Theoretical foundations of cognitive activity. Functions of emotions

Speech performs certain features:

Rice. 3. Functions of speech

Impact function It consists in the ability of a person through speech to induce people to certain actions or to refuse them.

Message function consists in the exchange of information (thoughts) between people through words, phrases.

expression function lies in the fact that, on the one hand, thanks to speech, a person can more fully convey his feelings, experiences, relationships, and, on the other hand, the expressiveness of speech, its emotionality significantly expands the possibilities of communication.

Designation function consists in the ability of a person through speech to give objects and phenomena of the surrounding reality their own names.

According to the set of its functions (see Fig. 3), speech is a polymorphic activity, i.e. in its various functional purposes is presented in different forms(Fig. 4) and types (Fig. 5): external, internal, monologue, dialogue, written, oral, etc.

In psychology, there are two forms of speech: external and internal.

Rice. 4. Forms of speech

External speech- system used by man sound signals, written signs and symbols to convey information, the process of materialization of thought.

External speech may have jargon and intonation. Jargon - stylistic features(lexical, phraseological) language of a narrow social or professional group of people. Intonation - a set of speech elements (melody, rhythm, tempo, intensity, accent structure, timbre, etc.) that phonetically organize speech and are a means of expression different meanings, their emotional coloring.

External speech includes the following types (see Fig. 5):

* oral (dialogical and monologue) And

* written.

Rice. 5. Types of speech

Oral speech- this is communication between people through pronouncing words aloud, on the one hand, and listening to them by people, on the other.

Dialogue(from Greek. dialogos- conversation, conversation) - a type of speech, which consists in the alternate exchange of sign information (including pauses, silence, gestures) of two or more subjects. Dialogic speech is a conversation in which at least two interlocutors participate. Dialogic speech, psychologically the most simple and natural form of speech, occurs during direct communication between two or more interlocutors and consists mainly in the exchange of remarks.

Replica- answer, objection, remark to the words of the interlocutor - is characterized by brevity, the presence of interrogative and motivating sentences, syntactically undeveloped structures.

A distinctive feature of the dialogue is the emotional contact of the speakers, their influence on each other by facial expressions, gestures, intonation and timbre of the voice.

The dialogue is supported by the interlocutors with the help of clarifying questions, changes in the situation and intentions of the speakers. A focused dialogue related to one topic is called a conversation. Participants in the conversation discuss or clarify a specific problem with the help of specially selected questions.

Monologue- a type of speech that has one subject and is a complex syntactic whole, structurally completely unrelated to the speech of the interlocutor. monologue speech - this is the speech of one person, for a relatively long time expressing his thoughts, or a consistent coherent presentation of a system of knowledge by one person.

Monologue speech is characterized by:

Consistency and evidence, which provide coherence of thought;

Grammatically correct design;

Monologue speech is more complicated than dialogue in terms of content and language design and always involves enough high level speech development speaker.

stand out three main types of monologue speech: narration (story, message), description and reasoning, which, in turn, are divided into subspecies that have their own linguistic, compositional and intonation-expressive features. With speech defects, monologue speech is disturbed in more than dialogic.

Written speech- This is a graphically designed speech, organized on the basis of letter images. It is addressed to a wide range of readers, is devoid of situationality and involves in-depth skills in sound-letter analysis, the ability to logically and grammatically correctly convey one's thoughts, analyze what is written and improve the form of expression.

The full assimilation of writing and written speech is closely related to the level of development oral speech. During the period of mastering oral speech, a preschool child undergoes unconscious processing of language material, the accumulation of sound and morphological generalizations, which create a readiness to master writing at school age. With underdevelopment of speech, as a rule, there are violations of writing of varying severity.

inner speech(speech “to oneself”) is a speech devoid of sound design and proceeding using linguistic meanings, but outside the communicative function; internal speaking. Inner speech is speech that does not perform the function of communication, but only serves the process of thinking. specific person. It differs in its structure by curtailment, the absence of secondary members of the sentence.

Inner speech is formed in a child on the basis of external speech and is one of the main mechanisms of thinking. The translation of external speech into internal is observed in a child at the age of about 3 years, when he begins to reason aloud and plan his actions in speech. Gradually, such pronunciation is reduced and begins to flow in inner speech.

With the help of inner speech, the process of turning thoughts into speech and preparing a speech statement is carried out. Preparation goes through several stages. The starting point for the preparation of each speech utterance is a motive or intention, which is known to the speaker only in the most general terms. Then, in the process of transforming a thought into a statement, the stage of inner speech begins, which is characterized by the presence of semantic representations that reflect its most essential content. Further, the most necessary ones are singled out from a larger number of potential semantic connections, and the corresponding syntactic structures are selected.

Inner speech can be characterized by predicativity. Predicativity- a characteristic of inner speech, expressed in the absence in it of words representing the subject (subject), and the presence of only words related to the predicate (predicate).

Although all these forms and types of speech are interconnected, their vital purpose is not the same. External speech, for example, plays the main role of a means of communication, internal - a means of thinking. Written speech most often acts as a way of memorizing and storing information, oral speech - as a means of transmitting information. The monologue serves the process of one-way, and the dialogue serves the two-way exchange of information.

Speech has its properties:

Speech intelligibility- this is a syntactically correct construction of sentences, as well as the use of pauses in appropriate places or highlighting words with the help of logical stress.

Expressiveness of speech- this is its emotional richness, the richness of linguistic means, their diversity. In its expressiveness, it can be bright, energetic and, conversely, sluggish, poor.

The effectiveness of speech- this is a property of speech, which consists in its influence on the thoughts, feelings and will of other people, on their beliefs and behavior.

Rice. 6. Properties of speech

A person's speech can be abbreviated and expanded, both from a conceptual and linguistic point of view. IN expanded type of speech the speaker uses all the possibilities of symbolic expression of meanings, meanings and their shades provided by the language. This type of speech is characterized by a large vocabulary and richness of grammatical forms, the frequent use of prepositions to express logical, temporal and spatial relationships, the use of impersonal and indefinite personal pronouns, the use suitable concepts, clarifying adjectives and adverbs to indicate one or another specific state of affairs, more pronounced syntactic and grammatical structuring of statements, numerous subordinating links of sentence components, indicating anticipatory planning of speech.

abbreviated speech the statement is sufficient for understanding among well-known people and in familiar surroundings. However, it makes it difficult to express and perceive more complex, abstract thoughts associated with subtle distinctions and differential analysis of hidden relationships. In the case of theoretical thinking, a person more often uses expanded speech.

Speech has a socio-historical nature. People have always lived and live collectively, in society. Public life and the collective work of people make it necessary to constantly communicate, establish contact with each other, influence each other. This communication is done through speech. Thanks to speech, people exchange thoughts and knowledge, talk about their feelings, experiences, intentions.

Communicating with each other, people use words and use the grammatical rules of a particular language. Language is a system of verbal signs, a means by which communication is carried out between people. Speech is the process of using language to communicate between people. Language and speech are inextricably linked, they represent a unity, which is expressed in the fact that historically the language of any nation was created and developed in the process of speech communication of people. The connection between language and speech is also expressed in the fact that language as an instrument of communication exists historically as long as people speak it. As soon as people stop using this or that language in speech communication, it becomes a dead language. Such a dead language has become, for example, Latin.

Cognition of the laws of the surrounding world, the mental development of a person is accomplished through the assimilation of knowledge developed by mankind in the process of socio-historical development and fixed with the help of language, with the help of written speech. Language In this sense is a means of consolidating and transmitting from generation to generation the achievements of human culture, science and art. Each person in the learning process assimilates the knowledge acquired by all mankind and accumulated historically.

Thus, speech performs certain functions:

Impact;

Messages;

expressions;

Notation.

The function of influence lies in the ability of a person through speech to induce people to certain actions or to refuse them. The function of influence in human speech is one of its primary, most basic functions. A person speaks in order to influence, if not directly on behavior, then on thoughts or feelings, on the consciousness of other people. Speech has a social purpose, it is a means of communication, and it performs this function in the first place, since it serves as a means of influence. And this function of influence in human speech is specific. The sounds made by animals as "expressive" ones also perform a signal function, but human speech, speech in the true sense of the word, is fundamentally different from those sound signals that animals make. The call made by a sentinel animal or the leader of a pack, herd, etc., can serve as a signal for other animals to take flight or attack. These signals are instinctive or conditioned reflex reactions in animals. An animal, uttering such a signal cry, does not emit it in order to notify others of impending danger, but because this cry breaks out of it in a certain situation. When other animals run given signal to flee, they also do this not because they "understood" the signal, understood what it means, but because after such a cry the leader usually takes to flight and a situation associated with danger has set in for the animal; thus, a conditioned reflex connection was created between screaming and running; it is a connection between running and screaming, not what it stands for.

The function of the message is to exchange information (thoughts) between people through words, phrases.

The function of expression lies in the fact that, on the one hand, thanks to speech, a person can more fully convey his feelings, experiences, relationships, and, on the other hand, the expressiveness of speech, its emotionality significantly expand the possibilities of communication. The expressive function in itself does not determine speech: speech is not identical with any expressive reaction. Speech exists only where there is semantics, a meaning that has a material carrier in the form of sound, gesture, visual image, etc. But in man the most expressive moments pass into semantics. Every speech speaks about something, i.e. has some object; any speech at the same time refers to someone - to a real or possible interlocutor or listener, and any speech at the same time expresses something - this or that attitude of the speaker to what he is talking about, and to those to whom he is speaking. actually or mentally drawn. The core or outline of the semantic content of speech is what it means. But living speech usually expresses immeasurably more than it actually means. Thanks to the expressive moments contained in it, it very often goes beyond the limits of the abstract system of meanings. At the same time, the true concrete meaning of speech is revealed to a large extent through these expressive moments (intonation, stylistic, etc.). Genuine understanding of speech is achieved not only by knowing the verbal meaning of the words used in it; the most important role in it is played by the interpretation, the interpretation of these expressive moments, revealing that more or less secret inner meaning that the speaker puts into it. The emotional-expressive function of speech as such is fundamentally different from the involuntary and meaningless expressive reaction. The expressive function, being included in human speech, is rebuilt, entering into its semantic content. In this form, emotionality plays a significant role in human speech. It would be wrong to completely intellectualize speech, turning it only into an instrument of thinking. There are emotionally expressive moments in it that appear in rhythm, pauses, intonations, in voice modulations and other expressive, expressive moments that are always present to a greater or lesser extent in speech, especially in oral speech, affecting, however, in writing. speech - in the rhythm and arrangement of words; expressive moments of speech appear further in the stylistic features of speech, in various nuances and shades.

The functions of expression and influence can be combined into communication function, which includes means of expression and influence. As a means of expression, speech is combined with a number of expressive movements - with gestures, facial expressions. Animals also have sound as an expressive movement, but it becomes speech only when it ceases to accompany the affected state of a person and begins to designate it.

The function of designation (significative) consists in the ability of a person through speech to give objects and phenomena of the surrounding reality names inherent only to them. Significant function distinguishes human speech from animal communication. A person's idea of ​​an object or phenomenon is associated with a word. Mutual understanding in the process of communication is based, therefore, on the unity of the designation of objects and phenomena, perceiving and speaking.

Figure 2 - Speech functions

We can also highlight another function of speech - generalization function, which is connected with the fact that the word denotes not only a separate, given object, but also a whole group of similar objects and is always the bearer of their essential features.

So in human speech can be identified by psychological analysis different functions, but they are not aspects external to each other; they are included in the unity within which they determine and mediate each other. Thus, speech performs its message function on the basis of its semantic, semantic, denoting function. But not to a lesser, but to an even greater extent and vice versa - the semantic function of designation is formed on the basis of the communicative function of speech. Essentially social life, communication gives the cry a function of meaning. Expressive movement from emotional discharge can become speech, acquire meaning only because the subject notices the effect that it has on others. The child first makes a cry because he is hungry, and then uses it to be fed. Sound first performs the functions of designation objectively, serving as a signal for another. It is only due to the fact that he performs this function in relation to another that he is realized by us in his significance, acquires significance for us. Initially reflected in the mind of another person, speech acquires meaning for ourselves. And so in the future - from the use of the word, we establish more and more precisely its meaning, at first little realized, according to the meaning in which it is understood by others. Understanding is one of the constituent moments of speech. The emergence of speech outside of society is impossible, speech is a social product; intended for communication, it arises in communication. Moreover, the social purpose of speech determines not only its genesis; it is also reflected in the internal, semantic content of speech. The two main functions of speech - communicative and significative, due to which speech is a means of communication and a form of existence of thought, consciousness, are formed one through the other and function one in the other. The social nature of speech as a means of communication and its denoting character are inextricably linked. In speech, in unity and internal interpenetration, the social nature of man and his inherent consciousness are represented.

Speech is a combination of spoken and perceived sounds.

Speech is the main means of human communication, through which a person receives and transmits a large number of information, in particular such that carries a large semantic load or fixes in itself something that cannot be perceived with the help of the senses (abstract concepts, not directly perceived phenomena, laws, rules, etc.). Speech also contributes to the transmission of experience in time (between generations) and space (through writing).

Speech is a psychological process of forming and transmitting thoughts by means of language. Speech without language acquisition is impossible.

Speech functions:

The generalization function is related to the fact that the word denotes not only a separate, given object, but a whole group of similar objects and is always the bearer of their essential features;

The function of influence lies in the ability of a person through speech to induce people to certain actions or to refuse them;

The function of a message is to exchange information (thoughts) between people through words, phrases;

The function of expression lies in the fact that, on the one hand, thanks to speech, a person can more fully convey his feelings, experiences, relationships, and, on the other hand, the expressiveness of speech, its emotionality significantly expand the possibilities of communication;

The function of designation consists in the ability of a person through speech to give objects and phenomena of the surrounding reality their own names.

Planning function - speech helps a person to plan his actions.

In psychology, there are two main types of speech: external and internal. External speech includes oral ( dialogic and monologue) and writing.

External speech:

Dialogic speech is supported speech; dialogue is a direct communication of two or more people; the interlocutor puts clarifying questions during her, giving remarks, can help complete the thought (or reorient it). A kind of dialogic communication is a conversation, in which the dialogue has a thematic focus.

Monologue speech is a long, consistent, coherent presentation of a system of thoughts, knowledge by one person. It also develops in the process of communication, but the nature of communication here is different: the monologue is uninterrupted, so the speaker has an active, expressive-mimic and gestural effect. In monologic speech, in comparison with dialogic speech, the semantic side changes most significantly. Monologue speech is coherent, contextual. Its content must first of all satisfy the requirements of consistency and evidence in the presentation. Another condition, inextricably linked with the first, is the grammatically correct construction of sentences. The monologue does not tolerate incorrect construction of phrases. He makes a number of demands on the pace and sound of speech.

The content side of the monologue should be combined with the expressive side. Expressiveness is created as language means(the ability to use a word, phrase, syntactic construction, which most accurately convey the speaker's intention), and non-linguistic means of communication (intonation, a system of pauses, dismemberment of the pronunciation of a word or several words, which performs the function of a kind of underlining in oral speech, facial expressions and gestures ).

Written speech is a kind of monologue speech. It is more developed than oral monologue speech. This is due to the fact that written speech implies a lack of feedback from the interlocutor. In addition, written speech has no additional means of influencing the perceiver, except for the words themselves, their order and the punctuation marks that organize the sentence.

inner speech- This special kind speech activity. It acts as a planning phase in practical and theoretical activities. Therefore, internal speech, on the one hand, is characterized by fragmentation, fragmentation. On the other hand, misunderstandings in the perception of the situation are excluded here. Therefore, inner speech is extremely situational, in this it is close to dialogic. Inner speech is formed on the basis of external speech.

Disclosure of the theoretical foundations of cognitive activity involves consideration of the essence and content of the process of cognition. What does it mean to know?

To cognize means to reflect in the consciousness of the individual the essence of objects and phenomena that exist independently of him.

Cognition is carried out on the basis of two theories:

reflection theories;

Theories of transformation.

Let us first analyze the main characteristics of the theory of reflection.

Reflection is the ability of phenomena in the process of interaction to reproduce the features of one of them in another.

Therefore, any phenomenon has the property of reflection. In this regard, it is advisable to consider the components of the reflection.

Reflection components (Fig. 1):

reflected;

reflective;

Display.

Rice. 1. Components of reflection

Between these components, certain connections and relationships are established, which are fixed (reflected) in the mind of the student in the course of cognitive activity.

Reflection is usually an active process.

Reflection activity is characterized by the following indicators:

1. It is carried out in the process of activity of the analyzers of the cerebral cortex.

2. Reflection involves a complex mental activity based on the logical operations of analysis, synthesis, etc.

3. The activity of reflection is manifested in its selectivity.

4. The activity of reflection is expressed in relationships, including in cognitive activity.

5. From a variety of phenomena and processes, the subject of cognition actively selects only those that become objects of his cognitive activity.

We emphasize that activity in cognition is carried out in the course of reflective-transformative activity. In this regard, there is a need to define the phenomenon of "transformation", which is considered within the framework of the theory of transformation.

Transformation is the process of changing a certain phenomenon in the direction of its improvement.

The theory of transformation is based on the activity activity of the individual, including in the process of cognition and learning (Scheme 2).

Scheme 2. Activity activity of a person

In the course of an active transformational process, in particular, carried out in the course of cognitive activity, a person changes himself, his mental properties, states, forms a system of knowledge and skills, and develops his abilities.

The activity of cognitive activity finds its manifestation in mental properties, processes and states.

Among them:

1. Feeling.

2. Perception.

3. Representations.

4. Attention.

5. Memory.

6. Imagination.

7. Thinking.

9. Feelings.

The expediency of knowing these properties, processes and states, including in relation to cognitive activity, was emphasized by many thinkers. In particular, Lope de Vega wrote: “Know how to understand the psychological qualities of other people and then you will understand what their inner world is like.”

Consider in summary labeled properties, processes and states.

Sensation is a reflection in the mind of a person of individual properties and qualities of objects and phenomena that directly affect his senses.

The sense organs are the mechanisms by which information about our environment enters the cerebral cortex.

Among the properties and types of sensations that seem significant for cognitive activity, we highlight the following.

Properties of sensations: adaptation, contrast, consistent images.

Types of sensations: visual, auditory, olfactory, gustatory, temperature, tactile.

Feeling can be schematically depicted as follows (Scheme 3).

Scheme 3. Essence of sensations

Perception is a reflection in the mind of a person of objects and phenomena that directly affect his senses as a whole, and not their individual properties, as happens with sensation.

The function of perception is the reflection of objects and phenomena of reality in their integrity.

The physiological mechanism of perception consists in the reflection in the psyche of integral objects and phenomena of the world.

Perception, depending on the purpose, is divided into intentional and unintentional.

Intentional perceptions are characterized by the fact that they are based on a goal. They are associated with the well-known volitional efforts of a person.

Unintentional perceptions are perceptions in which objects of the surrounding reality are perceived without a specially set task, when the process of perception is not associated with human volitional efforts.

Perception, depending on the degree of organization, is divided into organized and unorganized.

Organized perception is a purposeful, systematic perception of objects or phenomena of the surrounding world.

Observations differ from simple organized perception in that the second signaling system plays the leading role here.

Unorganized perception is the usual unintentional perception of the surrounding reality.

Depending on the forms of reflection, it is divided into perceptions:

Spaces;

time;

Movement.

Perceptual features include:

properties of perception;

Physical characteristics of perception.

Perception properties:

Selectivity;

objectivity;

Apperception;

meaningfulness;

Integrity.

Physical characteristics of perception:

Space;

Volumetric;

value;

Depth;

Remoteness;

Linear perspective;

Aerial perspective.

Representation is the process of recreating specific images of objects and phenomena outside world that previously affected our senses.

The presentation functions are:

Signal;

Regulatory;

Tuning.

The essence of the signal function of representations is to reflect in each specific case not only the image of an object that previously influenced our senses, but also the diverse information contained about it, which later, under the influence of specific influences, turned into a system of signals that control our behavior.

The regulatory function of representations is to select the necessary information about an object or phenomenon that previously affected our senses, taking into account the real conditions of the forthcoming activity.

The tuning function of representations is manifested in the orientation of the activity of the human body to certain parameters of reflection of the influences of the surrounding world.

The physiological foundations of representations are "traces" in the cerebral cortex, which are formed after real excitations of the central nervous system.

Representation as a generic phenomenon is divided into the following types:

By types of analyzers;

According to the degree of generalization;

According to the levels of manifestation of volitional efforts;

According to their duration.

Features of the presentation find their expression in:

Generalizations of images;

Schematic;

Attachment to specific conditions;

High degree of meaningfulness;

Refinement of images;

Relative completeness of images.

Attention is the selective focus of human consciousness on certain objects and phenomena.

The function of attention is the concentration of consciousness on the subject of activity.

The physiological mechanism of attention is represented by the processes of excitation and inhibition that occur in the cerebral cortex.

Attention is characterized by the following indicators (Scheme 4).

Scheme 4. Indicators of attention

Attention properties:

Concentration (focus on individual elements, phenomena, processes of the subject being studied);

Selectivity (focusing attention on certain aspects of the subject being studied in accordance with the tasks set);

Distribution (orientation in the subject under study to its individual characteristics);

Volume (holistic vision of the subject being studied);

Intensity (the degree of tension of attention when perceiving a certain object);

Sustainability (a certain system in the perception of the phenomenon under study);

Distraction (reflection in the course of understanding the perceived object).

Memory is the process of capturing, preserving, reproducing and recognizing what a person reflected, did or experienced.

The function of memory is the accumulation of life experience.

The physiological mechanism of memory lies in the possibility of reflecting and storing impressions from the influences of the outside world.

Memory is characterized by certain indicators, among which we single out processes, features and types (Scheme 5).

Scheme 5. Memory indicators

Memory processes include:

memorization;

Preservation;

playback;

Recognition.

Memorization is the imprinting in the mind of a person of the information received, which is necessary condition enrichment of human experience with new knowledge and forms of behavior.

Retention is the retention of acquired knowledge in memory for a relatively long period of time.

Reproduction - activation of the previously fixed content of the material.

Recognition is the processes accompanying memory that allow it to function more efficiently.

Types of memory are shown in Scheme 6.

Scheme 6. Types of memory

Visual-figurative memory is a memory for visual, sound, tactile, olfactory, etc. irritants.

Verbal-logical memory - memory for the meaning of the presentation, its logic, the relationship between the elements of the information received in the dictionary form.

Motor memory is memory for movement.

Emotional memory is the memory of experiences.

Mechanical memory is the storage of information in the form in which it is perceived.

Imagination is a mental cognitive process of creating new ideas based on existing experience, i.e. the process of transformative reflection of reality.

Imagination Functions:

Creation of new images in the mind;

Anticipatory reflection in the consciousness of reality.

Imagination includes the following characteristics:

Isolation of the image of the object;

Changing the size of objects;

Connection of parts of objects;

Construction;

Mental amplification;

Transfer to other objects;

Mental weakening of images;

Creation of new images based on generalization.

The physiological foundations of imagination are the residual forms of processes:

excitation and inhibition;

Irradiation and concentration;

Positive and negative induction;

Analysis and synthesis.

Types of imagination are presented in diagram 7.

Scheme 7. Types of imagination

Thinking is a mental cognitive process of reflecting the essential connections and relationships of objects and phenomena objective world. It is always indirect.

From a physiological point of view, the process of thinking is a complex analytical and synthetic activity of the cerebral cortex. The connections (associations) naturally caused by external stimuli form the physiological basis of the thinking process.

Thinking in its content is divided into mental operations, forms, types and methods that can be represented schematically (Scheme 8).

Cogitative (mental) operations include certain elements and processes that find their expression in the following methods of thinking:

Analysis - the mental dismemberment of objects in the mind, the allocation of their constituent parts, elements, features and properties;

Synthesis is the mental unification of individual parts, elements, features and properties of the analyzed phenomena into a single qualitatively new whole;

Comparison is an important mental operation, which consists in comparing the phenomena under consideration, their properties and signs;

Abstraction - (from the Latin "abstragere" - to distract, delay) the mental separation of some signs and properties of objects from their other features and from the objects themselves, to which they are characteristic;

Generalization is the continuation and deepening of the synthesizing activity of consciousness with the help of speech. Generalization brings thinking to the classification, the purpose of which is the differentiation and subsequent unification of objects on the basis of their common essential features. Classification contributes to the ordering of knowledge and a deeper understanding of their semantic structure.

Concretization - clarification of individual analyzed phenomena in accordance with their inherent specific features and qualities;

Induction - (from Latin inductio - guidance) a type of inference in which the transition from the particular to the general is carried out;

Deduction - (from lat. deductio - derivation) a type of inference in which the transition from the general to the particular is carried out.

Forms of thinking (ie, the process of its organization) find expression in the concepts, judgments and conclusions by which it is carried out.

The concept is a form of thinking, with the help of which the essence of objects and phenomena of reality is known in their essential connections and relationships, their significant features are generalized. Essential features are those that belong to objects under any conditions, express their nature, distinguish them from other objects, designate their most important properties, without which they could not exist. The concept has its scope and content. The scope of a concept is the objects reflected in it, and the content is a reflection of the totality of essential features in it. Concepts are divided into general and singular. General concepts- these are generic, reflecting the most significant features of the analyzed phenomena, and single - specific, reflecting the special features of the phenomena under consideration.

Judgment is a form of mental reflection, which consists in the fact that we affirm the presence or absence of features, properties or relations of certain objects. A characteristic property of judgments is that it exists, manifests itself and is formed in a sentence. A sentence is a grammatical combination of words that fixes a certain proposition. A judgment is true if it correctly reflects the relationships that exist in objective reality.

Inference is a form of thinking in which a new judgment is derived from one or more propositions. Inference can be inductive, deductive and inference by analogy. Inductive reasoning is a judgment in which generalizations are made on the basis of a specific, partial one. Deductive reasoning is a judgment in which, on the basis of the general, knowledge arises about the partial, specific. Inference by analogy is a judgment based on the similarity of essential features that characterize certain objects, on the basis of which a conclusion is made about their possible similarity in other features.

Thinking is divided into visual-effective, figurative and abstract.

Visual-effective thinking is characterized by the fact that it solves problems that are directly included in the activity itself. This type of thinking is characteristic of people in professions that require practical analysis, various combinations and design of activities.

Figurative thinking is characterized by the fact that the content of the task here is figurative material, the operation of which allows you to analyze, compare or generalize the essential features of the objects and phenomena under consideration. This type of thinking allows you to expand the cognitive capabilities of the individual more meaningfully, and reflect the objective reality in a variety of ways.

Abstract thinking is verbal-logical (abstract) thinking, carried out in verbal form with the help of concepts that do not have a direct sensory basis inherent in perception or representation.

Along with the designated types of thinking, there are other approaches to their identification in the literature (Scheme 9).

Scheme 9. Types of thinking

Let's give short definition designated types of thinking.

According to the nature of the tasks to be solved, thinking, as shown in Scheme 9, is divided into theoretical and practical. Theoretical thinking operates with scientific terms, such as the concepts of categories, judgments and inferences. practical thinking comes from life, from empirical facts. At the same time, thinking is based on ideas, perceptions of the surrounding reality, including the subjective opinions of those persons who practically think.

According to the degree of development, thinking is divided into discursive and intuitive. Discursive thinking - (from Latin discursus - reasoning) verbal thinking of a person mediated by past experience, in which each subsequent thought is conditioned by the previous one. Intuitive thinking - (from Latin intuitio - contemplation) the ability of the mind to comprehend the truth without the help of evidence based on feelings without any apparent scientifically based reason. Our ancestors called intuition the "voice of nature", or the sixth sense.

According to the degree of novelty and originality, thinking is divided into reproductive and productive. Reproductive thinking - (from Latin reproductio - reproduction) is thinking based on past experience, on those knowledge, skills and abilities that guarantee the assimilation, accurate reproduction of what is assimilated, analyzed, considered. Productive thinking is a process of thinking based on the inclusion in the course of its deployment of new definitions, judgments and conclusions that give an original product, which is a synthesis of its process.

Speech is the process practical application human language in order to communicate with other people.

The functions of speech are as follows:

1. The function of expression lies in the fact that thanks to speech, a person can, on the one hand, more fully convey his feelings, experiences, relationships, and on the other, significantly expand the possibilities of communication.

2. The function of influence lies in the ability of a person through speech to induce people to action.

3. The function of designation consists in the ability of a person through speech to give objects and phenomena of the surrounding reality their inherent names.

4. The function of communication is to exchange thoughts between people through words and phrases.

Exist certain types speech (Scheme 10).

External speech is communication that can be carried out both in the form of oral and written speech. Accordingly, external speech is divided into oral and written.

Oral speech is communication between people through the pronunciation of words aloud, on the one hand, and their perception by people by ear, on the other.

Written speech is speech carried out by means of written signs.

Inner speech is speech that does not perform the function of communication, but only serves the process of thinking of a particular person.

Oral speech, in turn, is divided into monologue and dialogic.

Monologue speech is the speech of one person expressing his thoughts for a certain time.

Scheme 10. Types of speech

Dialogic speech is a conversation in which at least two interlocutors participate.

The properties of speech are shown in Scheme 11.

Scheme 11. Properties of speech

The expressiveness of speech involves the allocation of the most significant provisions in it that characterize its subject.

The intelligibility of speech can be considered in two directions: objective and subjective intelligibility. Objective intelligibility corresponds to the true content of the topic of conversation, which reflects the objective, organic, natural provisions related to this speech. Subjective intelligibility characterizes the semantic understanding of the topic of speech by its subjects.

The impact of speech is achieved through the use of appropriate methods. We will display them in diagram 12.

Scheme 12. Methods of the impact of speech

Teaching to a greater extent characterizes the impact in terms of teaching its subjects. Instruction is inherent, basically, instructing subjects - how to act in solving certain tasks. The request is more focused on the rational sphere of consciousness of the individual. She appeals to a persuasive effect in relation to a communication partner. The command has direct relation to the volitional sphere of consciousness of the individual. She is forced to fulfill certain requirements, otherwise undesirable consequences will come for her. Instruction is related to both rational and volitional spheres of consciousness. The advice is more connected with the emotional sphere of the consciousness of the individual. In the course of the council, an inspiring influence is exerted on her. For example, when influencing a personality, an emphasis is placed on its benevolent and responsible attitude towards the fulfillment of certain assignments.

Taking into account the fact that when using the indicated methods of influence, we proceeded from the fact that they are related to different areas consciousness of the personality, we will present it schematically (Scheme 13).

Scheme 13. Consciousness of the individual

Designations:

C - consciousness of the individual.

Р – rational (intellectual) sphere of personality's consciousness.

B - volitional sphere of consciousness of the individual.

E - the emotional sphere of consciousness of the individual.

The indicated spheres of personality consciousness are in a dialectical relationship. The noted pattern should be taken into account when influencing it with an emphasis on the indicated methods of influence.

Human emotions and feelings clearly express the spiritual needs and aspirations of a person, his attitude to reality.

Emotion - (from Latin emovere - to excite, excite) is a general active form of experiencing by the human body the features of its life activity.

Feelings are specifically human generalized experiences of relation to needs, the satisfaction or dissatisfaction of which causes positive or negative emotions- joy, love, pride, grief, anger, shame, etc.

Feelings differ from emotions in their objectivity. In this regard, they talk about a feeling of love for the Fatherland, about joy in connection with getting a grade in an exam, about dissatisfaction with the behavior in a certain situation of a person with whom you are on friendly terms.

Emotions express the general experienced attitude to certain phenomena of life activity. For example, to unsatisfactory conditions of educational, labor and other activities.

Emotions are divided into asthenic and sthenic. Asthenic emotions are feelings of depression, despondency, sadness, fear, etc., colored with a negative emotional tone. Sthenic emotions are experiences colored with a positive emotional tone, characterized by an increase in vital activity (in this regard, a state of excitement, joyful excitement, uplift, cheerfulness, etc. arises).

Among the types of emotions and feelings are:

Sensual tone, which finds its manifestation in the experiences that accompany individual vital influences (for example, temperature, pain, taste);

Moods - one of the forms of a person's emotional life, causing an emotional state, colored for a certain period of time by all his experiences;

Affects - (from lat. affectus - emotional excitement, passion) are strong and relatively short-term experiences, accompanied by pronounced motor manifestations. Affects develop in critical conditions when the subject is unable to find the right way out of dangerous, unexpected situations. Possessing the properties of a dominant, affects inhibit mental processes not related to them and impose a stereotypical way of resolving an affective situation (for example, flight, aggression).

Passions - emotional experiences of a person associated with the manifestation of heightened feelings (for example, love, anger) to the objects of her interest;

Stress is a non-specific reaction of the human body to the situation, its protective reaction, formed in the process of life. This reaction mobilizes, prepares the body for possible active actions aimed at getting out of a stressful situation with the least losses;

Feelings, unlike emotions, as noted, are characterized by objectivity, and in this regard are called higher feelings.

The higher senses are divided into:

Moral - feelings in which a person's persistent attitude to events, to other people, to himself is manifested (for example, in feelings of respect, love, friendship, hatred, etc.);

Intellectual - an emotional response to a person's attitude to cognitive activity, manifested in curiosity, a sense of newness, surprise, conviction or doubt;

Aesthetic - feelings of beauty, natural phenomena, harmony of colors, sounds, movements and forms. Harmonious combination in objects of the whole and parts, rhythms and symmetry evoke feelings of pleasure, pleasure, which are deeply experienced and ennoble the soul. Such feelings are caused, for example, by works of art.

Praxic - experiences by a person of his attitude to activity, manifested in enthusiasm, satisfaction with activity, in a creative approach, in joy from success or in displeasure, indifferent attitude towards it. These feelings develop or fade depending on the organization and conditions of activity. It develops especially successfully and becomes stable when the activity impresses the interests, inclinations and abilities of the individual, when the elements of creativity are manifested in the activity, the prospects for its development are outlined.

Will - mental process conscious and purposeful regulation by a person of his activity and behavior in order to achieve the goal.

The function of the will is the conscious regulation of mental activity.

The mechanism of will is the conditionality of volitional action by a consciously set and realized goal.

The will is characterized by certain types of volitional actions, volitional qualities and the structure of volitional action (Scheme 14).

Scheme 14. Characteristics of the will

Arbitrary are called conscious, specially organized actions and movements carried out in accordance with the goal.

Involuntary are called unconscious actions and movements caused by unconditioned stimuli and parts of the central nervous system. They are associated with the protection of the body or with the satisfaction of its organic needs.

Volitional qualities of a person:

Purposefulness is one of the volitional qualities of a personality, characterized by its adherence to principles and conviction and characterized by a deep awareness of the personality of its tasks and the need to implement them.

Independence is one of the volitional qualities of a person, characterizing her desire to show her individuality in the development and implementation of decisions. Independence of the will is manifested in the ability to fundamentally solve the tasks set.

Initiative is important volitional quality personality, which characterizes its ability to independently set tasks for itself and, without reminders and coercion of others, to implement them. Individuality is characterized by the effective activity of the individual.

Endurance is a strong-willed quality of a person, orienting her to a balanced, unhurried decision-making.

Self-control is the ability of a person to be confident in any, including crisis situations. Possessing himself, a person boldly takes on responsible tasks, although he knows that they are associated with danger and even threaten his life;

Perseverance - the ability to timely and deliberately bring the work begun to its logical end;

Decisiveness is a strong-willed quality of a person, indicating her persistent desire to solve the task in the shortest possible time.

Stubbornness is a thoughtless, unjustified manifestation of the will, which consists in the fact that a person insists on his desire, without taking into account the circumstances. Stubbornness is not a manifestation of strength, but of weakness of will.

Suggestibility is a quality of a person, opposite to his independence, manifested in susceptibility to the influence of other people.

The structure of volitional action is characterized by the following components:

1) attraction (unconscious desires);

2) desire (a conscious desire to achieve the goal);

3) desire ( vigorous activity personality, characterized by awareness of the goal and ways to achieve it);

4) the struggle of motives (the clash of conflicting desires, aspirations in the choice of tasks and actions);

5) decision-making (the process of its development and planning for subsequent implementation);

6) action to implement decisions (implementation of decisions, overcoming objective and subjective obstacles).

The characteristic of the considered mental properties and states focuses on the expediency of using them in cognitive activity in the interests of its successful implementation, which, in turn, will help improve the quality of transformative activity associated with the development of skills, abilities, development of abilities, traits and personality traits necessary for it. in life and in professional activity.

The word "function" comes from the Latin functio - "implementation", and in the theory of state and law means "direction"; "subject" and "content" of the activity of the state-legal institution. It is used to describe social role state and law.

The essence and social purpose of law in the life of society is expressed not only in its principles, but also in its functions. They manifest its regulatory role, find expression in the main directions of the impact of law on social relations and people's behavior, and reflect its main social purpose.

Numerous studies of the concept of "function of law" today lead to the conclusion that the function of law must be understood as the main directions of legal influence on social relations and the social purpose of law, which is to regulate public relations, in the organization of the management of society. Functions express the most essential, main features of law and characterize law in action, they are an expression of its dynamic nature.

So, the functions of law are the main directions of legal influence, expressing the role of law in streamlining social relations.

The impact of law on social relations is heterogeneous. Thus, law regulates some relations, protects others, and exerts only indirect influence. Therefore, there is a distinction between legal regulation” and “legal impact”.

The legal impact consists in the process of the influence of law on public life, consciousness and behavior of people. In subject right influence includes economic, political, social relations which are not regulated by law, but to which it somehow extends its influence, and legal regulation associated with the establishment of specific legal rights and obligations of subjects, with direct instructions on proper and possible behavior, i.e. with its help there is a direct regulation of social relations.

The functions of law should be recognized only main directions legal impact. The main direction of the function emphasizes the most important and effective aspects of legal influence and allows not to "fall" into legal idealism and not to see the law as an all-powerful regulator of social relations, which can lead to a reassessment of the role of law in society. In the functions of law, it is necessary to find a kind of " golden mean"- not to belittle the importance of law and at the same time not to see it as a panacea for resolving all the necessary issues of regulating social relations. For example, the legislator's attempt to prevent the departure of foreign currency capital abroad by establishing criminal liability for failure to return funds in foreign currency from abroad (Article 193 of the Criminal Code of the Russian Federation) looks ineffective. Figuratively speaking, the threat of a criminal-legal "club" this problem not decide, because to prevent the flight of capital from Russia, it is necessary to create favorable economic conditions for their preservation and use.

The classification of the functions of law depends on the plane in which they are covered: specifically legal or general social. If we follow the broad meaning of the functions of law, then among them we can distinguish economic, political, educational and communicative functions.

At the special legal level, law performs regulatory and protective functions, classified as such depending on the nature and purpose of the legal impact. Other classifications of the functions of law are also possible. Each of the branches of law has its own specifics, respectively, the functions of the constitutional, civil, financial, administrative, criminal and other branches of law are distinguished, respectively, the functions of sub-branches of law, legal institutions and individual rules of law can be distinguished. In their totality, all types of functions form complex system, influencing social relations with the help of a wide variety of techniques and methods.

Regulatory function of law- this is the main direction of legal influence due to its social purpose, which consists in consolidating, streamlining social relations and shaping their movement through permits, prohibitions, obligations and encouragements. Within the framework of the regulatory function, two sub-functions are distinguished: regulatory-static And regulatory-dynamic. The impact of the first is to consolidate social relations, the impact of the second is to shape their dynamics (movement).

Most characteristic features implementation of the regulatory function are: determining the legal personality of citizens, fixing and changing their legal status and status legal entities; definition of competence government agencies And officials; consolidation of legal facts aimed at the emergence, change and termination of regulatory legal relations; establishing a legal relationship between subjects of law; determination of the components of lawful behavior.

Protective function of law- this is the main direction of legal influence, aimed at protecting social relations and ousting anti-social phenomena that are contrary to established values.

Within the framework of the protective function, its sub-functions are carried out: general preventive, private preventive, punitive, restorative and control. The variety of subfunctions of the protective function of law determines both the variety of its manifestations and the sequence of action of the various elements that make it up. So, if the general preventive effect does not turn out to be effective, the punitive, particular preventive and restorative subfunctions begin to work. In any case, the punishment of the offender and the restoration of social relations is already a secondary result of the protective function, which initially acts as a means of protecting those relations that objectively need it.

The most common and characteristic features of the protective function of law are:

• firstly, the fixing of prohibited behaviors in the norms, which directs the activity of the subject in the necessary direction and warns him against a possible violation of legal norms, because. he is told how it is forbidden to act in this or that situation. The prevention of possible deviant behavior does not begin with a sanction, but with the definition (establishment) of obligations to comply with the norm and their clarification, therefore, the protective function has certain features inherent in the regulatory function;
• secondly, the establishment of sanctions for the commission of offenses AND THEIR informational impact (threat of application), and informational impact from the practice of applying punishment (penalty), which have a preemptive value for people with antisocial attitudes;
• thirdly, the direct implementation of the sanctions of legal norms (in the case of offenses), which restrict the rights of the offender and at the same time direct his behavior in the necessary direction or deprive him of the actual opportunity to commit a new offense and inform that in the event of a repeated offense, a more stringent one will be applied. measure of responsibility. For example, a ban on foreign exchange operations by a bank deprives it of the actual opportunity to commit an offense that infringes on foreign exchange relations, and in cases of systematic violation of the current legislation by the bank, a more severe measure of liability (license revocation) can be applied;
• fourthly, fixing legal regulations the obligations of the offender to restore the harm caused, which occurs simultaneously with the establishment of the rights and obligations of the competent authorities to bring the perpetrator to justice and force him to restore public relations. For example, the application of a fine to a tax offender does not relieve him of the obligation to pay tax, and the competent authorities not only have the right, but are also obliged to accept all necessary measures for its payment;
• fifthly, the condemnation (censure) of the offender, the narrowing of his property sphere, the deprivation of subjective rights, i.e. his punishment, carried out solely for the purpose of preventing offenses, educating the offender and restoring social relations.

The regulatory and protective functions of law cannot be understood in a simplified way. In fact, the regulatory and protective functions are in close interaction, intertwined with each other, and can act simultaneously; it is quite difficult to distinguish between them and is possible only on theoretical level. It is difficult to imagine such a protection of social relations that would not involve their regulation. Thus, the protective function, supplementing the regulative one, ultimately influences the behavior of the subjects and regulates their behavior, preventing the development of a deviant variant both when the subjects commit active actions and when they refrain from performing certain actions (including under the threat of applying a sanction). In this, in fact, the main purpose of law is manifested - to be a regulator of social relations.

However hallmark The regulatory function is its primary character in relation to the protective function. Before the guarding of relations follows, they must be ordered. Separate subfunctions of the protective function (punitive and restorative) cannot arise at all if the regulatory legal relationship is not violated.