Russian zoologists. Biography of Nikolai Drozdov: famous Russian zoologist

ABSTRACT ON ZOOLOGY ON THE TOPIC:

"Outstanding Scientists"

Novosibirsk city

1. Krasheninnikov Stepan Petrovich (1713-1755)

2. Pallas Peter Simon (1741–1811)

3. Roulier Karl (1814-1858)

4. Przhevalsky Nikolai Mikhailovich (1839–1888)

5. Kovalevsky Alexander Onufrievich (1840–1901)

6. Kovalevsky Vladimir Onufrievich (1842–1883)

7. Menzbir Mikhail Alexandrovich (1855–1935)

8. Severtsov Alexey Nikolaevich (1866–1936)

9. Sushkin Petr Petrovich (1868-1928)

10. Ognev Sergei Ivanovich (1886-1951)

11. Zenkevich Lev Alexandrovich (1889-1970)

12. Serebrovsky Alexander Sergeevich (1892–1933)

13. Geptner Vladimir Georgievich (1901–1975)

Krasheninnikov Stepan Petrovich

Stepan Petrovich Krasheninnikov (10/18/1713-02/12/1755) - the first Russian academic geographer, participant in the Second Kamchatka Expedition, explorer of the Kamchatka Peninsula.

Born in Moscow in the family of a soldier. In 1724–1732 he studied at the Slavic-Greek-Latin Academy (Moscow), then in the philosophy class of the Academy of Sciences and Arts (St. Petersburg). In 1733, he was enrolled as a “student student” in the Academic detachment of the Second Kamchatka Expedition and went to Okhotsk. Here he conducted hydrometeorological research, studied ichthyology, and compiled a dictionary of the “Lamut language”. On October 4, 1737, on the ship "Fortuna" he left Okhotsk for Kamchatka, where he was engaged in research for 4 years, making many expeditions around the peninsula. Over the course of four years, he crossed the peninsula in different directions: he walked, rode sledges, rafted down rivers, and climbed mountains. He conducted comprehensive research as a geologist and geographer, as a botanist and zoologist, as a historian and ethnographer, meteorologist and linguist. Krasheninnikov conducted a comprehensive study of Kamchatka in the field of natural sciences (geography, geology, seismology, volcanology), was the first Russian to study tsunamis, made meteorological observations, paid a lot of attention to the ethnography of local peoples (Itelmens, Koryaks, Ainu), compiled aboriginal dictionaries, collected folklore of the inhabitants of Kamchatka . In Nizhne-Kamchatsk, Verkhne-Kamchatsk, Bolsheretsk according to archives and inquiries local residents restored the history of the region. Studied the flora and fauna of Kamchatka, and the ichthyology of rivers and adjacent sea ​​waters. In February 1743, with his young wife Stepanida Tsibulskaya (from Yakutsk), he returned to St. Petersburg. Since 1748, he was the rector of the academic university and its gymnasium. Based on the collected material, he wrote the books “Description of the Kamchatka People”, “On the Conquest of the Kamchatka Land” (1751), and the major work “Description of the Land of Kamchatka” (1756) with the appendix of two maps. This was the first thorough work about Kamchatka. In 1745, Krasheninnikov was elected an adjunct of the Academy of Sciences, and in 1750 he was appointed professor (academician) of natural history and botany. In 1751, he completed his book “Description of the Land of Kamchatka,” but the author never managed to see it published. On February 25, 1755, Krasheninnikov died, and his book was published in 1756.

His work was the first in Russian and world scientific literature a study of Kamchatka, dedicated to its geography, natural history, description of the life and languages ​​of local peoples. "Description of the Land of Kamchatka", which has not lost its scientific value for more than 200 years, is an example of a comprehensive regional geographical description of a little-explored territory, an example of Russian literary language that time. S.P. died Krasheninnikov in St. Petersburg. In 1989, his name was given to Kamchatka regional library. 10 were named after Krasheninnikov geographical objects, including in Kamchatka - peninsula, bay, mountain, island; on Karaginsky Island there is a cape, on Paramushir Island there is a bay, a cape, near it there is an underwater valley; on Novaya Zemlya - a peninsula and a cape, in Antarctica - a mountain.

Pallas Peter Simon

In 1767, the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences elected Pallas as a full member. Despite his incomplete 27 years, Pallas already had behind him the reputation of a brilliant biologist, paving new paths in the taxonomy of animals. He gave more than 40 years of his scientific life to his new homeland.

Pallas's first big undertaking was an expedition to Eastern Russia and Siberia. From 1768–1774 scientist researched central Russia, areas of the Lower Volga region, Caspian lowland, Middle and Southern Urals, crossed Siberia, visited Lake Baikal, Transbaikalia, and Altai.

Pallas endured the hardships of the journey with great difficulty. He suffered from dysentery several times, suffered from chronic colitis, rheumatism, and his eyes were constantly inflamed. The 33-year-old scientist returned to St. Petersburg completely exhausted and gray-haired.

Thanks to Pallas, zoology was enriched with new research techniques related to ecology and ethology.

Over six expedition years collected unique material in zoology, botany, paleontology, geology, physical geography, economics, history, ethnography, culture and life of the peoples of Russia.

Peter Simon proposed the construction diagram Ural mountains, in 1777 he first compiled a topographical map of Siberia. The scientist presented the collected material about the flora and fauna of these territories in the work “Travel to Various Provinces of the Russian Empire.”

Pallas described more than 250 species of animals that lived on the territory of Russia, additionally reporting on the distribution, seasonal and geographic variability, migrations, nutrition, and behavior of the animals he described. Pallas often expressed ideas about the physical and geographical factors of their settlement, so he can be considered one of the founders of zoogeography.

In the 1780s, he worked hard to prepare a general compendium of plants in Russia. Due to lack of funds, it was possible to publish only two editions of this extensive work “Flora of Russia”, 1784 and 1788, containing descriptions of about 300 plant species and amazing illustrations.

At the same time, Pallas published articles on geography, paleontology, ethnography, and a two-volume work on the history of the Mongolian people was published. On behalf of Catherine II, Pallas published a comparative dictionary of all languages ​​and dialects of Russia.

In 1793-1794 Pallas undertook his second big Adventure, this time in the southern provinces of Russia. He explored Crimea. The collections collected during this trip formed the basis of the collections of the Academic Kunstkamera, and some of them ended up at the University of Berlin.

Pallas's works provide detailed information about climate, rivers, soils, flora and fauna Crimean peninsula, contains descriptions of many historical places (Mangup, Ai-Todora, Ayu-Dag, Sudak, etc.). The scientist was the initiator of the Nikitsky laying botanical garden, vineyards and gardens in the Sudak and Solnechnaya valleys, founded the Salgirka park in Simferopol. In honor of the geographer, one of the species of Crimean pine was named Pallas pine.

In 1797, Pallas’s work “List of Wild Plants of the Crimea” was published. The author was the first to brilliantly describe the vegetation cover of the Crimean Peninsula and compiled an exhaustive list of 969 species of wild plants for that time.

The scientist was the initiator of the foundation of the Nikitsky Botanical Garden, vineyards and gardens in the Sudak and Solnechnaya valleys, and founded the Salgirku park in Simferopol. In honor of the geographer, one of the species of Crimean pine was named Pallas pine.

In 1797, Pallas’s work “List of Wild Plants of the Crimea” was published. The author was the first to brilliantly describe the vegetation cover of the Crimean Peninsula and compiled an exhaustive list of 969 species of wild plants for that time. In 1810 he returned to Berlin, where he died on September 8, 1811.

Roulier Karl

Roulier Karl (1814-1858) - Russian zoologist and doctor of medicine - born April 8 (20), 1814 in Nizhny Novgorod, Russian Empire.

In 1829, Roulier entered the Moscow branch of the Medical-Surgical Academy, from which he graduated on August 18, 1833 with a silver medal and received the title of physician. On August 6, 1836, he was approved as a tutor (assistant) under G.I. Fischer von Waldheim. I worked with Fischer Roulier for one year. In September 1837, Fisher retired, and the department of natural history passed to Professor I.O. Shikhovsky, and Roulier was appointed associate professor. By this time he had already received his doctorate in medicine. It was awarded to him for his dissertation on bleeding in general and hemorrhoidal bleeding in particular.

On March 5, 1838, the Council of the Academy assigned Roulier to independently teach a course in zoology and mineralogy. At the same time, he was entrusted with the management of the zoological and mineralogical rooms of the Academy, the exhibits of which Roulier widely used for demonstration at his lectures. Even before this - on July 13, 1837 - Roulier was appointed curator of the Museum of Natural History of Moscow University. On November 18, 1837, he was elected a full member of the Moscow Society of Natural Scientists. On September 20, 1838, Roulier was elected second secretary of this society. On July 13, 1840, in connection with the move of I.O. Shikhovsky to St. Petersburg Roulier was elected first secretary of the Moscow Society of Natural Scientists and remained there until 1851.

At the same time, Roulier began extensive work on studying the history of zoology in Russia. Roulier's work did not see the light of day, but with the help of processing a huge amount of factual zoological material, Roulier was able to quickly understand the main directions of contemporary zoological science and understand the prospects for its development.

On February 28, 1840, the Council of Moscow University invited Roulier to occupy the department of zoology vacated after the death of Professor A.L. Lovetsky. In 1842 he was elected extraordinary, and in 1850 ordinary professor.

In the article we will talk about Russian biologists. We will consider the most significant names discoverers, and also get acquainted with their achievements. From the article you will learn about those Russian biologists who really made a significant contribution to the development of this science. Anyone who is interested in animals and flora, I simply must know the names that we will name below.

Ivan Pavlov

In Soviet times, this scientist did not even need to be introduced. However, in modern world Not every person can say exactly who Ivan Petrovich Pavlov is anymore. The man was born in 1849. His most significant achievement is the creation of a doctrine of the activities of higher nervous system. He also wrote many books on the peculiarities of blood circulation and digestion. This is the first Russian scientist who received Nobel Prize for achievements in the study of the mechanisms of digestion.

Experiments on dogs

Ivan Pavlov is a Russian biologist who is famous for conducting experiments on dogs. There are many jokes and cartoons related to this in our country. Moreover, when it comes to instincts, everyone immediately remembers Pavlov’s dog. The scientist began conducting experiments in 1890. He managed to develop conditioned reflexes in animals. For example, he ensured that dogs secreted gastric juice after they heard the sound of a bell, and this bell was always preceded by a meal. The peculiarity of this scientist’s method is that he saw the relationship between mental and physiological processes. Multiple subsequent studies confirmed its presence.

He published his first work in 1923. In 1926 he began research in the field of genetics. For several years he worked in psychiatric clinics. Ivan Pavlov's discoveries helped to learn a lot about mental illness, as well as possible methods their treatment. Thanks to the support of the USSR government, Pavlov had enough resources to carry out all his experiments, which allowed him to achieve other outstanding results.

Ilya Mechnikov

We continue the list of Russian biologists famous name I. I. Mechnikova. This is a famous microbiologist who received the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1908. Born in Kharkov in 1845. He studied in the same city. He studied embryology in Italy and defended his doctoral dissertation in 1868. In 1886, together with other scientists, he created a bacteriological station, which at that time was the first in Russia.

He wrote his first books on the topic of zoology and evolutionary embryology. He is the author of the phagocytella theory. He discovered the phenomenon of phagocytosis and developed a theory of comparative pathology of inflammation. He wrote a huge number of works on bacteriology. He conducted experiments on himself, and thus proved that the causative agent of Asian cholera is Vibrio cholerae. Died 1916 in Paris.

Alexander Kovalevsky

We will continue the list of famous Russian biologists with the sensational name of Alexander Kovalevsky. This is a great scientist who was a zoologist. Worked at the Imperial Academy of Sciences. Born in 1842. At first he studied at home, and then entered the corps of railway engineers. After that, he graduated from St. Petersburg University in the department of natural sciences. Defended his master's and doctoral dissertations.

In 1868 he was already a professor of zoology and worked at Kazan University. He spent three years in Algeria and the Red Sea, where he carried out his research. Most of them are devoted to invertebrate embryology. In the 1860s, he conducted research that led to the discovery of germ layers in organisms.

Nikolay Vavilov

It is simply impossible to imagine a list of great Russian biologists without the name Nikolai Vavilov. This man created the doctrine of plant immunity. He also discovered the law on hereditary changes in the body and homologous series. Made a significant contribution to the development of the study of biological species, created a huge collection of seeds various plants. By the way, it is recognized as the largest in the world.

The future scientist was born in Moscow in 1887 in the family of a merchant. He came from peasant background. For some time he worked as director of his father’s company, which dealt with invoices. Vavilov’s mother was from the artist’s family. In total, there were 7 children in the family, but three of them died at an early age.

Training and achievements

Nikolai Vavilov studied at a commercial school and later entered the Moscow Agricultural Institute, from which he graduated in 1911. After that, he began working at the department of private agriculture. From 1917 he lectured at Saratov University, and 4 years later he was already working in Petrograd. Thanks to his research, he described almost all the plants of the Trans-Volga and Volga regions.

The scientist devoted more than 20 years to the expedition, which he conducted in the Mediterranean and Central Asia. I remembered my trip to Afghanistan in 1924 for a long time. All collected materials helped Vavilov determine not only the origin, but also the distribution of plants. His contribution is simply invaluable, because he greatly simplified the further work of breeders and botanists. It seems incredible, but Nikolai managed to collect more than 300 thousand different samples.

In 1926 he received a prize for his work devoted to the study of immunity, the origin of plants, and the discovery of the law of homological series. Nikolai Vavilov is the owner of a huge number of awards and several medals.

However, there is also a dark spot in his biography. A lot of party ideologists were opposed to the scientist because of scientific activity his student T. Lysenko. The opposition campaign was directed against the scientist's research in the field of genetics. In 1940, Vavilov had to complete all scientific work. Moreover, he was accused of sabotage, and he was even arrested. A difficult fate befell this great scientist in his last years. He died in prison from starvation in the foreign city of Saratov in 1943.

Rehabilitation

The investigation lasted more than 10 months, during which the scientist was summoned for questioning more than 400 times. After his death, this great Russian scientist was even denied a separate grave; as a result, he was buried with other prisoners. Only in 1955 was he rehabilitated. All charges regarding his activities were dropped.

Alexander Vereshchak

We have already talked about Russian biologists who received the Nobel Prize, but this does not mean that we should forget about other researchers, because their contribution is also significant. Alexander Vereshchak is a Russian oceanologist, Doctor of Biological Sciences, professor and corresponding member of the Russian Academy of Sciences.

Studied at Moscow State University at the Faculty of Biology. In 1990 he became a Doctor of Science. Since 2007, he headed the laboratory, which belonged to the Institute of Oceanology. This is how we smoothly moved on to considering Russian biologists of the 21st century. The scientist wrote more than 100 scientific works. His main achievements are related to how modern methods of analysis can be applied in the field of geoecology and oceanology.

Conducted more than 20 dives and 200 expeditions. He is the creator of a model of a hydrothermal system. Developed the concept of an ecosystem inhabited by special fauna. Together with collaborators from other countries, he created a methodology that allows one to determine the role of marine nano- and microbiota. Discovered and described more than 50 species of crustaceans.

Gennady Rosenberg

He was born in 1949 in Ufa. In his name we also continue to consider the list of Russian biologists of the 21st century. He planned to become an engineer, but soon headed a laboratory at the Institute of Biology. In 1987 he moved to Tolyatti. He is the creator of a method for analyzing the structure and dynamics of ecosystems. Created his own system of ecology of large regions for analytical purposes.

Yuri Ilyin

The future scientist was born in the winter of 1941 in Asbest. Renowned molecular biologist. He was a specialist in molecular genetics and biology. Conducted a study in 1976 mobile genes. It is extremely difficult to overestimate its importance, since it significantly advanced all of science. Studied mobile elements of eukaryotes. He is the creator of the theory about the role of mobile genes in carcinogenesis, evolution and mutagenesis.

Zinaida Donets

Other names

It is worth noting that Russian biologists and their discoveries were not always appreciated. There are many researchers who are known only to those who also connected their lives with this science. For example, it is worth mentioning the name of Nikolai Koltsov, a Russian biologist who is considered the founder of experimental biology. He was the first to create a hypothesis about molecular structure chromosomes and their matrix reproduction. The discovery was made in 1928. Thus, this outstanding scientist anticipated all the basic principles modern biology and genetics.

It is impossible not to mention the Russian naturalist Kliment Timiryazev. He was born in 1843. He is the discoverer of the laws of photosynthesis. He discovered and substantiated the process of the influence of light on the formation of organic substances in the layers of a plant.

Sergei Chetverikov is a talented Soviet geneticist, who is rightfully considered one of the founders of population and evolutionary genetics. This is one of the first researchers who found a relationship between the patterns of selection of individuals in a population and the speed of dynamics in evolutionary processes.

Alexander Tikhomirov is a Russian scientist who discovered artificial parthenogenesis. But this phenomenon is considered the most important section of the doctrine of the individual development of a living being. He made a great contribution to the development of sericulture in our country.

So we briefly reviewed information about Russian biologists and their discoveries. However, I would also like to mention a few names that very few people know about.

It is worth mentioning Ivan Gmelin, a participant in the Great Northern Expedition and a naturalist. The scientist is an academic researcher of Siberia, ethnographer and botanist. Described more than 500 plant species of Siberia. I covered more than 34,000 km there. He wrote a voluminous work on the flora of the region.

Nikolai Turchaninov is the first scientist who described the fauna of Transbaikalia and the Baikal region. He collected a huge private herbarium. He described more than 2000 plant species from all over the world. He is the most significant researcher of Asian flora.

It is also worth mentioning the name of Andrei Famintsyn, who is the discoverer of the semiotic nature of lichens. He also discovered the symbiosis of algae and radiolarians. Globally researched artificial lighting for plants.

This is where we will complete our consideration of the biographies of Russian biologists and their discoveries (briefly). We have mentioned all the most significant names, without which it is simply impossible to imagine Russian biology. However, despite this, there are still many scientists whose contribution to the development of this science is simply invaluable. Russian biologists are worthy of attention, because they literally created the basic principles modern science and actually laid the first foundations.

Every person should know these names, if only because biology is the science of life itself. Summing up the article, I would like to once again express my respect to Russian biologists, thanks to whom we have the opportunity to study holistic, complex science. Remember that you can and should be proud of these names. Of course, the contributions of scientists from all over the world are important, but we must know and respect our own heroes.

Russian biologists have made a great contribution to world science. In this article we will talk about the main names that every person interested in the animal and plant world should know. Russian biologists, whose biographies and achievements you will become acquainted with, inspire the younger generation to study this interesting science.

Ivan Petrovich Pavlov

This man in Soviet time needed no introduction. However, now not everyone can say that Ivan Petrovich Pavlov (life - 1849-1936) created the doctrine of higher nervous activity. In addition, he wrote a number of works on the physiology of digestion and blood circulation. He was the first Russian scientist to receive the Nobel Prize for his achievements in the field of digestive mechanisms.

Experiments on dogs

Many people remember his experiments on dogs. Countless cartoons and jokes have been created on this topic both in our country and abroad. Every time they talk about instincts, they remember Pavlov’s dog.

Pavlov Ivan Petrovich already in 1890 began conducting experiments on these animals. He used surgical techniques to bring out the ends of the dogs' esophagus. When the animal began to eat, food did not enter the stomach, but gastric juice was still released from the created fistula.

Alexander Leonidovich Vereshchaka

Modern Russian biologists show great promise. In particular, A.L. Vereshchak, who owns many achievements. He was born in Khimki on July 16, 1965. Vereshchaka is a Russian oceanologist, professor, Doctor of Biological Sciences, and corresponding member of the Russian Academy of Sciences.

In 1987, he completed his studies at Moscow State University, Faculty of Biology. In 1990, the scientist became a doctor, in 1999 - a professor at MIIGAIK, and since 2007 he has headed a laboratory belonging to the Institute of Oceanology of the Russian Academy of Sciences, located in Moscow.

Vereshchaka Alexander Leonidovich is a specialist in the field of oceanology and geoecology. He owns about 100 scientific papers. His main achievements are related to the use modern methods in the field of oceanology and geoecology, such as the deep-sea manned vehicles "Mir" (more than 20 dives, 11 expeditions).

Vereshchaka is the creator of a model of a hydrothermal system (three-dimensional). He developed the concept of a boundary ecosystem (benthopeligal), inhabited by a specific fauna and associated with the bottom layer. In collaboration with colleagues from other countries, he created a method for determining the role of marine nano- and microbiota (prokaryotes, archaea and eukaryotes) using modern achievements molecular genetics. He is responsible for the discovery and description of two families of shrimp, as well as more than 50 species and genera of crustaceans.

Rosenberg Gennady Samuilovich

The scientist was born in Ufa in 1949. He began his career as an engineer, but soon began to head a laboratory located at the Institute of Biology of the Bashkir branch of the Academy of Sciences. Gennady Samuilovich Rosenberg moved to Tolyatti in 1987, where he worked as chief researcher at the Institute of Ecology of the Volga Basin. In 1991, the scientist headed this institute.

He is responsible for the development of methods for analyzing the dynamics and structure of ecosystems. He also created a system for analyzing the ecology of large regions.

Ilyin Yuri Viktorovich

This scientist was born in Asbest on December 21, 1941. He is molecular biologist, and since 1992, an academician of the Russian Academy of Sciences. His achievements are great, so the scientist is worthy of a more detailed story about him.

Yuri Viktorovich Ilyin specializes in molecular genetics and molecular biology. In 1976, the scientist cloned dispersed mobile genes, which are a new type of eukaryotic genes. The significance of this discovery was very great. These were the first mobile genes to be discovered in animals. After this, the scientist began to study mobile elements of eukaryotes. He created a theory about the role of dispersed mobile genes in evolution, mutagenesis and carcinogenesis.

Zinaida Sergeevna Donets

Russia is not only about men. It is worth telling about such a scientist as Zinaida Sergeevna Donets. She is a Doctor of Science, professor of zoology and ecology at Yaroslavl State University.

Of course, there are other biological scientists in our country worthy of attention. We talked only about the largest researchers and achievements that are useful to remember.

Since ancient times, people have accumulated experience in using natural resources, including important role Various animals played. By mining them, they gradually learned about the life and structure of animals. The beginning of zoology as a science was laid by the famous ancient Greek scientist and philosopher Aristotle (IV century BC). In his works “History of Animals”, “On the Parts of Animals”, “On the Origin of Animals”, etc., he described 452 different animals known at that time. Aristotle made a significant contribution to the study of the structure of animals, considering their body parts in relationship.

The Romans' expeditions to distant lands significantly enriched science with knowledge about animals. North Africa, Western Asia and Europe. The ancient Roman scientist Pliny the Elder (23-79 AD) in his multi-volume “Natural History” gave a description of all animals known at that time.

During the era of feudalism, when Europe was divided into many small estates of feudal lords, and the religion dominating society hampered the development of science, the study of animals experienced a period of long stagnation.

The great Renaissance (XV-XVI centuries) was a time of new flourishing of science. The travels of the great explorers of that time - Columbus, Marco Polo, Magellan and many others - greatly enriched mankind's knowledge of the animal world of different continents.

Accumulated by the end of the 16th century. extensive material on fauna various parts Earth demanded their systematization and generalization. Of these generalizing zoological works, the most valuable is the multi-volume summary of the Swiss scientist K-Hesper (1516 - 1565) “History of Animals” - a genuine encyclopedia for that time of data on the animal world.

In the 17th century a microscope was created, which opened up vast and amazing world the smallest animals and allowed us to begin studying the finest structures of the organs of multicellular animals. Among the first zoological studies using a microscope, we should first of all note the work of the Dutch naturalist A. Leeuwenhoek (1632-1723), who published a 4-volume work “Secrets of Nature Discovered with the Use of a Microscope.” He discovered ciliates, described red blood cells, muscle tissue of higher animals, and much more. The Italian scientist M. Malyshgi (1628-1694) described capillaries in circulatory system vertebrates, made chain discoveries in the field of the microscopic structure of the excretory organs and integument of various animals.

M. Servetus (1511-1543) and especially W. Harvey (1578-1657) did a lot in physiology, describing the blood circulation in humans. In the XVII-XVIII centuries. modern animal taxonomy and paleontology were born. The name of J. Cuvier (1769-1832) is associated with the development of the principle of correlation, according to which all parts and organs of an animal organism are inextricably linked with each other, and a change in one of them entails a change in the remaining organs of the body (more on this in general outline Aristotle wrote earlier). Paleontologists take advantage of this situation by restoring a whole animal based on its remains found in a fossilized state. Among the most important works of J. Cuvier, we note “The Animal Kingdom” in 5 volumes, “Iconography of the Animal Kingdom” with 450 tables and 6200 drawings, many of which are used in modern scientific and educational literature, “Discourses on revolutions on the surface globe and about the changes they made,” “Research on Fossil Bones” (first edition in 4 volumes, fourth in 10 volumes). The “Discourses...” outlines the theory of catastrophes, the distribution of fossils to the layers of the Earth, and at the same time the refusal to recognize the change of faunas as a result of evolution.

XIX century marked by the affirmation of the idea of ​​evolution organic world, the gradual development of all living nature from simpler forms to more complex ones. The development of the idea of ​​evolution was also facilitated by the creation in the 30s of the 19th century. theories cellular structure animals and plants (T. Schwapn, M. Schleidep), which laid the foundation for the idea of ​​​​the unity of the animal and plant worlds.

Great achievements in the development of the ideas of animal evolution belong to the famous French naturalist J. Lamarck (1744-1829). He developed and improved the taxonomy of animals proposed by C. Linnaeus, and did a lot of work on the study of invertebrates. But Lamarck’s work “Philosophy of Zoology” (1809) is especially valuable, in which he opposes the metaphysical views of most biologists of that time about the immutability of animal species and sets out the first holistic theory of the evolution of living nature. Lamarck argued that all plants and animals are constantly changing and transforming into new forms under the influence of external conditions and the internal desire for improvement inherent in every organism. K - A. Timiryazev considered Lamarck’s main work “Philosophy of Zoology” to be a work in which for the first time the question of the origin of organisms is discussed not in passing, but with all the necessary breadth of coverage, fully armed scientific knowledge that time. But, having created the theory of evolution of the animal world, Lamarck gave an erroneous interpretation of the cause of this process.

The ideas of evolution finally prevailed in biology after the publication by Charles Darwin (1809-1882) of his main work “The Origin of Species by natural selection, or the preservation of favored breeds in the struggle for life" (1859). In this remarkable work, Charles Darwin not only proved the existence of variability of species and evolution of the entire organic world, but also revealed the reasons for this process. He explained the expediency of organization and adaptability of living beings as a result of the action of long-term natural or artificial selection - the most important factor evolution. Darwin's theory of evolution was highly appreciated by V.I. Lenin, who pointed out that Darwin was the first to put biology on a completely scientific basis, establishing the variability of species and continuity between them.

The significance of Charles Darwin's theory of evolution of the organic world for natural science and, in particular, for zoology is enormous: a scientific materialistic explanation was given for the structure and phenomena of animal life. There is no branch of zoological knowledge in which the affirmation of evolutionary teaching would not cause fundamental changes in the views of scientists. The victory of the theory of evolution in biology served as a powerful stimulus to the development of all branches of zoology.

The rapid development of zoological research at the end of the 19th century. and especially in the 20th century. was closely related to the growth of livestock farming, fishing and hunting and other industries Agriculture using zoological data. The development of zoological science has greatly contributed to the growth and improvement of agriculture and the protection of human health. The accumulation of enormous factual material and theoretical theories about animals and their lives led to the division of zoology in the 19th century. and the beginning of the 20th century. into a number of branches - zoology has become a complex science.

In our country, zoology has a long and glorious history. Even in the first Russian books (“Russian Truth”, etc.) there are references to many animals that lived in Ancient Rus'. But widespread development zoological research received in Russia in the 18th century, when the Academy of Sciences organized a series of distant expeditions to study the nature of various regions of the country. Academician P. Pallas (1741 -1811) traveled to the Volga region, Siberia, Kazakhstan and the Urals, S. Steller (1709-1746) - to Far East, S. Gmelin (1745-1774) - to the south European Russia, I. Gyldenstedt (1745-1781) - to the Caucasus, I. Lepekhin (1740-1802) - to the central and northern regions countries. They collected large zoological collections and made many observations of animals in the areas visited. Based on these materials, P. Pallas created a major work, “Russian-Asian Zoography,” in which he described all the vertebrates of the Russian fauna known at that time.

The study of the animal world of Russia continued in the first half of the 19th century, when many scientists made a series of long trips to various remote areas of the country. Particularly fruitful was the three-year trip of Academician A.F. Middendorf (1815-1894), who traveled almost all of Siberia and, in the full sense of the word, “scientifically discovered” it for natural scientists.

Of great importance for the development of Russian zoological science were the works of Moscow University professor C. Roulier (1814 - 1858), in which he developed the ideas of the unity of the animal organism and environment, sought to show that changes in living conditions cause changes in animals. C. Roulier opposed the metaphysical views of J. Cuvier and other scientists who defended the theory of the immutability of species.

K. Roulier's student N. A. Severtsov (1827-1885) created a number of remarkable works on ecology and zoogeography. In them, he always emphasized the need to study animals in connection with their habitat. At the risk of his life, N.A. Severtsov penetrated the mountains and deserts of Central Asia and gave " detailed description fauna of this wonderful country.

The outstanding Russian researcher Academician K. M. Beer (1792-1876) made a great contribution to zoological science. He is deservedly considered one of the founders of the science of animal development - embryology. The expeditions of K-M. Baer to the Caspian and Azov Seas were of great importance for the development of fishing.

Russian zoological science began to develop especially quickly in the second half of the 19th century. after Charles Darwin published the theory of evolution of organic nature. Leading scientists of Russia - botanist K. A. Timiryazev (1843-1920), zoologists A. O. Kovalevsky (1840-1901), I. I. Mechnikov (1845-1916), V. O. Kovalevsky (1842-1883) and others - not only popularized and disseminated Darwin's teachings, but also enriched it with their research.

In the second half of the 19th and early 20th centuries. The expeditionary study of the fauna of our country and its neighboring territories continued. These are the expeditions of N. M. Przhevalsky (1839-1888) and his students in Central Asia, N. M. Kiipovich (1862-1939) on the seas of Russia. These trips significantly enriched knowledge about the fauna of Russia.

After the opening of the Academy of Sciences in 1725, and in 1755 of Moscow University in Russia, the rapid formation of Russian science began. Back in 1720, Peter the Great sent the learned physician Daniil Messerschmidt to Siberia, who traveled around Siberia for seven years and brought from there rich collections of animals and birds. Even richer collections and discoveries were made by the participants of the second Kamchatka northern expedition of 1733-1742: S.P. Krasheninnikov, Gmelin the Elder, Steller.

The research of the brilliant son of the Russian people, M.V. Lomonosov, who was ahead of Western science with his brilliant discoveries, had a tremendous influence on the development of Russian natural science. Academician P. S. Pallas lived almost his entire life in Russia. He and his contemporaries I. Lepekhin, Gmelin the Younger and A. Gyldenstedt explored the east and south of the European part of Russia, Western Siberia, Altai, Baikal and Transbaikalia. In the 19th century zoological survey of Russia continued by expeditions of the Academy of Sciences (K. Baer, ​​A. F. Middendorf), Moscow societies of nature explorers and natural history lovers (S. Karelin, N. A. Severtsov, A. P. Bogdanov, A. P. Fedchenko) and Russian geographical society(N. M. Przhevalsky, I. Potanin, P. K. Kozlov, M. N. Bogdanov, P. P. Semenov-Tyan-Shansky).

The opening of biological stations was of enormous importance for the study of the fauna of the seas: the Sevastopol biological station (founded by A. O. Kovalevsky in 1871), the Neapolitan zoological station (A. Dorn, 1872), the freshwater station at deep lake near Moscow (N. Yu. Zograf, 1891), Murmansk station (K. M. Deryugin, 1896), Baikal limnological station, etc.

The publication of Charles Darwin's On the Origin of Species in 1859 was a major turning point in the history of zoology.

After the advent of Darwin's teachings (1859), established concepts and ideas in all areas of biology underwent a radical revision. The species is no longer considered unchanged. A variety began to be understood as a forming species, a system of animals - as a relationship between groups that arises as a result evolutionary process. The phenomena of similarity in development and the basic structure of organs (homologues, see below), already known before Darwin, received a natural explanation. The unity of multicellular animals in relation to their cellular structure became clear. In embryology, the doctrine of germ layers began to rapidly develop (see below); the phenomenon of similarity of embryos in animals that differ greatly in the adult state became clear and served as the starting point for the doctrine of the repetition of evolutionary development by embryonic development. Numerous interesting facts geographical distribution of animals and their geological history etc.