Liberal attitude towards people. Liberal ideology: concept, general characteristics

What is liberalism? Each person will answer this question differently. Even in dictionaries they give different definitions this concept. This article explains what liberalism is, in simple words.

Definitions

Several of the most precise definitions of the concept of “liberalism” can be identified.

1. Ideology, political movement. It unites admirers of parliamentarism, democratic rights and free enterprise.

2. Theory, a system of political and philosophical ideas. It was formed among Western European thinkers in the 18th-19th centuries.

3. The worldview characteristic of ideologists from among the industrial bourgeoisie, who defended freedom of enterprise and their political rights.

4. In the primary sense - freethinking.

5. Excessive tolerance, condescension, conciliatory attitude towards bad deeds.

Speaking about what liberalism is, in simple words, it should be noted that this is a political and ideological movement, whose representatives deny revolutionary methods of struggle in achieving certain rights and benefits, advocate free enterprise, and the introduction of democratic principles into life.

Basic principles of liberalism

The ideology of liberalism differs from other theories of political and philosophical thought in its special principles. They were formulated by scientists back in the 18th-19th centuries, and representatives of this movement are still striving to bring them to life.

1. Human life is an absolute value.
2. All people are equal to each other.
3. The will of the individual does not depend on external factors.
4. The needs of one person are more important than the collective. The category “personality” is primary, “society” is secondary.
5. Every person has natural inalienable rights.
6. The state should arise on the basis of general consensus.
7. Man himself creates laws and values.
8. The citizen and the state are responsible to each other.
9. Sharing of power. The dominance of the principles of constitutionalism.
10. The government must be elected through fair democratic elections.
11. Tolerance and humanism.

Ideologists of classical liberalism

Each ideologist of this movement understood what liberalism was in his own way. This theory is represented by many concepts and opinions, which can sometimes contradict each other. Origins classical liberalism can be seen in the works of S. Montesquieu, A. Smith, J. Locke, J. Mill, T. Hobbes. It was they who laid the foundations of the new movement. The basic principles of liberalism were developed during the Enlightenment in France by Charles Montesquieu. He spoke for the first time about the need for separation of powers and recognition of individual freedom in all spheres of life.

Adam Smith substantiated what economic liberalism is, and also identified its main principles and characteristics. J. Locke is the founder of the theory of the rule of law. In addition, he is one of the most prominent ideologists of liberalism. J. Locke argued that stability in a society can only exist if it consists of free people.

Features of liberalism in the classical sense

The ideologists of classical liberalism focused on the concept of “individual freedom”. Unlike absolutist ideas, their concepts denied the complete subordination of the individual to society and social orders. The ideology of liberalism defended the independence and equality of all people. Freedom was perceived as the absence of any restrictions or prohibitions on the implementation of conscious actions of an individual within the framework of generally accepted rules and laws. The state, according to the fathers of classical liberalism, is obliged to ensure the equality of all citizens. However, a person must independently worry about his financial situation.

Liberalism proclaimed the need to limit the scope of state activities. Its functions should be reduced to a minimum and consist of maintaining order and ensuring security. Power and society can only exist if they obey the laws.

Models of classical liberalism

The fathers of classical liberalism are considered to be J. Locke, J.-J. Russo, J. St. Mill, T. Payne. They defended the ideas of individualism and human freedom. In order to understand what liberalism is in the classical sense, one should consider its interpretations.

1. Continental European model. Representatives of this concept (F. Guizot, B. Constant, J.-J. Rousseau, B. Spinoza) defended the ideas of constructivism, rationalism in interaction with nationalism, and attached greater importance to freedom within society than for individuals.
2. Anglo-Saxon model. Representatives of this concept (J. Locke, A. Smith, D. Hume) put forward the ideas of a rule of law, unlimited trade, and were convinced that freedom is more important for an individual than for society as a whole.
3. North American model. Representatives of this concept (J. Adams, T. Jefferson) developed the ideas of inalienable human rights.

Economic liberalism

This trend of liberalism was based on the idea that economic laws operate in the same way as natural ones. Government intervention in this area was considered unacceptable.

A. Smith is considered the father of the concept of economic liberalism. His teaching was based on the following ideas.

1. The best incentive for economic development is personal interest.
2. Government measures for regulation and monopolies, which were practiced within the framework of mercantilism, are harmful.
3. Economic development is directed by the “invisible hand”. The necessary institutions must arise naturally without government intervention. Firms and resource suppliers that are interested in increasing their own wealth and operate within the framework of a competitive market system, are supposedly guided by an “invisible hand”, which contributes to the satisfaction of social needs.

The emergence of neoliberalism

Considering what liberalism is, a definition must be given to two concepts - classical and modern (new).

By the beginning of the 20th century. in this direction of political and economic thought, crisis phenomena begin to appear. In many Western European countries, workers' strikes are taking place, and industrial society is entering a period of conflict. Under such conditions, the classical theory of liberalism ceases to coincide with reality. New ideas and principles are being formed. The central problem of modern liberalism is the issue of social guarantees of individual rights and freedoms. This was largely due to the popularity of Marxism. In addition, the need for social measures was considered in the works of I. Kant, J. St. Mill, G. Spencer.

Principles of modern (new) liberalism

The new liberalism is characterized by an orientation towards rationalism and targeted reforms with the aim of improving existing state and political systems. A special place is occupied by the problem of comparing freedom, justice and equality. There is a concept of “elite”. It is formed from the most worthy members of the group. It is believed that society can achieve triumph only thanks to the elite and dies with it.

The economic principles of liberalism are defined by the concepts of “free market” and “minimal state”. The problem of freedom acquires an intellectual connotation and is translated into the area of ​​morality and culture.

Features of neoliberalism

As a social philosophy and political concept, modern liberalism has its own characteristics.

1. Government intervention in the economy is necessary. The government must protect freedom of competition and the market from the possibility of monopoly.
2. Support for the principles of democracy and justice. The broad masses must actively participate in the political process.
3. The state is obliged to develop and implement programs aimed at supporting low-income segments of the population.

Differences between classical and modern liberalism

History of the development of Russian liberalism

In Russia already in the 16th century. an understanding of what liberalism is is emerging. Several stages can be distinguished in the history of its development.

1. Government liberalism. Originated in high circles Russian society. The period of government liberalism coincides with the reign of Catherine II and Alexander I. In fact, its existence and development spanned the era of enlightened absolutism.
2. Post-reform (conservative) liberalism. Prominent representatives of this era were P. Struve, K. Kavelin, B. Chicherin and others. At the same time, zemstvo liberalism was being formed in Russia.
3. New (social) liberalism. Representatives of this trend (N. Kareev, S. Gessen, M. Kovalevsky, S. Muromtsev, P. Milyukov) defended the idea of ​​​​creating decent living conditions for every person. At this stage, the prerequisites for the formation of the Cadets Party were formed.

These liberal trends not only differed from each other, but also had many differences with Western European concepts.

Government liberalism

Previously, we looked at what liberalism is (definition from history and political science, characteristics, features). However, authentic directions of this movement have formed in Russia. A prime example is government liberalism. It reached the peak of its development during the reign of Alexander I. At this time liberal ideas spread among the nobility. The reign of the new emperor began with a series of progressive changes. It was allowed to freely cross the border, import foreign books, etc. On the initiative of Alexander I, a Secret Committee was created, which was involved in developing projects for new reforms. It included those close to the emperor. The plans of the leaders of the Secret Committee included reforming the state system, creating a constitution, and even abolishing serfdom. However, under the influence of reactionary forces, Alexander I decided on only partial reforms.

The emergence of conservative liberalism in Russia

Conservative liberalism was quite widespread in England and France. In Russia, this direction has taken on special features. Conservative liberalism dates back to the assassination of Alexander II. The reforms that the emperor developed were only partially implemented, and the country still needed transformation. The emergence of a new direction is due to the fact that in the highest circles of Russian society they began to understand what liberalism and conservatism are, and tried to avoid their extremes.

Ideologists of conservative liberalism

In order to understand what post-reform liberalism in Russia is, it is necessary to consider the concepts of its ideologists.

K. Kavelin is the founder of the conceptual approach to this direction of political thought. His student, B. Chicherin, developed the foundations of the theory of conservative liberalism. He defined this direction as “positive,” the goal of which is to implement reforms necessary for society. At the same time, all segments of the population must defend not only their ideas, but also take into account the interests of others. According to B. Chicherin, society can be strong and stable only if it relies on power. At the same time, a person must be free, since he is the beginning and source of all social relations.

P. Struve was involved in the development of the philosophical, cultural and methodological foundations of this direction. He believed that only a rational combination of conservatism and liberalism could save Russia in the post-reform period.

Features of post-reform liberalism

1. Recognition of the need for government regulation. At the same time, the directions of its activities must be clearly identified.
2. The state is recognized as the guarantor of stability of relations between various groups within the country.
3. The realization that during a period of increasing failures of reformers, it becomes possible for authoritarian leaders to come to power.
4. Transformations in the economy can only be gradual. The ideologists of post-reform liberalism argued that it was necessary to monitor society's reaction to each reform and carry them out with caution.
5. Selective attitude towards Western society. It is necessary to use and accept only what meets the needs of the state.

The ideologists of this direction of political thought sought to implement their ideas through an appeal to mass values ​​that were formed in the process of historical development of society. This is precisely the goal and distinguishing feature conservative liberalism.

Zemstvo liberalism

Speaking about post-reform Russia, one cannot fail to mention what zemstvo liberalism is. This direction emerges at the end of the 19th - beginning of the 20th centuries. At this time, modernization was taking place in Russia, which led to an increase in the number of intelligentsia, in whose circles an opposition movement was formed. A secret circle “Conversation” was created in Moscow. It was his work that laid the foundation for the formation of the ideas of the liberal opposition. Members of this circle were zemstvo leaders F. Golovin, D. Shipov, D. Shakhovsky. The magazine “Osvobozhdenie,” which was published abroad, became the mouthpiece of the liberal oppositionists. Its pages spoke of the need to overthrow autocratic power. In addition, the liberal opposition advocated expanding the rights and opportunities of zemstvos, as well as their Active participation in public administration.

New liberalism in Russia

The liberal trend in Russian political thought acquired new features by the beginning of the 20th century. The direction is being formed in an atmosphere of sharp criticism of the concept of “rule of law”. That is why liberals set themselves the task of justifying the progressive role of government institutions in the life of society.
It is important to note that in the 20th century. Russia is entering a period of social crisis. The new liberals saw its cause as ordinary economic instability and spiritual and moral catastrophe. They believed that a person should have not only the means to subsist, but also leisure, which he would use to improve himself.

Radical liberalism

Speaking about what liberalism is, we should note the existence of its radical direction. In Russia it took shape at the beginning of the 20th century. The main goal of this movement was the overthrow of the autocracy. A striking example of the activities of radical liberals was the Constitutional Democratic Party (Cadets). Considering this direction, it is necessary to highlight its principles.

1. Downplaying the role of the state. Hopes are placed on spontaneous processes.
2. Achieving your goals in various ways. The possibility of using coercive methods is not denied.
3. In the economic field, only rapid and deep macro-reforms are possible, which cover as many aspects as possible.
4. One of the main values ​​of radical liberalism is the combination of the experience of world culture and developed European states with the problems of Russia.

Modern Russian liberalism

What is modern liberalism in Russia? This issue still remains controversial. Researchers put forward different versions about the origins of this trend, its principles and features in Russia.
Scientists highlight some features of modern liberalism in Russia. Let's take a closer look at them.

1. Discussions about the political system often go beyond the boundaries of liberalism.
2. Justification for the need for existence market economy.
3. Promotion and protection of private property rights.
4. The emergence of the question of “Russian identity”.
5. In the field of religion, most liberals advocate a tolerant attitude towards other faiths.

conclusions

Today, there are many currents in the liberal direction of political thought. Each of them has developed its own principles and special features. Recently, there has been debate in the world community about what innate liberalism is and whether it exists at all. It should be noted that even the French enlighteners argued that freedom is a right, but understanding its necessity is not available to everyone.

In general, we can say that liberal ideas and reforms are an integral feature of modern life.

Contrary to the popular belief that liberalism is something completely new, brought into Russian culture by trends from the West, liberal political views in Russia have a very extensive history. Usually the arrival of these political views in our country is usually dated to the mid-18th century, when the first thoughts about freedom began to creep into the minds of the most enlightened citizens of the state. Most a prominent representative The first generation of liberals in Russia is considered to be M.M. Speransky.

But, if you think about it, liberalism is a phenomenon almost as ancient as Christianity, and even as After all, coming precisely from the Greek word meaning freedom, liberal political views, first of all, imply the value of freedom itself as the greatest gift found in human power. AND we're talking about not only about internal but also about the freedom of a citizen from the state. This means non-interference by the state in any private affairs of its citizens, the opportunity to freely express their political views, the absence of censorship and dictatorship on the part of the country’s leaders, and this is what both ancient philosophers and the first adherents of Christianity preached.

By personal freedom, people who preach liberal views understand the freedom of self-realization, as well as the freedom to resist any force coming from outside. If a person is internally unfree, this inevitably leads to his collapse as a person, because external interference can easily break him. Liberals consider the consequence of lack of freedom to be an increase in aggression and the inability to adequately evaluate key ideological concepts such as truth, good, and evil.

In addition, liberal means that it must be guaranteed by the state. Freedom of choice of residence, movement, and others are the foundations on which any liberal government must rest. At the same time, for adherents of liberalism, even the slightest manifestation of aggression is unacceptable - any changes in the state should be achieved only through evolutionary, peaceful means. Revolution in any form is already a violation of the freedom of some citizens by others, and, therefore, it is unacceptable for those who profess liberal political views. In Russia at the end of the 19th and beginning of the 20th century, liberals lost precisely because they expected reforms from the authorities that would help transform the country without bloodshed. But, unfortunately, this path of development of the state was rejected by the monarchy, which resulted in a revolution.

Thus, if we fail summary, we can say that liberal political views are such worldview ideas and ideological concepts, which are based on exceptional respect for freedom as the highest value. Political and economic rights of a citizen, the possibility of realizing freedom throughout the country entrepreneurial activity, the absence of total control by the state over its citizens, democratization of society - these are the main features of liberalism as a political system of views.

To implement such a system, a clear separation is necessary to avoid its concentration in the hands of individuals or oligarchies. Therefore, clearly defined and independent from each other executive, judicial and legislative powers are an integral attribute of any state living according to liberal laws. Considering this, and also the fact that in almost all democratic countries In the world, freedom and human rights are the highest values, we can safely say that it was liberalism that became the basis for the creation of modern statehood.

The term “liberalism” (from the Latin liberalis - free) was first used in Spain in 1811 in Spain. Subsequently, this term entered all European languages. The ideas of liberalism were actively developed and defended by such thinkers as J. Locke, T. Hobbes, A. Smith, C. Montesquieu, I. Kant, T. Jefferson, B. Constant, A. De Tocqueville, I. Bentham, J. St. Mill and others. As an ideological and political phenomenon, liberalism arose on the basis of the ideas of the Enlightenment in the late XYII - early XYIII centuries. In the early stages of its development, it was the most important means of struggle of the “third estate” led by the bourgeoisie against the existing absolutist order. Therefore, its content was directly related to the needs and interests of the emerging bourgeoisie. From the very beginning, the foundation of liberalism was laid down by the principles of individual freedom, its high self-worth and the right to self-realization, as well as the recognition of its responsibility to society. Freedom was understood by liberals as freedom from state, church and other forms of social control. Based on these prerequisites, the economic and political guidelines of liberalism were formed. In the economic sphere, the idea of ​​individual freedom was interpreted by liberals as freedom of private enterprise and the market. They consistently advocated for the liberation of economic activity from state regulation and for providing maximum scope for private initiative. Economic freedom, according to liberals, is the basis of civil and political freedoms. The principle of freedom in the political sphere was interpreted by liberals as freedom from restrictions from the state. On the basis of such an attitude, the idea of ​​the “night watchman state” was formulated, the essence of which was that the state should be endowed with only the most minimal and necessary functions that ensure the protection of order, legality and protection of the country from external danger. It was noted that civil society should have priority over the state, which can be achieved on the basis of the principles of constitutionalism and parliamentarism. Liberals defended the ideas of the rule of law as a means of limiting the state and the separation of powers as an instrument of public control over the state. Opposing class privileges, they emphasized the idea of ​​equality of citizens before laws, which should be more in the nature of prohibitions rather than regulations. Such ideas of liberalism created a theoretical basis for the formation of the rule of law. By the beginning of the twentieth century, liberalism found itself in a rather difficult position in Western countries. The development of the free market and entrepreneurship has gone from an idea to a reality. But it was then that it became clear that the unrestricted play of market forces in conditions of social insecurity of workers did not bring the majority of society either prosperity or freedom. In such a situation, trust in traditional liberal values ​​fell sharply and a revision of the most important provisions of classical liberalism began. Under the influence of the current situation, as well as the development of the labor and social democratic movement, ideas of social justice, state support for the poor, elimination of extremes of property inequality, etc. appeared in the arsenal of liberals. As a result, liberalism evolved into “social liberalism (neoliberalism)” Decisive The socialist revolution in Russia and the global economic crisis of the early 1930s played a role in the establishment of neoliberalism as one of the most important reformist ideologies of the twentieth century, which raised the question of the need to rethink such postulates of classical liberalism as unlimited individual freedom and freedom of competition. Of particular importance were the ideas of the English economist J. Keynes (1881 - 1946), which were widely popular in those years, who developed a model of state regulation aimed at a sharp expansion of state intervention in the economy and a significant limitation of its market principles. The Keynesian model also provided for a significant expansion of consumer demand based on a significant increase in government spending, the creation of social guarantees for the poor in the field of medicine, education, employment, pensions, etc. In practice, the ideas of neoliberalism were first implemented in the “New Deal” President F. Roosevelt, elected in 1932. His government began to actively pursue a policy of demonopolizing the economy and implementing its state regulation. Unemployment benefits were introduced, the activities of trade unions were legalized, and collective agreements began to be concluded between workers and entrepreneurs. Subsequently, similar processes covered almost all industrialized countries. The main difference between neoliberalism and classical liberalism is the recognition of the active role of the state in regulating the economy and pursuing social policy. The idea of ​​its detachment from economic and social processes has been replaced by the understanding that the state must do everything possible to help end social conflicts and smooth out excessive social inequality on the basis of supporting the poorest and most socially vulnerable sections of society. It was recognized that such a policy can be carried out by the state only on the basis of its active influence on economic processes. Under these conditions, liberals, like Social Democrats, began to defend the ideas of medical care available to all citizens, free school and higher education, expansion of the social security system, etc. They were also adherents of the idea of ​​progressive taxation, believing that large owners should bear their share of responsibility for the social stability of society. As a result of the implementation of similar policies in the West, a new model of state was created, called the “welfare state.” However, in the 70s, neoliberal ideology also began to lose its influence, which, while remaining faithful to the basic principles of freedom and market entrepreneurship, absorbed a number of ideas that were previously unusual for it (emphasis on social equality of citizens, recognition of the need for government intervention in the economy and social life society, etc.), which gave rise to a violation of its internal integrity and consistency. The economic crisis of the 70s, accompanied by the crisis of the “welfare state,” was largely a consequence of the policies pursued by neoliberal-oriented parties. As a result of the decline in their popularity, they were forced to cede state power to parties pursuing neoconservative policies. However, later liberalism again embarked on the path of rethinking its leading principles. In particular, the need to return to the principles of stimulating market mechanisms while simultaneously reducing the regulatory role of the state was recognized.

Having inherited a number of ideas of the ancient Greek thinkers Lucretius and Democritus, liberalism as an independent ideological movement was formed on the basis of the political philosophy of the English enlighteners D., Locke, T. Hobbes, A. Smith at the end of the 17th-18th centuries. Linking individual freedom with respect for fundamental human rights, as well as with the system of private property, liberalism based its concept on the ideals of free competition, market, and entrepreneurship.

Liberalism is an ideology that proclaims the recognition of the political and economic rights of the individual within the framework of laws that are a generalization of the natural needs and inalienable rights of people to life, freedom, property, security, order. Liberalism provides for a structure of society and power mechanisms in which free competition and the market limit the role of the state in the life of society.

The main, system-forming principles of liberalism are the following:

1) natural equality of people;

2) the presence and guarantee of the inalienability of such human rights as the right to life, freedom, property;

3) the rule of law, its binding on everyone;

4) the contractual nature of relations between the state and citizens, providing for their mutual responsibility;

5) a democratic political regime that gives all citizens equal rights to vote and be elected;

6) the presence of a developed civil society and guarantees of non-interference in private life;

7) constitutionalism, which provides for the limitation of legislative and executive powers through, first of all, a system of separation of powers, a mechanism of checks and balances, establishing limits and “clear” procedures for the activities of legislators.

The main problems of liberal ideology have always been the determination of the permissible degree and nature of state intervention in the private life of an individual, the combination of democracy and freedom, loyalty to a specific Fatherland and universal human rights.

Attempts to resolve these issues led to the emergence of numerous internal trends in liberalism. So, in the 20th century. Along with traditional liberalism, trends were formed that attempted to combine its core values ​​with total reliance on the state, or with socially oriented ideas that affirmed the greater responsibility of society for the well-being of all people rather than of the individual, or with ideas that denied the social orientation of the state’s activities (“conservative liberalism ") etc.

The strengthening of elements of state ideology and social goals, which adapted the traditional values ​​of liberalism to the economic and political realities of the second half of the 20th century, led to talk about its historically updated form - neoliberalism. The most important advantage of the political system here was proclaimed justice, and the government’s orientation towards moral principles and values. The political program of the neoliberals was based on the ideas of consensus between the managers and the governed, the need for mass participation in the political process, and the democratization of the procedure for making managerial decisions.

In contrast to the previous tendency to mechanically determine the democracy of political life by the majority, preference began to be given to pluralistic forms of organization and exercise of state power. Moreover, R. Dahl, C. Lindblum and other neopluralists believe that the weaker the rule of the majority, the more consistent it is with the principles of liberalism. True, representatives of right-wing liberal movements (F. Hayek, D. Escher, G. Olson) believe that with pluralism, mechanisms can be formed for the majority to expropriate the rich minority, and this can jeopardize the fundamental principles of liberalism.

At the same time, the orientation preserved in neoliberalism primarily towards public types of human activity (political activity, entrepreneurship, freedom from prejudice, etc.), the traditional attitude towards morality as a private matter of a person (which does not contribute to the strengthening of all connections and relationships in society, and at times carries the danger of atomization of society) limit the electoral base of these ideas in modern conditions.

On the other hand, it was the basic values ​​of liberalism that caused a fundamental change in mass political views in many countries of the world and formed the basis of many national ideologies, guidelines for neoconservatism and Christian-democratic ideology. On a liberal basis, various theories of political participation, democratic elitism, etc. have developed.

Liberalism - school in international studies, which is fundamentally opposed to realism. The origins of this trend are in the works of J. Locke, I. Kant, A. Smith, J. S. Mill. The founder of this school is considered to be Woodrow Wilson (1856-1924), the 28th President of the United States, one of the founders of the League of Nations. Representatives of this school are also called idealists, and the school itself is called idealistic. Idealism was especially widespread in 1919-1939 and represented an attempt through international institutions, primarily the League of Nations, to ensure peace and cooperation between states.

The idealistic approach is distinguished from other approaches by a clearly expressed ethical position. It proceeds from an optimistic idea of ​​the nature of man as a rational being, capable of moral improvement, peaceful coexistence, and for the sake of the common good, ready to abandon the politics of force and the desire for dominance. Idealists sought to create a harmonious model of international relations, devoid of military conflicts. They put international cooperation, legal resolution of conflicts, regulation of relations between peoples with the help of international organizations, and discussion of controversial issues in negotiations at the forefront. The factor of power in politics was not valued as highly as among the realists; economic and legal levers were considered more effective means of influence. Liberals proceeded from the fact that the interaction of states on the world stage in order to maintain peace and economic prosperity must necessarily be regulated by intergovernmental organizations and international regimes (rules, norms, procedures jointly developed by members of the world community in a specific area of ​​international relations, for example, in trade, financial policy and etc.). In a liberal approach, states are recognized as the main participants in international relations, but not the only ones. It is emphasized that, along with them, there are intergovernmental (UN, OSCE, etc.) and non-governmental organizations (human rights, environmental, humanitarian, transnational corporations, etc.).

In the 1980s, a school appeared neoliberalism A(or structural liberalism), which continues classical liberalism, but takes into account the new realities of the world political process: complex interdependence, developing interstate cooperation, integration, the creation of a global community. Neoliberalism places particular emphasis on the relationship between politics and economics. Due to the interdependence of states, the possibilities for their cooperation through international organizations should increase, and the influence of anarchy on the international environment should weaken.

Within neoliberalism and several directions and concepts have emerged, which are sometimes considered as independent conceptual schools. These include, first of all, the concept complex interdependence. Its representatives are American political scientists Robert Keohane and Joseph Nye. In this concept, international politics is analyzed from the point of view of the participation of many political actors in it - not only states, but also non-governmental organizations (there are over 10,000 of them in the world today), including influential transnational corporations. Parties, churches, trade unions and other organizations actively participated in political life. The state has ceased to be the only actor on the world stage; moreover, it is losing its role as the main subject of international politics in favor of international organizations. Recognition of the diversity of actors, types and channels of interaction between them has led to the fact that in the study of world politics, now instead of the concept of international (and essentially interstate) relations, the concept has begun to be used transnational relations. The model of transnational relations, which emphasizes the role of non-state actors, was formulated by R. Keohane together with J. Nye, and the concept of complex interdependence is often attributed to transnationalist, or globalist school.

According to interdependence theory, all political actors influence to a greater or lesser extent international politics. They are interested not only in economic cooperation, but also in joining forces to solve common, global problems, for example, environmental protection, arms limitation, non-proliferation nuclear weapons etc. The position of any country depends on its relations with other states and on international system generally. Due to the growing interdependence of various countries, the distinction between internal and foreign policy state is becoming more and more relative: not only foreign policy depends on domestic policy, but also domestic policy on foreign policy, and in all to a greater extent. The multilateral dependence of states makes forceful resolution of conflicts unprofitable, while cooperation creates conditions for peace and prosperity, transnationalists say.

Liberals– representatives of an ideological and socio-political movement that unites supporters of representative government and individual freedom, and in economics – freedom of enterprise.

general information

Liberalism originated in Western Europe during the era of struggle against absolutism and domination Catholic Church(16th–18th centuries). The foundation of the ideology was laid during the period of the European Enlightenment (J. Locke, C. Montesquieu, Voltaire). Physiocratic economists formulated the popular slogan “don’t interfere with action,” which expressed the idea of ​​state non-interference in the economy. The rationale for this principle was given by the English economists A. Smith and D. Ricardo. In the 18th–19th centuries. the social environment of liberals was predominantly bourgeois strata. Radical liberals associated with democracy played an important role in the American Revolution (embodied in the US Constitution of 1787). 19th–20th centuries The main provisions of liberalism were formed: civil society, individual rights and freedoms, the rule of law, democratic political institutions, freedom of private enterprise and trade.

Principles of liberalism

The essential features of liberalism are determined by the etymology of the word itself (Latin Liberaly - free).

The main principles of liberalism in the political sphere are:

• personal freedom, the priority of the individual in relation to the state, recognition of the right of all people to self-realization. It should be noted that in the ideology of liberalism, individual freedom coincides with political freedom and “natural rights” of man, the most important of which are the right to life, liberty and private property;
• restriction of the scope of state activities; protection of private life – primarily from the arbitrariness of the state; “the curbing of the state through a constitution that guarantees individual freedom of action within the limits of the law;
• the principle of political pluralism, freedom of thought, speech, and belief.
• delimitation of the spheres of activity of the state and civil society, non-interference of the former in the affairs of the latter;
• in the economic sphere - freedom of individual and group entrepreneurial activity, self-regulation of the economy according to the laws of competition and free market, non-interference of the state in the economic sphere, inviolability of private property;
• in the spiritual sphere – freedom of conscience, i.e. the right of citizens to profess (or not to profess) any religion, the right to formulate their moral duties, etc.

Success and development of the direction

In its completed classical form, liberalism established itself in state structure Great Britain, the USA, France and a number of other European countries in the second half of the 19th century. But already at the end of the 19th – beginning of the 20th centuries. a decline in the influence of liberal ideology is revealed, which developed into a crisis that lasted until the 30s of the 20th century, which was associated with the new socio-political realities of this period.

On the one hand, left without state control free competition led to the self-liquidation of the market economy as a result of the concentration of production and the formation of monopolies, ruined small and medium-sized enterprises on the other, unlimited property rights caused a powerful labor movement, economic and political shocks, especially evident in the late 20s - early 30s. XX century All this forced us to reconsider a number of liberal attitudes and value guidelines.

Thus, within the framework of classical liberalism, neoliberalism is formed, the origin of which many scientists associate with the activities of American President F. D. Roosevelt (1933–1945). The rethink affected primarily the economic and social role of the state. At the core new form liberalism - the ideas of the English economist D. Keynes.

Neoliberalism

As a result of lengthy discussions and theoretical searches in the first half of the 20th century. Certain basic principles of classical liberalism were revised and an updated concept of “social liberalism” was developed - neoliberalism.

The neoliberal program was based on ideas such as:

• consensus between managers and managed;
• the need for mass participation in the political process;
• democratization of the procedure for making political decisions (the principle of “political justice”);
• limited government regulation of economic and social spheres;
• state restrictions on the activities of monopolies;
• guarantees of certain (limited) social rights (the right to work, to education, to benefits in old age, etc.).

In addition, neoliberalism involves protecting the individual from abuse and negative consequences market system. The core values ​​of neoliberalism were borrowed by other ideological movements. It is attractive because it serves as the ideological basis for the legal equality of individuals and the rule of law.

Forms

Classical liberalism

Liberalism is the most widespread ideological movement that formed at the end of the 17th-18th centuries. as the ideology of the bourgeois class. John Locke (1632–1704) is considered the founder of classical liberalism - English philosopher. He was the first to clearly separate concepts such as personality, society, state, and singled out legislative and executive branch. Locke's political theory, set out in “Two Treatises on Government,” is directed against patriarchal absolutism and views the socio-political process as the development of human society from a state of nature to civil society and self-government.

The main purpose of government from his point of view is to protect the rights of citizens to life, liberty and property, and in order to secure natural rights, equality and freedom, people agree to establish a state. Locke formulated the idea of ​​the rule of law, arguing that in a state absolutely any organ must obey the law. In his opinion, legislature in the state must be separated from the executive (including judicial and external relations), and the government itself must also strictly obey the law.

Social liberalism and conservative liberalism

At the end of the 19th – beginning of the 20th centuries. representatives of liberal movements began to feel a crisis in the ideas of classical liberalism associated with the aggravation of social contradictions and the spread of socialist ideas. Under these conditions, new trends in liberalism emerged - “social liberalism” and “conservative liberalism.” In “social liberalism” the main ideas boiled down to the fact that the state had social functions, and was given the responsibility of providing for the most disadvantaged sections of society. “Conservative liberalism,” on the contrary, rejected any social activity of the state. Under the influence of the further development of social processes, the internal evolution of liberalism took place, and in the 30s of the 20th century, neoliberalism was born. Researchers associate the beginning of neoliberalism with the “New Deal” of the American president.

Political liberalism

Political liberalism is the belief that individuals are the foundation of law and society and that public institutions exist to help empower individuals with real power without kowtowing to elites. This is the belief in political philosophy and political science is called “methodological individualism.” It is based on the idea that each person knows best what is best for him. The English Magna Carta (1215) provides an example of a political document that extends some individual rights further than the prerogative of the monarch. The key point is a social contract, according to which laws are made with the consent of society for its benefit and protection of social norms, and every citizen obeys these laws. Particular emphasis is placed on the rule of law, in particular, liberalism assumes that the state has sufficient power to enforce it. Modern political liberalism also includes the condition of universal suffrage, regardless of sex, race or property; Liberal democracy is considered the most preferable system. Political liberalism means a movement for liberal democracy and against absolutism or authoritarianism.

Economic liberalism

Economic liberalism advocates individual rights to property and freedom of contract. The motto of this form of liberalism is “free private enterprise.” Preference is given to capitalism based on the principle of laissez-faire, which means the abolition of government subsidies and legal barriers to trade. Economic liberals believe that the market does not need government regulation. Some of them are ready to allow government oversight of monopolies and cartels, others argue that market monopolization arises only as a consequence of government action. Economic liberalism argues that the prices of goods and services should be determined by the free choices of individuals, i.e., market forces. Some accept the presence of market forces even in areas where the state traditionally maintains a monopoly, such as security or justice. Economic liberalism views economic inequality, which arises from unequal bargaining power, as a natural result of competition in the absence of coercion. Currently, this form is most expressed in libertarianism; other varieties are minarchism and anarcho-capitalism. Thus, economic liberalism is for private property and against government regulation.

Cultural liberalism

Cultural liberalism focuses on individual rights related to consciousness and lifestyle, including issues such as sexual, religious, academic freedom, and protection from government interference in personal life. As John Stuart Mill said in his essay “On Liberty”: “The only object which justifies the interference of men, individually or collectively, in the activities of other men, is self-defense. It is permissible to exercise power over a member of a civilized society against his will only for the purpose of preventing harm to others.” Cultural liberalism, to varying degrees, objects to government regulation of such areas as literature and the arts, as well as such issues as academia, gambling, prostitution, the age of consent for sexual relations, abortion, contraception, euthanasia, alcohol and other drug use. The Netherlands is probably the country with the highest level of cultural liberalism today, which, however, does not prevent the country from proclaiming a policy of multiculturalism.

Third generation liberalism

Third generation liberalism was a consequence of the post-war struggle of third world countries against colonialism. Today it is more associated with certain aspirations than with legal norms. Its goal is to fight against the concentration of power, material resources and technology in a group of developed countries. Activists of this movement focus on collective law society for peace, self-determination, economic development and access to the commons ( Natural resources, scientific knowledge, cultural monuments). These rights belong to the “third generation” and are reflected in Article 28 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. Defenders of collective international rights Human Rights Watch also pay close attention to issues of international ecology and humanitarian assistance.

Bottom line

In all of the above forms of liberalism, it is assumed that there must be a balance between the responsibilities of government and individuals and that the function of the state should be limited to those tasks that cannot be adequately performed by the private sector. All forms of liberalism aim to provide legislative protection for human dignity and personal autonomy, and all argue that the removal of restrictions on individual activity improves society. Modern liberalism in most developed countries is a mixture of all these forms. In third world countries, “third generation liberalism” – the movement for a healthy living environment and against colonialism – often comes to the fore. The basis of liberalism as a political and legal doctrine is the idea of ​​the absolute value and self-sufficiency of the individual. According to the liberal concept, it is not society that precedes and socializes individuals, but independent individuals who, in accordance with their own will and reason, create society itself - all social institutions, including political and legal institutions.

Liberalism in modern Russia

Liberalism is widespread to one degree or another in all modern developed countries. However, in modern Russia the term has acquired a significant negative connotation, since liberalism is often understood as destructive economic and political reforms, carried out under the rule of Gorbachev and Yeltsin, a high level of chaos and corruption, covered up by a focus on Western countries. In this interpretation, liberalism is widely criticized due to fears of further destruction of the country and loss of its independence. Modern liberalization often leads to a decrease in social protection, and “price liberalization” is a euphemism for “increasing prices.”

Radical liberals in Russia are usually considered to be admirers of the West (“creative class”), including in their ranks very specific individuals (Valeria Novodvorskaya, Pavel Shekhtman, etc.) who hate Russia and the USSR as such, for example, comparing them with Nazi Germany, and Stalin and Putin - with Hitler, deifying the USA. Well-known resources of this kind: Echo of Moscow, The New Times, Ej, etc. The opposition identified itself as liberal, holding mass protests against Russian authorities in 2011–2012 due to disagreement with the nomination and election of Putin for a third term. But it is interesting that at the same time, Russian President Vladimir Putin, for example, called himself a liberal, liberal reforms were proclaimed by Dmitry Medvedev when he was president of Russia.

Further improvement of social relations, expansion of other social groups during the period of active metamorphoses and the formation of modern European states. Liberals are people who advocate in all its various manifestations; the only limitation for the unlimited development of personality, according to liberals, are laws that should limit and harmonize the interests of all social groups in society. The main ideas of liberal ideology appeared in the 19th century. Liberalism received its further development in practical and theoretical terms and became the basic principle for a number of political figures.

19th century liberals the most important value and individual freedom was considered a sign of the progressiveness of society, but at the same time, liberal ideology recognized as truly free only the person who is responsible for his actions. Liberals are supporters of a lifestyle that provides a comfortable existence that is safe from external coercion. An indisputable factor of liberal ideology is private property, as well as the presence of civil society, whose participants have the right to independently solve problems without excessive state intervention in certain areas. To guarantee against the arbitrariness of the state, liberals propose to introduce state responsibility to citizens, the law and three branches: legislative, executive and judicial, each of which acts strictly within its competence. Liberals are people with a worldview free man, who is responsible for his own choice, well-being, and also appreciates and understands the benefits given to him from birth.

In the economic sphere, the views of liberals can be characterized by the concept of market relations unrestricted by the state. The main condition for successful economic development, in their opinion, is competition, which itself will identify the most effective participants in the national and then global market, without government intervention. He was only required to guarantee the protection of entrepreneurs from the arbitrariness of the bureaucracy and officials. Each person builds his own well-being - this was the slogan of the liberals of the 19th century. Rapid industrial development increased the number of wage earners, and to maintain influence, liberalism was subject to revision.

20th century liberals—neoliberals—rejected the laissez-faire position in the market. In their opinion, it should carry out reforms that promote social protection for the least affluent sections of society. This was done to prevent mass disturbances and revolutionary outbursts, to achieve the elimination of class enmity and to build a society of general welfare. Thus, liberals are a political force whose main idea is the values ​​of the rule of law and individualism.