What is characteristic of the empirical level of knowledge. Empirical and theoretical levels of scientific knowledge, criteria for their distinction

1. Empirical level scientific knowledge.

Sensual and rational are the main level components of any knowledge, not only scientific. However, during historical development levels of cognition are singled out and formed, essentially different from the simple difference between the sensible and the rational, although they have the rational and the sensible as their basis. Such levels of cognition and knowledge, especially in relation to developed science, are the empirical and theoretical levels.

The empirical level of knowledge, science is the level that is associated with the acquisition of knowledge through special procedures of observation and experiment, which is then subjected to a certain rational processing and fixed using a certain, often artificial, language. Observation and experiment data as the main scientific forms direct study of the phenomena of reality then act as the empirical basis from which the theoretical study proceeds. Observations and experiments are currently taking place in all sciences, including the sciences of society and man.

The main form of knowledge at the empirical level is a fact, a scientific fact, actual knowledge, which is the result of primary processing and systematization of observational and experimental data. The basis of modern empirical knowledge constitute the facts of everyday consciousness and the facts of science. In this case, the facts must be understood not as statements about something, not as certain units of “expression” of knowledge, but precisely as special elements of knowledge itself.

2. Theoretical level of research. The nature of scientific concepts.

The theoretical level of knowledge, science is connected with the fact that the object is represented on it from the side of its connections and patterns, obtained not only and not so much in experience, in the course of observations and experiments, but already in the course of an autonomous thought process, through the application and construction of special abstractions , as well as arbitrary constructions of reason and reason as hypothetical elements, with the help of which the space of comprehension of the essence of the phenomena of reality is filled.

In the field of theoretical knowledge, constructions (idealizations) appear in which knowledge can go far beyond the limits of sensory experience, observational and experimental data, and even come into sharp conflict with direct sensory data.

The contradictions between the theoretical and empirical levels of cognition are of an objective dialectical nature; in themselves they do not refute either empirical or theoretical positions. The decision in favor of one or the other depends only on the course of further research and verification of their results in practice, in particular, by means of the very same observations and experiment, applied on the basis of new theoretical concepts. In this case, the most important role is played by such a form of knowledge and cognition as a hypothesis.

3. The formation of scientific theory and the growth of theoretical knowledge.

The following scientific historical types of knowledge are known.

1. Early scientific type of knowledge.

This type of knowledge opens the era systematic development scientific knowledge. In it, on the one hand, traces of the previous natural-philosophical and scholastic types of cognition are still clearly visible, and on the other, the appearance of fundamentally new elements that sharply contrast scientific types of cognition with pre-scientific ones. Most often, such a boundary of this type of knowledge, separating it from the previous ones, is drawn at the turn of the 16th-17th centuries.

The early scientific type of cognition is connected, first of all, with a new quality of knowledge. The main type of knowledge is experimental knowledge, actual knowledge. It created normal conditions for the development of theoretical knowledge - scientific theoretical knowledge.

2. The classical stage of knowledge.

It took place from the end of the 17th - beginning of the 18th century to the middle of the 19th century. From this stage, science develops as a continuous disciplinary and at the same time professional tradition, critically regulating all its internal processes. Here appears a theory in the full sense of the word - the theory of mechanics by I. Newton, which for almost two centuries remained the only scientific theory with which all the theoretical elements of natural science, and social cognition as well, correlated.

The most significant changes, compared with early science, have occurred in the field of knowledge. Knowledge becomes theoretical already in modern sense words, or almost modern, which was a huge step in overcoming the traditional gap between theoretical problems and the empirical approach.

3. Modern scientific type of knowledge.

This type science continues to dominate at the present time, at the turn of the XX-XXI centuries. IN modern science the quality of objects of knowledge has changed radically. The integrity of the object, the subjects of individual sciences and the very subject of scientific knowledge was finally revealed. Fundamental changes are taking place in the means of modern science. Its empirical level takes on a completely different form, observation and experiment almost completely began to be controlled by theoretical (advanced) knowledge, on the other hand, by knowledge of the observed.

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The empirical level of knowledge in science to a certain extent corresponds to the sensory level of research, while the theoretical level corresponds to the rational or logical one. Of course, there is no absolute correspondence between them. It has been established that the empirical level of cognition includes not only sensory, but also logical research. At the same time, the information received by the sensory method is subjected here to primary processing by conceptual (rational) means.

Empirical knowledge, therefore, is not only a reflection of reality, formed by experience. They represent a specific unity of the mental and sensual expression of reality. At the same time, sensory reflection is in the first place, and thinking plays an auxiliary role subordinate to observation.

Empirical data supply facts to science. Their establishment is an integral part of any research. Thus, the empirical level of knowledge contributes to the establishment and accumulation

A fact is a reliably established event, a non-fictional incident. These fixed empirical knowledge are synonymous with such concepts as "results", "events".

It should be noted that facts are not only information source and "sensual" reasoning. They are also the criterion of truth and reliability.

The empirical level of knowledge makes it possible to establish facts by various methods. These methods, in particular, include observation, experiment, comparison, measurement.

Observation is the purposeful and systematic perception of phenomena and objects. The purpose of this perception is to determine the relationships and properties of the studied phenomena or objects. Observation can be carried out both directly and indirectly (using tools - a microscope, a camera, and others). It should be noted that for modern science, such a study becomes more complicated over time and becomes more indirect.

Comparison is a cognitive procedure. It is the basis in accordance with which the difference or similarity of objects is carried out. Comparison allows you to identify the quantitative and qualitative properties and characteristics of objects.

It should be said that the method of comparison is expedient in determining the signs of homogeneous phenomena or objects that form classes. Just like observation, this can be carried out indirectly or directly. In the first case, the comparison is made by comparing two objects with the third, which is the standard.

Measurement is the establishment of a numerical indicator of a certain value using a specific unit (watts, centimeters, kilograms, etc.). This method has been used since the emergence of the new European science. Due to its wide application, measurement has become organic element

All of the above methods can be used both independently and in combination. In the complex, observation, measurement and comparison are part of a more complex empirical method of cognition - experiment.

This method of research involves placing the object in clearly defined conditions or reproducing it artificially in order to identify certain characteristics. An experiment is a way of carrying out an active activity. In this case, it implies the ability of the subject to intervene during the process or phenomenon being studied.

Cognitive attitude of man to the world is carried out in various forms- in the form of everyday knowledge, artistic, religious knowledge, and finally, in the form of scientific knowledge. The first three areas of knowledge are considered, in contrast to science, as non-scientific forms. Scientific knowledge has grown out of ordinary knowledge, but at present these two forms of knowledge are quite far apart from each other.

There are two levels in the structure of scientific knowledge - empirical and theoretical. These levels should not be confused with aspects of cognition in general - sensory reflection and rational cognition. The point is that in the first case we mean Various types cognitive activity scientists, and in the second - we are talking about the types of mental activity of an individual in the process of cognition in general, and both of these types are used both at the empirical and at the theoretical levels of scientific knowledge.

The levels of scientific knowledge themselves differ in a number of parameters: 1) in the subject of research. Empirical research is focused on phenomena, theoretical - on the essence; 2) by means and tools of knowledge; 3) by research methods. At the empirical level, this is observation, experiment, at the theoretical level - systems approach, idealization, etc.; 4) by the nature of the acquired knowledge. In one case, these are empirical facts, classifications, empirical laws, in the second - laws, disclosure of essential connections, theories.

In the XVII-XVIII and partly in the XIX centuries. science was still at the empirical stage, limiting its tasks to the generalization and classification of empirical facts, the formulation of empirical laws. In the future, above the empirical level, a theoretical level is built up, connected with a comprehensive study of reality in its essential connections and patterns. At the same time, both types of research are organically interconnected and presuppose each other in the integral structure of scientific knowledge.

Methods applicable at the empirical level of scientific knowledge: observation and experiment.

Observation- this is a deliberate and purposeful perception of phenomena and processes without direct intervention in their course, subject to the tasks scientific research. The main requirements for scientific observation are as follows: 1) unambiguous purpose, design; 2) consistency in observation methods; 3) objectivity; 4) the possibility of control either by repeated observation or by experiment.

Observation is used, as a rule, where intervention in the process under study is undesirable or impossible. Observation in modern science is associated with the widespread use of instruments, which, firstly, enhance the senses, and secondly, remove the touch of subjectivity from the assessment of observed phenomena. An important place in the process of observation (as well as experiment) is occupied by the measurement operation. Measurement- there is a definition of the ratio of one (measured) quantity to another, taken as a standard. Since the results of observation, as a rule, take the form of various signs, graphs, curves on an oscilloscope, cardiograms, etc., the interpretation of the data obtained is an important component of the study.

Of particular difficulty is the observation of social sciences, where its results largely depend on the personality of the observer and his attitude to the phenomena being studied. In sociology and psychology, a distinction is made between simple and participatory (included) observation. Psychologists also use the method of introspection (self-observation).

Experiment unlike observation, it is a method of cognition in which phenomena are studied under controlled and controlled conditions. An experiment, as a rule, is carried out on the basis of a theory or hypothesis that determines the formulation of the problem and the interpretation of the results. The advantages of the experiment in comparison with observation are, firstly, that it is possible to study the phenomenon, so to speak, in its “pure form”, secondly, the conditions for the process can vary, and thirdly, the experiment itself can be repeated many times.

There are several types of experiment.

1) The simplest kind experiment - qualitative, establishing the presence or absence of the phenomena proposed by the theory.

2) The second, more complex type is a measuring or quantitative experiment that establishes the numerical parameters of some property (or properties) of an object or process.

3) A special kind of experiment in the fundamental sciences is a thought experiment.

4) Finally: a specific type of experiment is a social experiment carried out in order to introduce new forms social organization and optimization of management. The scope of social experiment is limited by moral and legal norms.

Observation and experiment are the source scientific facts, which in science are understood as a special kind of sentences that fix empirical knowledge. Facts are the foundation of the building of science, they form the empirical basis of science, the basis for putting forward hypotheses and creating theories.

Let us denote some methods of processing and systematization knowledge empirical level. This is primarily analysis and synthesis. Analysis- the process of mental, and often real, dismemberment of an object, phenomenon into parts (signs, properties, relationships). The reverse procedure of analysis is synthesis. Synthesis- this is a combination of the sides of the subject selected during the analysis into a single whole.

A significant role in generalizing the results of observation and experiments belongs to induction (from Latin inductio - guidance), special kind generalizations of experience data. During induction, the researcher's thought moves from the particular (private factors) to the general. Distinguish between popular and scientific, complete and incomplete induction. The opposite of induction is deduction, the movement of thought from the general to the particular. Unlike induction, with which deduction is closely related, it is mainly used at the theoretical level of knowledge.

The process of induction is associated with such an operation as comparison- establishment of similarities and differences of objects, phenomena. Induction, comparison, analysis and synthesis pave the way for the development of classifications - combining various concepts and their corresponding phenomena into certain groups, types in order to establish relationships between objects and classes of objects. Examples of classifications are the periodic table, classifications of animals, plants, etc. Classifications are presented in the form of schemes, tables used for orientation in the variety of concepts or corresponding objects.

There are two levels of scientific knowledge: empirical and theoretical. Alone general scientific methods are applied only at the empirical level (observation, experiment, measurement), others - only at the theoretical (idealization, formalization), and some (for example, modeling) - both at the empirical and theoretical levels.

The empirical level of scientific knowledge is characterized by a direct study of real-life, sensually perceived objects. At this level, the process of accumulating information about the objects and phenomena under study is carried out by conducting observations, performing various measurements, and setting up experiments. Here, the primary systematization of the actual data obtained in the form of tables, diagrams, graphs, etc. is also carried out. In addition, at this level of scientific knowledge - as a consequence of the generalization scientific facts- it is possible to formulate some empirical regularities.

The theoretical level of scientific research is carried out at the rational (logical) level of knowledge. At this level, the most profound, essential aspects, connections, patterns inherent in the studied objects and phenomena are revealed. The theoretical level is a higher level in scientific knowledge. The results of theoretical knowledge are hypotheses, theories, laws.

Relationship between empiricism and theory

1. Qualitative difference between empirical and theoretical knowledge in science
2. The relationship between them, including an explanation of the mechanism of this relationship.

If the source of the content of empirical knowledge is information about objective reality obtained through observations and experimentation with it, then the basis of the content of theoretical knowledge is information about ideal objects that are products of the constructive activity of thinking.

Theoretical knowledge is a complex structure, consisting of statements of varying degrees of generality.

1. Most general level- axioms, theoretical laws. For example, for classical mechanics, these are Newton's three laws (inertia; the relationship of force, mass and acceleration; equality of action and reaction forces).
2. The second, less general level of scientific theory is the particular theoretical laws that describe the structure, properties and behavior of ideal objects constructed from the original ideal objects. For classical mechanics, these are, for example, the laws of motion of an ideal pendulum.
3. The third, least general level of a developed scientific theory consists of particular, single theoretical statements about the properties and relations of some ideal objects.

Empirical and theoretical types of cognition differ not only in means, but also in methods of research activity.

At the empirical level, real experiment and real observation are used as the main methods. Important role also play methods of empirical description, focused on the maximum cleared of subjective layers of objective characteristics of the studied phenomena.

As for theoretical research, here apply special methods: idealization (method of constructing an idealized object); thought experiment with idealized objects; special methods of constructing a theory (ascent from the abstract to the concrete); methods of logical and historical research, etc.

All these features of means and methods are connected with the specifics of the subject of empirical and theoretical research. At each of these levels, the researcher can deal with the same objective reality, but he studies it in different subject areas, in different aspects, and therefore its vision, its representation in knowledge will be given in different ways.

By studying phenomena and the connections between them, empirical knowledge is able to detect the operation of an objective law. But it fixes this action, as a rule, in the form of empirical dependencies, which should be distinguished from a theoretical law as a special knowledge obtained as a result of a theoretical study of objects.

Empirical dependence is the result of inductive communication of experience and represents probabilistic-true knowledge. The theoretical law is always reliable knowledge. Obtaining such knowledge requires special research procedures.

It should be emphasized that an increase in the number of experiments does not in itself make an empirical dependence true fact, because induction always deals with incomplete, incomplete experience. No matter how many experiments we make and generalize them, a simple inductive generalization of experimental results does not lead to theoretical knowledge. Theory is not constructed by inductive generalization of experience.

So, the empirical and theoretical levels of knowledge differ in the subject, means and methods of research. In reality, these two layers of knowledge always interact.

There are two levels of scientific knowledge - empirical and theoretical.

Empirical level scientific knowledge is aimed at the study of phenomena (in other words, forms and ways of manifestation essence of objects, processes, relationships), it is formed using such methods of cognition as observation, measurement, experiment. The main forms of existence of empirical knowledge are grouping, classification, description, systematization and generalization of the results of observation and experiment.

Empirical knowledge has a rather complex structure, which includes four levels.

Primary level - single empirical statements, the content of which is the fixation of the results of single observations; while fixing exact time, place and conditions of observation.

The second level of empirical knowledge is scientific facts, more precisely, the description of the facts of reality by means of the language of science. With the help of such means, the absence or presence of certain events, properties, relations in the subject area under study, as well as their intensity (quantitative certainty) is affirmed. Their symbolic representations are graphs, diagrams, tables, classifications, mathematical models.

The third level of empirical knowledge is empirical patterns various types (functional, causal, structural, dynamic, statistical, etc.).

The fourth level of empirical scientific knowledge is phenomenological theories as a logically interconnected set of relevant empirical laws and facts (phenomenological thermodynamics, celestial mechanics by I. Kepler, periodic law chemical elements in the formulation of D. I. Mendeleev and others). Empirical theories differ from theories in the true sense of the word in that they do not penetrate into the essence of the objects under study, but represent empirical generalization visually perceptible things and processes.

Theoretical level scientific knowledge is aimed at research entities objects, processes, relationships and relies on the results empirical knowledge. Theoretical knowledge is the result of the activity of such a constructive part of consciousness as intelligence. The leading logical operation of theoretical thinking is idealization, the purpose and result of which is the construction of a special type of objects - "ideal objects" of scientific theory (material point and "absolutely black body" in physics, "ideal type" in sociology, etc.). An interconnected set of such objects forms its own basis of theoretical scientific knowledge.

This level of scientific knowledge includes the formulation of scientific problems; promotion and substantiation of scientific hypotheses and theories; revealing laws; derivation of logical consequences from laws; comparing various hypotheses and theories with each other, theoretical modeling, as well as procedures for explaining, understanding, predicting, generalizing.

In the structure of the theoretical level, a number of components are distinguished: laws, theories, models, concepts, teachings, principles, a set of methods. Let's briefly dwell on some of them.

IN laws of science displays objective, regular, repetitive, essential and necessary connections and relationships between phenomena or processes real world. From the point of view of the scope, all laws can be conditionally divided into the following types.

1. Universal And private (existential) laws. Universal laws reflect the universal, necessary, strictly recurring and stable nature of the regular connection between phenomena and processes. objective world. An example is the law of thermal expansion of bodies: "All bodies expand when heated."

Private laws are connections, either derived from universal laws, or reflecting the regularity of events that characterize a certain private sphere of being. Thus, the law of thermal expansion of metals is secondary, or derivative, in relation to the universal law of thermal expansion of all physical bodies and characterizes the property of a particular group of chemical elements.

• 2. deterministic And stochastic (statistical) laws. Deterministic laws give predictions that are quite reliable and precise character. In contrast, stochastic laws give only probabilistic predictions, they reflect a certain regularity that occurs as a result of the interaction of random massive or repetitive events.
• 3. empirical And theoretical laws. Empirical laws characterize the regularities found at the level of the phenomenon within the framework of empirical (experimental) knowledge. Theoretical laws reflect the recurring connections that operate at the level of essence. Among these laws, the most common are causal (causal) laws, which characterize the necessary relationship between two directly related phenomena.

At its core scientific theory represents a single complete system knowledge, the elements of which: concepts, generalizations, axioms and laws - are connected by certain logical and meaningful relationships. Reflecting and expressing the essence of the objects under study, theory acts as the highest form of organization of scientific knowledge.

In the structure of scientific theory, there are: a) initial fundamental principles; b) basic system-forming concepts; c) language thesaurus, i.e. norms for constructing correct language expressions characteristic of a given theory; d) an interpretive base that allows one to move from fundamental statements to a wide field of facts and observations.

In modern science, types of scientific theories are distinguished, which are classified according to various grounds.

First, according to the adequacy of the display of the studied area of ​​phenomena, there are phenomenological And analytical theories. Theories of the first kind describe reality at the level of phenomena, or phenomena, without revealing their essence. So, geometric optics studied the phenomena of propagation, reflection and refraction of light, without revealing the nature of light itself. In turn, analytical theories reveal the essence of the studied phenomena. For example, the theory electromagnetic field reveals the essence of optical phenomena.

Secondly, according to the degree of accuracy of predictions scientific theories, like laws, are divided into deterministic And stochastic. Deterministic theories give accurate and reliable predictions, but due to the complexity of many phenomena and processes, the presence of a significant amount of uncertainty and randomness in the world, such theories are rarely used. Stochastic theories give probabilistic predictions based on the study of the laws of chance. Such theories are used not only in physics or biology, but also in the social sciences and humanities, when predictions or forecasts are made about processes in which uncertainty plays a significant role, a combination of circumstances associated with the manifestation of randomness of mass events.

An important place in scientific knowledge at the theoretical level is occupied by a set of methods, among which are axiomatic, hypothetical-deductive, formalization method, idealization method, systematic approach, etc.