not to skim over surfaces, but to penetrate into the essence of phenomena.

There is a confusion here: slide on the surface(unit) and slide over the top(pl.), leading to ambiguity.

What should be clear about the category of number?

Basically, the "foci of difficulties" in determining the number are associated with nouns, which grammatically constitute a group of non-specific nouns. When using this group of words, more attention is required.

The case is expressed by inflections, or endings . You remember that Russian is an inflectional language. Changing words by cases (in Russian there are 6 cases) is called declension.

The most common mistakes are found in the choice of nominative and genitive forms, both singular and plural. What explains these fluctuations? It is known that there are strong and weak norms: the former are observed by everyone, the existence of the latter is explained by unsustainable use, which, in turn, leads to the emergence of variants. It is this circumstance that often leads to the misuse of certain forms.

In the singular, it is the genitive , expressing quantitative-excretory relations and negation, as well as following after certain prepositions. The following norms are adopted in speech:

1) real nouns: tea - tea - tea;

2) collective nouns: people - people - people;

3) abstract nouns: noise - noise - noise;

4) denial: do not show the view, mind;

5) after prepositions ( from, from, from): without demand - without demand, from the forest - from the forest.

Here it must be emphasized that the form -u / -u has a colloquial connotation, corresponds to the colloquial style, is not colloquial, therefore it is allowed. Some researchers believe that the use of -y / -yu in the forms of abstract nouns indicates the completeness of the action or quality. However, if there is a definition, only the ending -а/-я is allowed.

Compare: How much shine, how much gloss! -

Got a bright shine.

Non-material nouns keep the ending -у/-ю, which has become obligatory, if they are included in sustainable combination, phraseological unit, proverb: give a blunder, no trace, do not give way, eye to eye, without family, with ardor, with heat, not a step back, without a tribe, our regiment arrived, from the world by thread, not knowing the ford, do not poke your head into the water and etc .

There are some peculiarities in the use of prepositional singular forms. This applies to masculine words.

Compare: work at the airport(colloquial-prof. shade),

BUT! meeting at the airport(book character).

So, in this case, the choice of ending is related to the scope of the use of this word.

However, in monosyllabic words indicating the place of action, the ending -у/-ю has become the norm. We are speaking: in hell, on the side, on board, in the eye, in debt, on the forehead, in the closet, on the floor, on the edge etc. If the words have an objective meaning, the ending -e is used: talk about the garden, about duty etc. If there is a definition in masculine nouns, the ending -e can also be used .

Compare: All trees are covered in snow.

BUT! Trees in fluffy snow.(additional)

The norms for the use of plural case forms also have variants, ignorance of which leads to speech errors.

Difficulties in the use of plural forms are associated with the nominative and genitive cases.

So, fluctuations in the forms of the nominative case are observed in masculine nouns.

Compare: locksmiths - locksmiths, sweaters - sweaters,

jumpers - jumpers.

At one time, M.V. Lomonosov cited only three words ending in -avo plural ( sides, eyes, horns- paired items) and a small number of nouns that allow options: take care - coast, bells - bells, islands - islands, snow - snow. Currently, there are about 150 words with variant endings.

The ending -ы / -и is traditionally bookish in nature, -а / -я is colloquial, i.e. is admissible from the point of view of the accepted norm.

But there are cases where options are not allowed. Let's consider them.

The ending -s is used in foreign words on - thor, er, er:

inspectors, chauffeurs, make-up artists, engineers, officers, spotlights, editors, instructors, rectors and etc.

But! director, professor, doctor.

The ending -a is accepted in the following groups of words:

1) monosyllabic words: eye - eyes, house - houses, volume - volumes

2) in words with stress on the first syllable: city ​​- cities, addresses - addresses.

But! cuffs, sleeves.

Sometimes the choice of plural ending is related to different meaning words.

Compare: images - images, orders - orders,

conductor - conductors, belts - belts,

tones - tones and etc.

No less complex are the vibrations that exist in the genitive case for both masculine nouns and nouns that do not have a singular form.

It is known that the endings -ov / -ev / -ey are common grammatical norm for the genitive masculine: students, directors, brothers, teachers
etc.

However, in the formation of this form, there may also be null ending for some masculine nouns that denote:

1) paired items: a pair of boots, stockings, boots, epaulettes, BUT! socks

2) nationality or territorial affiliation, often based on - in, -yn, -en, -an, -yan: (a lot of) Georgians, Armenians, Romanians, Turkmens, Southerners, Ossetians, Lezgins, Gypsies, townspeople; Buryats, Bulgarians, Turks, BUT! Mongols, Tajiks, Uzbeks, Yakuts, Kalmyks, Bushmen;

3) units of measurement: ampere, watt, kilowatt, microroentgen, bit, byte; BUT! grams, microns;

4) military groups: soldier, hussar, partisan; BUT! Miners, sappers;

5) names of fruits, vegetables: eggplant - the form is possible, but is colloquial, often regarded as an element of vernacular.

It's usually said: oranges, tomatoes, tangerines.

Also, the literary norm is unstable in the genitive case of nouns, which are used only in the plural form.

As we have already found out, the endings -ov are the norm: alimony, canned food, finances, frosts;-to her - weekdays, manger, harp; - ev - rags.

Meanwhile, in Russian there are nouns that are used only in the plural, in which the zero ending in the genitive case is considered the norm: holidays, splashes, pantaloons, days, harem pants, pasta, hassle, name day, attacks, darkness, twilight etc.

There are some features in the formation of forms of the instrumental case of feminine nouns.

How to say correctly: doors or doors, daughters or daughters? Answer: There are two options. In the 18th and early 19th centuries, there was a form in -mi. However, since the middle of the 19th century, this form has gradually disappeared. We are speaking room with carved doors. But phraseological turns retain the same ending: lie down with bones, punishment with whips.

If we summarize everything that has been said about the use of case forms, we can see that fluctuations in norms are limited. It must be remembered that more attention is required when using masculine and common nouns in the singular in the genitive and prepositional cases, and in the plural in the nominative and genitive cases. These are the areas where errors most often occur.

2. Adjectives include words that designate attributes of an object and have gender, number, and case forms that depend on the noun.

All adjectives are divided into 3 categories: adjectives qualitative, relative, possessive.

Quality adjectives signify ( good mood), have the property of making antonymic pairs: good bad, form phrases with adverbs of measure and degree: very interesting. And finally, the property that distinguishes them from other categories is the ability to form degrees of comparison and the presence of a full and short form: good - better, the best, good, good, good.

Recall that relative adjectives name a feature indirectly, through relation to the material: wood House House wood, those. indicates a sign that is permanent, unchanging. This explains the absence of antonymic pairs in them and comparative degree.

In turn, possessive adjectives indicate belonging to a person or animal: mother's present, fox a cap. They are often included in phraseological units, geographical names or terminological formations: Achilles heel, Magellan strait, cesarean section.

Of course, in the adjective, the changing part of speech, there are zones of a weakened norm. They are associated with the use of forms of short adjectives and comparative degree. This means that fluctuations in forms concern only qualitative adjectives.

How to say correctly: ignorant or ignorant? In different dictionaries, one or two forms are indicated. Apparently, the fact is that in the modern Russian literary language there are two parallel similar forms: passive communion and adjective.

There is a rule: if full form two adjectives are written n, then the short masculine form should be -nen. In our case, the word ignorant corresponds to the norm. Although colloquial style allows fluctuations. Moreover, there is currently a high frequency of the suffix -en.Immoral(en), responsible(en), mediocre(en). But! impeccable, meaningless, frivolous, ambiguous. This is the first feature of the use of forms of adjectives.

The second feature is related to the meaning of the statement. As you know, adjectives in sentences can play not only the role of definitions, but also be predicates.

Compare: I am hungry. I'm hungry.

In the first case, this constant feature, and in the second - there is an indication that the feature is characteristic only at the moment.

In addition, there are speech situations requiring only the short form. Let's list them.

1. The proposal has the character of a judgment:

Life is short, but art is eternal.

2. Expression of concession:

No matter how bright the light of the stars, let it not be compared with the sun in the sky.

3. Imperative: Please.

4. Emotional state: How good!

5. Expression of comparative characteristics:

Who is as sensitive and cheerful and sharp as Alexander Andreevich Chatsky!

6. Expression of negation:

The brothers are completely different from each other.

The third feature of the norms of adjectives is associated with the use of comparative forms. Compare: smarter - smarter, dumber - dumber.

In speech, both forms are used, only the first is stylistically neutral, and the second is colloquial.

What is a violation in the use of forms of adjectives? A gross violation is a mixture of simple and complex forms of comparative degree.

Compare: the most (more, less) lowest, lower,

more below, below everything.

• the exact choice of a word (or phrase structure) from a number of synonyms;
• exact, excluding ambiguity, choice of the meaning of a polysemantic word;
• ambiguous choice of homonym;
• a clear distinction between paronyms.

• Chichikov bought land in order to breed peasants on them (not to mention other things, “breeding” cannot be said about people);
• on the Borodino field in the Russian army there was such a spirit that the enemy could not resist (the meanings of the word spirit are not distinguished - internal state, moral strength and spirit - smell);

1. Violation of the order of words in a sentence. In Russian, unlike others, there is no strictly fixed place for one or another member of the sentence. It is determined by the semantic load, stylistic and syntactic functions, the structure and type of the sentence, etc. The rearrangement of words leads to semantic and stylistic shifts, creates additional semantic-stylistic shades, and changes the expressive functions of the members of the sentence. A stylistically unmotivated word order leads to a distortion of the meaning of the statement, ambiguity, and prevents adequate and quick perception of the text. For example, Fallen leaves from trees rustled underfoot; A woman is looking for a job with a Moscow residence permit.
2. "Stringing cases". In speech, there are constructions that include several identical case forms that depend sequentially on one another or on the same word. An example of such an "unsuccessful" proposal is given in the book "Interestingly about the Russian language": A textbook for the uncle of the wife of a colleague of my daughter's neighbor. Is it easy to find the owner of the textbook in this confusing construction?
3. Cluttering the sentence with clauses, participles and other isolated constructions: It seemed to her that time was moving so slowly that evening would never come and that she would never know what he wanted to tell her.

Accuracy

The accuracy of speech is the communicative quality of speech, consisting in accordance with its semantic side of the reflected reality and communicative intent speaker. The accuracy of speech depends on the correctness of word usage, the ability to choose the necessary synonym, accounting ambiguity And homonymy, right combination words. Accuracy as a sign of speech culture is determined by the ability to think clearly and clearly, knowledge of the subject of speech and the laws of the Russian language. The accuracy of speech is most often associated with the accuracy of word usage, correct use polysemantic words, synonyms, antonyms, homonyms.

Causes of violation of the accuracy of speech: syntactic homonymy unnoticed by the speaker, the use of long grammatical constructions of the same type, violation word order in a sentence, cluttering up a sentence separate turnovers And insert structures, speech redundancy and insufficiency.

The accuracy of speech is achieved on the basis of clear ideas about the meanings of words, the ability to accurately use synonyms, to distinguish contexts the use of a multi-valued word.

Meaning of the word,

Its ambiguity

Matching with other words

Emotionally expressive coloring,

stylistic feature,

scope of use,

Grammar structure, feature of affixes.

Failure to comply with the basic criteria for the selection of lexical means leads to errors in word usage. The most typical of them are the following: the use of words in an unusual meaning; polysemy not eliminated by the context, generating ambiguity; pleonasms and tautology; displacement of paronyms; errors in the stylistic evaluation of words; errors associated with the compatibility of words; the use of satellite words, words in a universal sense, etc.

Let's consider several situations.

The student, standing at the blackboard, makes excuses: “I know this, but I can’t say it.”

Some will say: "This can be." However, the answerer at the blackboard only seems to know. In reality, his information about the subject is fragmentary, unsystematic, and superficial. Probably, when he read a textbook, listened to a teacher at a lesson, he did not get into the essence of the issue, did not understand the logic of the subject, did not comprehend what its specificity is, what are the distinguishing features. In this case, some fragmentary information remains in the memory, a vague idea, and it seems that you know, but you just cannot say.

Others judge differently: “No! This cannot be. If a person understands the issue, has studied the subject well, then he will be able to talk about it. This is correct. In order for speech to be accurate, it is necessary to constantly expand your horizons, strive to become an erudite person.

Next situation.

People's Artist Arkady Raikin created on stage a parody image of Fedya the propagandist, whose speech is devoid of elementary logic:

“The new chief is twenty-four years old, he is forty-second year of birth, the old one is also twenty-four, but he is thirty-sixth year of birth ... In the sponsored collective farm, two of ours reaped the best fruits: they loaded manure. One engineer took the veil as a monk and goes to work like this... People need to be taken to museums and shown by the example of a primitive man how far we have come off... I turn to sports.

The violation of logic in the speaker's speech is obvious.

But here is an example from the speech of a professional lecturer who, teaching lecturing skills, said:

1. Impeccable knowledge of Russian grammar.

2. Knowledge of literature about oratory, about the culture of speech.

3. Ownership orthoepic norms, i.e. a clear pronunciation of every sound, every word, every phrase, correct setting stress, impeccable pronunciation of sounds and so on.

4. Skillful use of language visual means.

What is the violation of logic here? To what/to whom can the demands that the lecturer speaks about be made? Only to the lecturer himself, and not to his speech, since speech cannot “perfectly know grammar”, “know the literature on oratory”, “own orthoepic norms”, “be able to use expressive means”.

The logic is not broken if you say:

“The requirements for a lecturer's speech can be briefly summarized as follows:

1) it must be literate, comply with the norms of the literary language;

2) figurative, expressive;

3) informative;

4) causing interest.

Violation of the logical sequence, lack of logic in the presentation leads to inaccurate speech.

Third situation.

Friends conversation:

Borrow me two hundred roubles.

I don't know who.

I ask you to take me!

I understand that you are asking me. But tell me who?

Why do the facilitators of the dialogue not understand each other? One of them does not know the culture of speech, makes a mistake. It should have said: “Lend me a loan” or “Lend me a loan”, “Lend”, because the verb borrow means “to borrow”, not “to lend”. Thus, the accuracy of speech is due to the accuracy of word usage.

Right

The correctness of speech is the observance of the current norms of the Russian literary language. The correctness of speech is the quality of speech, consisting in the correspondence of its sound (spelling), lexical and grammatical structure to the literary norms accepted in the language. Correctness is basic quality speech, providing speech with other, more complex qualities, such as expressiveness, richness, logicality.

The correctness of speech is achieved through knowledge of the norms of the literary language and their careful application in the construction of speech.

Appropriateness of speech

The relevance of speech is a strict correspondence of the structure and stylistic features of speech to the conditions and tasks of communication, the content of the information expressed, the chosen genre and style of presentation, and the individual characteristics of the author and addressee. The relevance of speech implies the ability to use the stylistic resources of the language in accordance with the situation of communication. Allocate appropriateness stylistic, contextual, situational and personal-psychological.

The relevance of speech is ensured by a correct understanding of the situation and knowledge of the stylistic features of words and stable turns of speech.

Purity of speech

The purity of speech is the absence of superfluous words, weed words, non-literary words (slang, dialect, obscene words) in it.

The purity of speech is achieved on the basis of a person's knowledge of the stylistic characteristics of the words used, the thoughtfulness of speech and the ability to avoid verbosity, repetition and weed words (meaning, so to speak, so, in fact, as it were, type).

Logic of speech

The logic of speech is the logical correlation of statements with each other.

Logic is achieved through careful attention to the whole text, the coherence of thoughts and a clear compositional intent of the text. Logical errors can be eliminated by reading the finished written text, in oral speech it is necessary to remember well what has been said and to develop the idea consistently.