Reforms of Peter 1 reasons content results briefly. Administrative reforms of Peter I the Great

On August 18, 1682, 10-year-old Peter I ascended the Russian throne. We remember this ruler as a great reformer. Whether you have a negative or positive attitude towards his innovations is up to you. We remember the 7 most ambitious reforms of Peter I.

The Church is not the State

“The Church is not another state,” Peter I believed, and therefore his church reform was aimed at weakening the political power of the church. Before it, only the church court could judge the clergy (even in criminal cases), and the timid attempts of Peter I’s predecessors to change this met with harsh rebuff. After the reform, along with other classes, the clergy had to obey a law common to all. Only monks were to live in monasteries, only the sick were to live in almshouses, and everyone else was ordered to be evicted from there.
Peter I is known for his tolerance of other faiths. Under him, the free practice of their faith by foreigners and marriages of Christians of different faiths were allowed. “The Lord gave kings power over the nations, but Christ alone has power over the conscience of people,” Peter believed. With opponents of the Church, he ordered bishops to be “meek and reasonable.” On the other hand, Peter introduced fines for those who confessed less than once a year or behaved badly in church during services.

Bath and beard tax

Large-scale projects to equip the army and build a fleet required huge financial investments. In order to provide for them, Peter I tightened the country's tax system. Now taxes were collected not by household (after all, the peasants immediately began to surround several households with one fence), but by soul. There were up to 30 different taxes: on fishing, to baths, mills, to practice the Old Believers and wear a beard, and even to oak logs for coffins. Beards were ordered to be “cut down to the neck,” and for those who wore them for a fee, a special token-receipt, the “bearded badge,” was introduced. Only the state could now sell salt, alcohol, tar, chalk, and fish oil. Basic monetary unit under Peter it became not money, but a penny, the weight and composition of coins was changed, and the irredeemable ruble ceased to exist. Treasury revenues increased several times, however, due to the impoverishment of the people and not for long.

Join the army for life

To win the Northern War of 1700-1721, it was necessary to modernize the army. In 1705, each household was required to give one recruit for lifelong service. This applied to all classes except the nobility. From these recruits the army and navy were formed. In the military regulations of Peter I, for the first time, the first place was given not to the moral and religious content of criminal actions, but to the contradiction to the will of the state. Peter managed to create a powerful regular army and navy, which had never existed in Russia until now. By the end of his reign, the number of regular ground forces was 210 thousand, irregular - 110 thousand, and more than 30 thousand people served in the navy.

"Extra" 5508 years

Peter I “abolished” 5508 years, changing the tradition of chronology: instead of counting years “from the creation of Adam,” in Russia they began to count years “from the Nativity of Christ.” The use of the Julian calendar and the celebration of the New Year on January 1 are also innovations of Peter. He also introduced the use of modern Arabic numerals, replacing with them the old numbers - letters of the Slavic alphabet with titles. The lettering was simplified; the letters “xi” and “psi” “fell out” of the alphabet. Secular books now had their own font - civil, while liturgical and spiritual books were left with semi-charter.
In 1703, the first Russian printed newspaper “Vedomosti” began to appear, and in 1719, the first museum in Russian history, the Kunstkamera with a public library, began to operate.
Under Peter, the School of Mathematical and Navigational Sciences (1701), the Medical-Surgical School (1707) - the future Military Medical Academy, the Naval Academy (1715), the Engineering and Artillery Schools (1719), and translator schools were opened. at the collegiums.

Learning through strength

All nobles and clergy were now required to receive education. The success of a noble career now depended directly on this. Under Peter, new schools were created: garrison schools for the children of soldiers, spiritual schools for the children of priests. Moreover, in each province there should have been digital schools with free education for all classes. Such schools were necessarily supplied with primers in Slavic and Latin, as well as alphabet books, psalms, books of hours and arithmetic. The training of the clergy was forced, those who opposed it were threatened with military service and taxes, and those who did not complete the training were not allowed to marry. But due to the compulsory nature and harsh teaching methods (beating with batogs and chaining), such schools did not last long.

A slave is better than a slave

“Less baseness, more zeal for service and loyalty to me and the state - this honor is characteristic of the tsar...” - these are the words of Peter I. As a result of this royal position, some changes occurred in the relations between the tsar and the people, which were a novelty in Rus'. For example, in petition messages it was no longer allowed to humiliate oneself with the signatures “Grishka” or “Mitka”, but it was necessary to put one’s full name. It was no longer necessary to take off your hat in the strong Russian frost when passing by the royal residence. One was not supposed to kneel before the king, and the address “serf” was replaced by “slave,” which was not derogatory in those days and was associated with “servant of God.”
There is more freedom for young people who want to get married. The forced marriage of a girl was abolished by three decrees, and the betrothal and wedding now had to be separated in time so that the bride and groom “could recognize each other.” Complaints that one of them annulled the engagement were not accepted - after all, this had now become their right.

In the history of Peter's reforms, researchers distinguish two stages: before and after 1715. At the first stage, the reforms were mainly chaotic in nature and were caused primarily by the military needs of the state related to the conduct of the Northern War, were carried out mainly by violent methods and were accompanied by active government intervention in economic affairs. Many reforms were ill-conceived and hasty, which was caused both by failures in the war and by the lack of personnel, experience, and pressure from the old conservative apparatus of power. At the second stage, when military operations had already been transferred to enemy territory, the transformations became more systematic. The apparatus of power was further strengthened, manufactories no longer only served military needs, but also produced consumer goods for the population, state regulation of the economy weakened somewhat, and traders and entrepreneurs were given a certain freedom of action. Basically, the reforms were subordinated to the interests not of individual classes, but of the state as a whole: its prosperity, well-being and inclusion in Western European civilization. The goal of the reforms was for Russia to acquire the role of one of the leading world powers, capable of competing with Western countries in military and economically. The main instrument of reform was deliberately applied violence.

Military reform

The main content of the military reform was the creation of a regular Russian army and Russian navy recruited on the basis of conscription. Previously existing troops were gradually abolished, and their personnel were used for new formations. The army and navy began to be supported by the state. To manage the armed forces, instead of orders, the Military Collegium and the Admiralty Collegium were established; the position of commander-in-chief was introduced (at war time). A unified training system was established in the army and navy, and military educational institutions were opened (navigation, artillery, and engineering schools). The Preobrazhensky and Semenovsky regiments, as well as a number of newly opened special schools and the Naval Academy, served to train officers. The organization of the armed forces, the main issues of training, and methods of conducting combat operations were legislatively enshrined in the Military Charter (1716) and the Naval Charter Book (1720). In general, the military reforms of Peter I contributed to the development of military art and were one of the factors that determined the success of the Russian army and the fleet in the Northern War.

Reforms in the economy covered agriculture, large and small production, crafts, trade and financial policy. Agriculture under Peter I developed slowly, mainly in an extensive way. In the economic sphere, the concept of mercantilism dominated - encouraging the development of domestic trade and industry with an active foreign trade balance. The development of industry was dictated solely by the needs of warfare and was Peter's special concern. During the first quarter of the 18th century. 200 manufactories were created. The main attention was paid to metallurgy, the center of which moved to the Urals. The growth of industrial production was accompanied by increased feudal exploitation, the widespread use of forced labor in factories: the use of serfs, purchased (possession) peasants, as well as the labor of the state (black-growing) peasantry, which was assigned to the plant as a constant source of labor. In 1711, vocational schools were established at the manufactories. By decrees of 1722, a guild system was introduced in cities. The creation of workshops testified to the patronage of the authorities for the development of crafts and their regulation. In the field of domestic and foreign trade, a large role was played by the state monopoly on the procurement and sale of basic goods (salt, flax, hemp, furs, lard, caviar, bread, etc.), which significantly replenished the treasury. The creation of merchant “companies” and the expansion of trade relations with foreign countries were encouraged in every possible way. Peter's government paid great attention to the development of waterways - the main form of transport at that time. Active construction of canals was carried out: Volga-Don, Vyshnevolotsky, Ladoga, work began on the construction of the Moscow-Volga canal.

Financial policy state during the reign of Peter I was characterized by unprecedented tax oppression. The growth of the state budget, necessary for waging war, active domestic and foreign policy, was achieved through the expansion of indirect taxes and an increase in direct taxes. Special “profit-makers” led by A. Kurbatov were looking for ever new sources of income: bath, fish, honey, horse and other taxes were introduced, including a tax on beards. In total, indirect collections by 1724 numbered up to 40 species. Along with these levies, direct taxes were also introduced: recruitment, dragoon, ship and special “fees”. Considerable income was generated by minting coins of lighter weight and reducing the silver content in them. The search for new sources of income led to a radical reform of the entire tax systems s - the introduction of a poll tax, replacing household taxation. As a result of this, firstly, the amount of tax revenue from peasants almost doubled. Secondly, the tax reform became an important stage of serfdom in Russia, extending it to those segments of the population that were previously free (“walking people”) or could gain freedom after the death of the master (bonded slaves). Thirdly, a passport system was introduced. Every peasant who went to work more than 30 miles from his place of residence was required to have a passport indicating the period of return.

Reorganization of public administration.

The strengthening of the absolute monarchy required a radical restructuring and extreme centralization of the entire system of public administration, its highest, central and local bodies. The king was at the head of the state. In 1721, Peter was proclaimed emperor, which meant a further strengthening of the power of the tsar himself. In 1711, instead of the Boyar Duma and the Council of Ministers, which had replaced it since 1701, the Senate was established. It included nine dignitaries closest to Peter I. The Senate was instructed to develop new laws, monitor the country's finances, and control the activities of the administration. In 1722, the leadership of the work of senators was entrusted to the prosecutor general, whom Peter I called “the eye of the sovereign.” In 1718 - 1721, the cumbersome and confusing system of command administration of the country was transformed. Instead of fifty orders, whose functions often overlapped and did not have clear boundaries, 11 boards were established. Each board was in charge of a strictly defined branch of management. The Collegium of Foreign Affairs - for external relations, the Military Collegium - for the land armed forces, the Admiralty Collegium - for the fleet, the Chamber Collegium - for revenue collection, the State Collegium - for state expenses, the Patrimonial Collegium - for noble land ownership, the Manufacturer Collegium - for industry, except for metallurgy, which was in charge of the Berg Collegium . In fact, as a collegium, there was a Chief Magistrate in charge of Russian cities. In addition, the Preobrazhensky Prikaz (political investigation), the Salt Office, the Copper Department, and the Land Survey Office operated. Along with the strengthening of the central management apparatus, reform of local institutions. Instead of the voivodship administration in 1708 - 1715, the provincial system of government was introduced. Initially, the country was divided into eight provinces: Moscow, St. Petersburg, Kyiv, Arkhangelsk, Smolensk, Kazan, Azov and Siberia. They were headed by governors who were in charge of the troops and administration of subordinate territories. Each province occupied a huge territory and was therefore divided into provinces. There were 50 of them (headed by a governor). The provinces, in turn, were divided into counties. Thus, a single centralized administrative-bureaucratic system of government was formed for the whole country, in which the monarch, who relied on the nobility, played a decisive role. The number of officials has increased significantly. The costs of maintaining the administrative apparatus have also increased. The General Regulations of 1720 introduced a single system of office work in the state apparatus for the whole country.

The Church and the liquidation of the patriarchate.

After the death in 1700 of Patriarch Adrian, Peter I decided not to appoint a new patriarch. Metropolitan Stefan Yavorsky of Ryazan was temporarily placed at the head of the clergy, although he was not vested with patriarchal powers. In 1721, Peter approved the "Spiritual Regulations" developed by his supporter, Bishop Feofan Prokopovich of Pskov. According to the new law, a fundamental church reform was carried out, which eliminated the autonomy of the church and completely subordinated it to the state. The patriarchate in Russia was abolished, and a special Theological College was established to manage the church, which was soon transformed into the Holy Governing Synod to give greater authority. He was in charge of purely church affairs: the interpretation of church dogma, orders for prayers and church services, censorship of spiritual books, the fight against heresies, the management of educational institutions and the removal of church officials etc. The Synod also had the functions of a spiritual court. All the property and finances of the church, the lands assigned to it and the peasants were under the jurisdiction of the Monastic order, subordinate to the Synod. Thus, this meant the subordination of the church to the state.

Social politics.

In 1714, the “Decree on Single Succession” was issued, according to which the noble estate was equalized in rights with the boyar estate. The decree marked the final merger of the two classes of feudal lords. From that time on, secular feudal lords began to be called nobles. The decree on single inheritance ordered the transfer of estates and estates to one of the sons. The rest of the nobles had to carry out compulsory service in the army, navy or in the bodies state power. In 1722, the “Table of Ranks” was published, dividing the military, civil and court services. All positions (both civilian and military) were divided into 14 ranks. It was possible to achieve each subsequent rank only by completing all the previous ones. An official who reached the eighth grade (collegiate assessor) or an officer received hereditary nobility (until the middle of the 19th century). The rest of the population, excluding the nobility and clergy, was obliged to pay taxes to the state.

Under Peter I, a new structure of society emerged, in which the principle of regulation by state legislation is clearly visible. Reforms in the field of education and culture. State policy was aimed at educating society and reorganizing the education system. At the same time, enlightenment acted as a special value, partly opposed to religious values. Theological subjects at school gave way to natural sciences and technology: mathematics, astronomy, geodesy, fortification, and engineering. The first to appear were the Navigation and Artillery schools (1701), the Engineering School (1712), and the Medical School (1707). To simplify the learning process, the complex Church Slavonic font was replaced with a civil one. The publishing business developed, printing houses were created in Moscow, St. Petersburg and other cities. The foundations for the development of Russian science were laid. In 1725, the Academy of Sciences was created in St. Petersburg. Much work has been done to study history, geography and natural resources Russia. The promotion of scientific knowledge was carried out by the Kunstkamera, opened in 1719, the first Russian natural history museum. On January 1, 1700, a new chronology according to the Julian calendar was introduced in Russia. As a result of the calendar reform, Russia began to live at the same time as Europe. There was a radical breakdown of all traditional ideas about the everyday way of life Russian society. The tsar, by order of order, introduced fermentation, European clothes, and the obligatory wearing of uniforms for military and civil officials. The behavior of young nobles in society was regulated by Western European norms set forth in the translated book “Youth's Honest Mirror”. In 1718, a Decree appeared on holding assemblies with the obligatory presence of women. Assemblies were held not only for fun and entertainment, but also for business meetings. Peter's transformations in the sphere of culture, life and customs were often introduced by violent methods and were of a pronounced political nature. The main thing in these reforms was to respect the interests of the state.

Significance of reforms: 1. The reforms of Peter I marked the establishment of an absolute monarchy, in contrast to the classical Western one, not under the influence of the genesis of capitalism, the balancing of the monarch between the feudal lords and the third estate, but on a serf-noble basis.

2. The new state created by Peter I not only significantly increased the efficiency of public administration, but also served as the main lever for the modernization of the country. 3. Based on some trends that emerged in the 17th century. in Russia, Peter I not only developed them, but also in a minimal historical period of time brought it to a qualitatively more high level, turning Russia into a powerful power.

The price for these radical changes was the further strengthening of serfdom, the temporary inhibition of the formation of capitalist relations and the strongest tax and tax pressure on the population. Multiple increases in taxes led to the impoverishment and enslavement of the bulk of the population. Various social uprisings - the revolt of the archers in Astrakhan (1705 -1706), the uprising of the Cossacks on the Don under the leadership of Kondraty Bulavin (1707 - 1708), in Ukraine and the Volga region - were directed not so much against the transformations as against the methods and means of their implementation.

21. Reforms of Peter the Great and their significance for Russian history: opinions of historians.

Foreign policy of Peter I. The main goal of Peter I's foreign policy was access to the Baltic Sea, which would provide Russia with a connection with Western Europe. In 1699, Russia, having entered into an alliance with Poland and Denmark, declared war on Sweden. The outcome of the Northern War, which lasted 21 years, was influenced by the Russian victory in Battle of Poltava June 27, 1709 and victory over the Swedish fleet at Gangut on July 27, 1714.

On August 30, 1721, the Treaty of Nystadt was signed, according to which Russia retained the conquered lands of Livonia, Estonia, Ingria, part of Karelia and all the islands of the Gulf of Finland and Riga. Access to the Baltic Sea was secured.

To commemorate the achievements in the Northern War, the Senate and Synod on October 20, 1721 awarded the Tsar the title of Father of the Fatherland, Peter the Great and Emperor of All Russia.

In 1723, after a month and a half of hostilities with Persia, Peter I acquired the western shore of the Caspian Sea.

Simultaneously with the conduct of military operations, the vigorous activity of Peter I was aimed at carrying out numerous reforms, the purpose of which was to bring the country closer to European civilization, increase the education of the Russian people, and strengthen the power and international position of Russia. The great tsar did a lot, here are just the main reforms of Peter I.

Peter I

Instead of the Boyar Duma, in 1700 the Council of Ministers was created, which met in the Near Chancellery, and in 1711 - the Senate, which by 1719 had become the highest state body. With the creation of the provinces, numerous Orders ceased their activity, they were replaced by Collegiums, which were subordinate to the Senate. The secret police also operated in the management system - the Preobrazhensky order (in charge of state crimes) and the Secret Chancellery. Both institutions were administered by the emperor himself.

Administrative reforms of Peter I

Regional (provincial) reform of Peter I

The largest administrative reform of local government was the creation in 1708 of 8 provinces headed by governors, in 1719 their number increased to 11. The second administrative reform divided the provinces into provinces headed by governors, and the provinces into districts (counties) headed by with zemstvo commissars.

Urban reform (1699-1720)

To govern the city, the Burmister Chamber was created in Moscow, renamed the Town Hall in November 1699, and magistrates subordinate to the Chief Magistrate in St. Petersburg (1720). Members of the Town Hall and magistrates were elected by election.

Estate reforms

The main goal of the class reform of Peter I was to formalize the rights and responsibilities of each class - the nobility, peasantry and urban population.

Nobility.

Decree on estates (1704), according to which both boyars and nobles received estates and estates.

Decree on Education (1706) - all boyar children are required to receive primary education.

Decree on single inheritance (1714), according to which a nobleman could leave an inheritance to only one of his sons.

Table of Ranks (1721): service to the sovereign was divided into three departments - army, state and court - each of which was divided into 14 ranks. This document allowed a lower-class person to earn his way into the nobility.

Peasantry

Most of the peasants were serfs. Serfs could enroll as soldiers, which freed them from serfdom.

Among the free peasants were:

state-owned, with personal freedom, but limited in the right of movement (i.e., by the will of the monarch, they could be transferred to serfs);

palace ones that belonged personally to the king;

possessional, assigned to manufactories. The owner had no right to sell them.

Urban class

Urban people were divided into “regular” and “irregular”. The regulars were divided into guilds: 1st guild - the richest, 2nd guild - small traders and wealthy artisans. Irregulars, or “mean people,” made up the majority of the urban population.

In 1722, workshops appeared that united masters of the same craft.

Judicial reform of Peter I

The functions of the Supreme Court were carried out by the Senate and the College of Justice. In the provinces there were court appeal courts and provincial courts headed by governors. Provincial courts dealt with the cases of peasants (except for monasteries) and townspeople not included in the settlement. Since 1721, court cases of townspeople included in the settlement were conducted by the magistrate. In other cases, cases were decided by the zemstvo or city judge alone.

Church reform of Peter I

Peter I abolished the patriarchate, deprived the church of power, and transferred its funds to the state treasury. Instead of the position of patriarch, the tsar introduced a collegial highest administrative church body - the Holy Synod.

Financial reforms of Peter I

The first stage of Peter I's financial reform boiled down to collecting money for maintaining the army and waging wars. Benefits from the monopoly sale of certain types of goods (vodka, salt, etc.) were added, and indirect taxes were introduced (bath taxes, horse taxes, beard taxes, etc.).

In 1704 it was held currency reform, according to which the kopeck became the main monetary unit. The fiat ruble was abolished.

Tax reform of Peter I consisted of a transition from household taxation to per capita taxation. In this regard, the government included in the tax all categories of the peasant and townspeople, who had previously been exempt from tax.

Thus, during tax reform of Peter I a single cash tax (poll tax) was introduced and the number of taxpayers was increased.

Social reforms of Peter I

Education reform of Peter I

In the period from 1700 to 1721. Many civilian and military schools were opened in Russia. These include the School of Mathematical and Navigational Sciences; artillery, engineering, medical, mining, garrison, theological schools; digital schools for free education for children of all ranks; Maritime Academy in St. Petersburg.

Peter I created the Academy of Sciences, under which the first Russian university, and with it the first gymnasium. But this system began to operate after the death of Peter.

Reforms of Peter I in culture

Peter I introduced a new alphabet, which facilitated learning to read and write and promoted book printing. The first Russian newspaper Vedomosti began to be published, and in 1703 the first book in Russian with Arabic numerals appeared.

The Tsar developed a plan for the stone construction of St. Petersburg, paying special attention to the beauty of architecture. He invited foreign artists, and also sent talented young people abroad to study “arts”. Peter I laid the foundation for the Hermitage.

Socio-economic reforms of Peter I

To boost industrial production and develop trade relations with foreign countries, Peter I invited foreign specialists, but at the same time encouraged domestic industrialists and traders. Peter I sought to ensure that more goods were exported from Russia than were imported. During his reign, 200 plants and factories operated in Russia.

Reforms of Peter I in the army

Peter I introduced annual recruitment of young Russians (from 15 to 20 years old) and ordered the training of soldiers to begin. In 1716, the Military Regulations were published, outlining the service, rights and responsibilities of the military.

As a result military reform of Peter I a powerful regular army and navy were created.

Peter's reform activities had the support of a wide circle of the nobility, but caused discontent and resistance among the boyars, archers and clergy, because the transformations entailed the loss of their leadership role in public administration. Among the opponents of Peter I's reforms was his son Alexei.

Results of the reforms of Peter I

A regime of absolutism has been established in Russia. During the years of his reign, Peter created a state with a more advanced management system, a strong army and navy, and a stable economy. There was a centralization of power.

Rapid development of foreign and domestic trade.

The abolition of the patriarchate, the church lost its independence and authority in society.

Tremendous progress has been made in the fields of science and culture. The task has been set national importance- the creation of Russian medical education, and also the beginning of Russian surgery.

Features of the reforms of Peter I

The reforms were carried out according to the European model and covered all spheres of activity and life of society.

Lack of reform system.

Reforms were carried out mainly through harsh exploitation and coercion.

Peter, impatient by nature, innovated at a rapid pace.

Reasons for the reforms of Peter I

By the 18th century, Russia was a backward country. It was significantly inferior to Western European countries in terms of industrial output, level of education and culture (even in the ruling circles there were many illiterate people). The boyar aristocracy, which headed the state apparatus, did not meet the needs of the country. Russian army, consisting of archers and noble militia, was poorly armed, untrained and could not cope with its task.

The main result of the entire set of Peter's reforms was the establishment of a regime of absolutism in Russia, the crown of which was the change in 1721. The title of the Russian monarch - Peter declared himself emperor, and the country became

be called the Russian Empire. Thus, what Peter was going for all the years of his reign was formalized - the creation of a state with a coherent system of government, a strong army and navy, a powerful economy that had an impact on international politics. As a result of Peter's reforms, the state was not bound by anything and could use any means to achieve its goals. As a result, Peter came to his ideal state structure - a warship, where everything and everything is subject to the will of one person - the captain, and managed to bring this ship out of the swamp into the stormy waters of the ocean, bypassing all the reefs and shoals. Russia became an autocratic, military-bureaucratic state, in which the central role belonged to the nobility. At the same time, Russia's backwardness was not completely overcome, and the reforms were carried out mainly through the most severe exploitation and coercion. The complexity and inconsistency of Russia's development during this period also determined the inconsistency of Peter's activities and the reforms he carried out. On the one hand, they had great historical significance, since they contributed to the progress of the country and were aimed at eliminating its backwardness. On the other hand, they were carried out by the feudal lords, using feudal methods, and were aimed at strengthening their dominance. Therefore, the progressive transformations of the time of Peter the Great from the very beginning carried conservative features, which, in the course of the further development of the country, became more and more powerful and could not ensure the elimination of socio-economic backwardness. As a result of Peter's reforms, Russia quickly caught up with those European countries, where the dominance of feudal-serf relations was preserved, but it could not catch up with those countries that embarked on the capitalist path of development. The family of Peter the Great in the history of Russia is difficult to overestimate. No matter how you relate to the methods and style of his reforms, one cannot but admit that Peter the Great is one of the most prominent figures in world history.

Table "Reforms of Peter 1" (briefly). The main reforms of Peter 1: table, summary

The table “Reforms of Peter 1” briefly outlines the features of the transformative activities of the first emperor of Russia. With its help, it is possible to concisely, concisely and clearly outline the main directions of his steps to change all spheres of life of Russian society in the first quarter of the 18th century. Perhaps this is the best way for middle-level students to learn this complex and quite voluminous material, which is very important for the analysis and correct understanding of the features of the historical process in our country in the following centuries.

Features of the emperor's activities

One of the most complex, difficult and at the same time interesting topics is the “Reforms of Peter 1”. Briefly, the table on this topic demonstrates all the data students need.

In the introductory lesson, it should immediately be noted that the activities of Pyotr Alekseevich affected all layers of society and determined the further history of the country. This is precisely the uniqueness of the era of his reign. At the same time, he was a very practical person and introduced innovations based on specific needs.

This can be clearly demonstrated with a more detailed coverage of the topic “Reforms of Peter 1”. A brief table on the problem posed clearly shows the wide scope with which the emperor acted. It seemed that he managed to have a hand in everything: he reorganized the army, government bodies, made significant changes in the social structure, economic sphere, diplomacy and, finally, contributed to the spread of Western European culture and way of life among the Russian nobility.

Transformations in the army

At the middle level, it is very important that schoolchildren learn the basic facts of the topic “The Reforms of Peter 1”. A brief table on this problem helps students familiarize themselves with the data and systematize the accumulated material. For almost his entire reign, the emperor waged war with Sweden for access to the Baltic Sea. The need for strong and powerful troops arose with particular urgency at the very beginning of his reign. Therefore, the new ruler immediately began to reorganize the army.

One of the most interesting sections in the topic being studied is “The Military Reforms of Peter 1”. Briefly, the table can be depicted as follows.

The importance of military innovations

It shows that the emperor’s steps were dictated by the specific needs of his time, however, many of his innovations continued to exist for a very long time. The main goal of the reforms was to create a permanent and regular army. The fact is that previously there was a so-called local system of recruiting troops: i.e. the landowner appeared at the inspections along with several servants, who also had to serve with him.

However, by the beginning of the 18th century this principle had become obsolete. By this time, serfdom had already taken final shape, and the state began to recruit soldiers for service from peasants. Another very important measure was the creation of professional military schools for the training of officers and command personnel.

Transformations of power structures

Practice shows that one of the most difficult topics is “Political reforms of Peter 1”. Briefly, the table on this problem clearly demonstrates how deep the transformative activity of the emperor was in the governing bodies. He completely changed the central and local administration. Instead of the Boyar Duma, which previously performed advisory functions under the tsar, he created a Senate modeled on Western European countries. Instead of orders, boards were created, each of which performed a specific function in management. Their activities were strictly controlled by the Prosecutor General. In addition, a special secret fiscal body was created to control the bureaucratic apparatus.

New administrative division

The topic “State reforms of Peter 1” is no less complex. Briefly, the table on this problem reflects the fundamental changes that have occurred in the organization of local government. Governorates were created that were in charge of the affairs of a certain area. The provinces were divided into provinces, and those, in turn, into counties. This structure was very convenient for management and met the challenges of the time in question. At the head of the provinces was the governor, and at the head of the provinces and districts was the voivode.

Changes in industry and trade

Particular difficulty is often caused by studying the topic “Economic reforms of Peter 1.” Briefly, the table on this problem reflects the complexity and ambiguity of the emperor’s activities in relation to merchants and merchants, who, on the one hand, sought to create the most favorable conditions for the development of the country’s economy, but at the same time acted almost serf-like methods, which could in no way contribute to the development of market relations in our country. Economic activity Peter Alekseevich was not as effective as transformations in other areas. At the same time, this was the first experience in developing trade according to the Western European model.

Transformations in the social structure

The topic “Social reforms of Peter 1” seems simpler. A brief table on this issue clearly demonstrates the fundamental changes that occurred in Russian society of the time being studied. Unlike his predecessors, the emperor introduced the principle of distinction in the military and government spheres depending not on clan affiliation, but on personal merit. His famous “Table of Ranks” introduced a new principle of service. From now on, in order to receive a promotion or rank, a person had to achieve some success.

It was under Peter that the social structure of society was finally formalized. The main support of the autocracy was the nobility, which replaced the clan aristocracy. The emperor's successors also relied on this class, which indicates the effectiveness of the measures taken.

The study of this problem can be completed by summing up the results. What significance did the reforms of Peter 1 have in the history of Russia? A table or summary on this topic can serve as an effective means of summing up. Regarding social transformations, it should be noted that the measures of the ruler corresponded to the demands of his time, when the principle of localism was outdated, and the country needed new personnel who would have the necessary qualities to carry out the new tasks that faced the country in connection with the Northern War and Russia’s entry into the international arena

The role of the emperor's transformative activities

The topic “The Main Reforms of Peter 1”, a table whose summary is an important component in studying the history of Russia in the first quarter of the 18th century, should be divided into several lessons so that schoolchildren have the opportunity to properly consolidate the material. At the final lesson, it is necessary to summarize the material covered and indicate what role the transformations of the first emperor played in the future fate of Russia.

The measures taken by the ruler brought our country to the European arena and brought it into the ranks of the leading European states. The topic “The main reforms of Peter 1”, a table, a summary clearly shows how the country reached the world level of development, having received access to the sea and becoming one of the main members of the European concert of powers.

Reforms of Peter 1.

Zhanna Gromova

Public Administration Reform
1699-1721

Judicial reform
1697, 1719, 1722

Military reforms
since 1699

Church reform
1700-1701 ; 1721

Financial reforms

The introduction of many new (including indirect) taxes, monopolization of the sale of tar, alcohol, salt and other goods. Damage (reduction in weight) of a coin. Kopek became

Tatyana Shcherbakova

Regional reform
In the years 1708-1715, a regional reform was carried out in order to strengthen the vertical of power in the field and better provide the army with supplies and recruits. In 1708, the country was divided into 8 provinces headed by governors endowed with full judicial and administrative power: Moscow, Ingermandland (later St. Petersburg), Kiev, Smolensk, Azov, Kazan, Arkhangelsk and Siberia. The Moscow province gave more than a third of the proceeds to the treasury, followed by the Kazan province.

Governors were also in charge of the troops stationed on the territory of the province. In 1710, new administrative units appeared - shares, uniting 5,536 households. The first regional reform did not solve the set tasks, but only significantly increased the number of civil servants and the costs of their maintenance.

In 1719-1720, a second regional reform was carried out, eliminating shares. The provinces began to be divided into 50 provinces headed by governors, and the provinces into districts headed by zemstvo commissars appointed by the Chamber Board. Only military and judicial matters remained under the governor's jurisdiction.
Judicial reform
Under Peter, the judicial system underwent radical changes. The functions of the Supreme Court were given to the Senate and the College of Justice. Below them were: in the provinces - the Hofgerichts or court courts of appeal in large cities, and the provincial collegial lower courts. Provincial courts conducted civil and criminal cases of all categories of peasants except monasteries, as well as townspeople not included in the settlement. Since 1721, court cases of the townspeople included in the settlement were conducted by the magistrate. In other cases, the so-called single court acted (cases were decided individually by the zemstvo or city judge). However, in 1722 the lower courts were replaced by provincial courts headed by the voivode
Church reform
One of the transformations of Peter I was the reform of church administration that he carried out, aimed at eliminating the church jurisdiction autonomous from the state and subordinating the Russian church hierarchy to the Emperor. In 1700, after the death of Patriarch Adrian, Peter I, instead of convening a council to elect a new patriarch, temporarily placed Metropolitan Stefan Yavorsky of Ryazan at the head of the clergy, who received the new title of Guardian of the Patriarchal Throne or “Exarch”.

To manage the property of the patriarchal and bishop's houses, as well as monasteries, including the peasants belonging to them (approximately 795 thousand), the Monastic Order was restored, headed by I. A. Musin-Pushkin, who again began to be in charge of the trial of the monastic peasants and control income from church and monastic land holdings. In 1701, a series of decrees were issued to reform the management of church and monastic estates and the organization of monastic life; the most important were the decrees of January 24 and 31, 1701.

In 1721, Peter approved the Spiritual Regulations, the drafting of which was entrusted to the Pskov bishop, the Tsar's close Little Russian Feofan Prokopovich. As a result, a radical reform of the church took place, eliminating the autonomy of the clergy and completely subordinating it to the state. In Russia, the patriarchate was abolished and the Theological College was established, soon renamed the Holy Synod, which was recognized by the Eastern patriarchs as equal in honor to the patriarch. All members of the Synod were appointed by the Emperor and took an oath of loyalty to him upon taking office. Wartime stimulated the removal of valuables from monastery storages. Peter did not agree to the complete secularization of church and monastic properties, which was carried out much later, at the beginning of his reign.
Army and Navy reforms
Army reform: in particular, the introduction of regiments of a new system, reformed according to foreign models, began long before Peter I, even under Alexei I. However, the combat effectiveness of this army was low. Army reform and the creation of a fleet became necessary conditions for victory in the Northern War of 1700-1721 years.

Maxim Lyubimov

Public Administration Reform
Of all the transformations of Peter I, the central place is occupied by the reform of public administration, the reorganization of all its links.
The main goal of this period was to provide a solution to the most important problem - victory in the Northern War. Already in the first years of the war, it became clear that the old state management mechanism, the main elements of which were orders and districts, did not meet the growing needs of the autocracy. This manifested itself in a shortage of money, provisions, and various supplies for the army and navy. Peter hoped to radically solve this problem with the help of regional reform - the creation of new administrative entities - provinces, uniting several counties. In 1708, 8 provinces were formed: Moscow, Ingria (St. Petersburg), Kiev, Smolensk, Arkhangelsk, Kazan, Azov, Siberian.
The main goal of this reform was to provide the army with everything it needed: a direct connection was established between the provinces and the army regiments, which were distributed among the provinces. Communication was carried out through a specially created institution of Kriegskomissars (the so-called military commissars).
An extensive hierarchical network of bureaucratic institutions with a large staff of officials was created locally. The former “order - district” system was doubled: “order (or office) - province - province - district.”
In 1711 the Senate was created. Autocracy, which strengthened significantly in the second half of the 17th century, no longer needed the institutions of representation and self-government.
At the beginning of the 18th century. Meetings of the Boyar Duma actually cease, management of the central and local state apparatus passes to the so-called “Concilia of Ministers” - a temporary council of heads of the most important government departments.
Particularly important was the reform of the Senate, which occupied a key position in Peter’s state system. The Senate concentrated judicial, administrative and legislative functions, was in charge of colleges and provinces, and appointed and approved officials. The unofficial head of the Senate, consisting of the first dignitaries, was the Prosecutor General, endowed with special powers and subordinate only to the monarch. The creation of the post of prosecutor general laid the foundation for an entire institution of the prosecutor's office, the model for which was the French administrative experience.
In 1718 - 1721 The system of command administration of the country was transformed. 10 boards were established, each of which was in charge of a strictly defined industry. For example, the Collegium of Foreign Affairs - with external relations, the Military Collegium - with the ground armed forces, the Admiralty Collegium - with the fleet, the Chamber Collegium - with revenue collection, the State Office Collegium - with state expenses, and the Commerce Collegium - with trade.
Church reform
The Synod, or the Spiritual College, established in 1721, became a kind of college. By declaring himself the de facto head of the church, Peter destroyed its autonomy. Moreover, he made extensive use of the institutions of the church to carry out his policies.
Supervision of the activities of the Synod was entrusted to a special state official - the chief prosecutor.
Social politics
Social policy was pro-noble and serfdom in nature. The decree of 1714 on uniform inheritance established the same order of inheritance of immovable estates, without distinction between estates and estates. The merging of two forms of feudal landownership - patrimonial and local - completed the process of consolidating the class of feudal lords into a single class - the estate of nobles and strengthened its dominant position (often in the Polish manner, the nobility was called the gentry).
In order to force the nobles to think of service as the main source of well-being, they introduced primacy - it was forbidden to sell and mortgage land

Oleg Sazonov

Military board
The military board was established by Peter I instead of a number of military institutions in order to centralize military control. The formation of the Military Collegium began with the appointment in 1717 of the first president, Field Marshal A. D. Menshikov and vice-president A. A. Veide.
On June 3, 1719, the staff of the College was announced. The collegium consisted of the presence, headed by the president (vice-president) and the Chancellery, subdivided into povy-tya, in charge of cavalry and infantry, garrisons, fortifications and artillery, as well as keeping logs of incoming and outgoing documents. The Collegium consisted of a notary, an auditor general and a fiscal general. The legality of decisions was supervised by the prosecutor, who was subordinate to the prosecutor general. The organization of the ground army service was under the jurisdiction of the Military Collegium.
The Krieg Commissariat and Provisions General, who were engaged in the clothing and food supply of the army, were formally subordinate to the Military Collegium, but had considerable independence.
In relation to the artillery and engineering departments, headed by the Artillery Chancellery and the Field Chief General, the Collegium exercised only general leadership.
In the 1720s - 1730s. The Military Collegium was subject to reorganization aimed at subordinating all branches of military administration to it.
In 1721, the management of the Don, Yaik and Greben Cossacks was transferred from the Collegium of Foreign Affairs to the newly created Cossack region.
In 1736, the Commissariat, which had existed since 1711 as an independent institution for supplying the army, became part of the Military Collegium. The staff of 1736 consolidated the new composition of the Collegium: the presence, the Chancellery, which was in charge of recruiting, organizing, inspecting and serving troops, as well as cases of fugitives, recruiting minors and some other issues, and a number of offices (later renamed expeditions) for branches of management. The offices were headed by directors who took part in the meetings of the Board. The offices resolved cases independently, submitting only complex and controversial issues to the Board for consideration. During this period, there were the General Kriegs Commissariat, Chief Tsalmeister, Amunich (Mundirnaya), Provisions, Accounting, Fortification Offices and the Artillery Office. The body of the Collegium in Moscow was the Military Office.
With the accession of Elizabeth there was a return to the decentralization of military administration. In 1742, independent departments were restored - commissariat, provisions, artillery and fortification management. The counting expedition was abolished. After this, the importance of the Military Collegium as a governing body fell.
The increasing importance of the Military Collegium began in 1763, when its president became Catherine II’s personal rapporteur on military affairs; new staff of the Collegium were introduced.
In 1781, the Accounting Expedition was restored in the Military Collegium, exercising control over the expenses of the military department.
In 1791 the College received a new organization. The commissariat, provisions, artillery and engineering departments became part of the Military Collegium as independent expeditions (departments since 1796).
In 1798, new staff of the College were approved. According to them, it consisted of the Office, divided into expeditions (Army, Garrison, Order, Foreign, Recruitment, School Establishment and Repair), independent expeditions (Military, Accounting, Inspector, Artillery, Commissariat, Provisions, Military Orphan Institutions) and the General Auditorium.
With the formation of the Ministry of Military Ground Forces in 1802, the Military College became part of it and was finally abolished in 1812. The functions of its expeditions were transferred to the newly formed departments of the Ministry.

Yuri Kek

Public Administration Reform
1699-1721
Creation of the Near Chancellery (or Council of Ministers) in 1699. It was transformed in 1711 into the Governing Senate. Creation of 12 boards with a specific scope of activity and powers.
The public administration system has become more advanced. Activity of the majority government agencies became regulated, the boards had a clearly defined area of ​​activity. Supervisory authorities were created.

Regional (provincial) reform
1708-1715 and 1719-1720.
At the first stage of the reform, Peter 1 divided Russia into 8 provinces: Moscow, Kyiv, Kazan, Ingria (later St. Petersburg), Arkhangelsk, Smolensk, Azov, Siberian. They were controlled by governors who were in charge of the troops located on the territory of the province, and also had full administrative and judicial power. At the second stage of the reform, the provinces were divided into 50 provinces governed by governors, and they were divided into districts led by zemstvo commissars. Governors were deprived of administrative power and resolved judicial and military issues.
There was a centralization of power. Local governments have almost completely lost influence.

Judicial reform
1697, 1719, 1722
Peter 1 created new judicial bodies: the Senate, the Justice Collegium, the Hofgerichts, and the lower courts. Judicial functions were also performed by all colleagues except Foreign. The judges were separated from the administration. The court of kissers (an analogue of the jury trial) was abolished, and the principle of the inviolability of an unconvicted person was lost.
A large number of judicial bodies and persons carrying out judicial activities (the emperor himself, governors, governors, etc.) introduced confusion and confusion into legal proceedings, the introduction of the possibility of “knocking out” testimony under torture created the ground for abuse and bias. At the same time, the adversarial nature of the process and the need for the sentence to be based on specific articles of the law corresponding to the case under consideration were established.

Military reforms
since 1699
The introduction of conscription, the creation of a navy, the establishment of a Military Collegium in charge of all military affairs. Introduction, using the “Table of Ranks,” of military ranks, uniform for all of Russia. Creation of military-industrial enterprises, as well as military educational institutions. Introduction of army discipline and military regulations.
With his reforms, Peter 1 created a formidable regular army, which by 1725 numbered up to 212 thousand people and a strong navy. Units were created in the army: regiments, brigades and divisions, and squadrons in the navy. Many military victories were won. These reforms (although assessed ambiguously by different historians) created a springboard for further successes of Russian weapons.

Church reform
1700-1701 ; 1721
After the death of Patriarch Adrian in 1700, the institution of the patriarchate was virtually liquidated. In 1701, the management of church and monastic lands was reformed. Peter 1 restored the Monastic Order, which controlled church revenues and the court of monastic peasants. In 1721, the Spiritual Regulations were adopted, which actually deprived the church of independence. To replace the patriarchate, the Holy Synod was created, the members of which were subordinate to Peter 1, by whom they were appointed. Church property was often taken away and spent on the needs of the emperor.
The church reforms of Peter 1 led to the almost complete subordination of the clergy to secular power. In addition to the elimination of the patriarchate, many bishops and ordinary clergy were persecuted. The Church could no longer pursue an independent spiritual policy and partially lost its authority in society.

Financial reforms
Almost the entire reign of Peter 1
Introduction of many new (including indirect) taxes,

Mikhail basmanov

Completing the destruction of the empire of Great Tartary, he set about military reform in the Western style. Established a mechanism for obtaining material income from the Christian church. He introduced serfdom, while in Europe they were getting rid of it. He allowed many foreigners (including military personnel) into the Russian Empire with privileges. Previously, few of them were allowed into the empire. And their theft and corruption. The beginning of a large-scale rewriting of the history of the empire of Great Tartaria.

Olya Kireeva

As you know, Peter I cut a window to Europe, forced the boyars to shave their beards and enlightened the dark Russian people. This emperor was immensely respected during the Soviet period, but in recent history his role in the life of the country is assessed very ambiguously. A relatively objective assessment of what Peter I did for Russia can be based on his completed reforms.
Under Peter I, the Russian Tsardom became the Russian Empire as a result of the victory in the Northern War and gaining access to the Baltic Sea. Since that time (1721), the country has been actively involved in foreign policy games.
The Byzantine chronology was replaced by the era “from the Nativity of Christ”, New Year began to be celebrated on January 1.
The conservative Boyar Duma was replaced by the Governing Senate, to which the collegiums (ministries) were subordinate, all document flow was standardized, and office work was brought to a unified scheme.
The fiscal department was called upon to control the activities of the bureaucratic apparatus.
The territory of the country was divided into 8 provinces, in each of which a local power vertical was created, and then each province into 50 provinces.
The country's regular army was replenished first with foreign officers, and then with Russian nobles - graduates of navigation, engineering and artillery schools. A powerful navy was created and a Maritime Academy was opened.
The church hierarchy came under the complete subordination of the Senate; instead of the patriarch, the management of the church vertical was handled by the Holy Synod, which swore allegiance to the emperor.
The land and peasants assigned to the estate became the full property of the nobles and landowners, free peasants became the property of the state.
Primary education became compulsory for all children of the boyars.
All representatives of the nobility were required to perform public service.
A “Table of Ranks” appeared, allowing one to build a career regardless of class origin: an official who reached the 8th grade could receive personal nobility.
Instead of household taxes, capitation taxes began to be collected, and for the first time a capitation census was carried out.
The kopeck became the main monetary unit.
Petersburg was built (founded in 1703).
233 industrial enterprises were built.

Introduction

1. Russia at the end of the 17th century. Prerequisites for Peter's reforms

1.1The situation of Russia at the end of the 17th century

2Internal prerequisites for transformation

3Reasons for the need for reforms

4The need for access to the seas

2.Reforms of Peter I

2.1 Public administration reforms

2 Administrative and local government reforms

3 Military reforms

4 Social policy

5 Economic reforms

6 Financial and fiscal reforms

7 Church reform

3. Results and significance of Peter’s reforms

3.1 General assessment of Peter’s reforms

2 The significance and price of reforms, their impact on the further development of the Russian Empire

Conclusion

Bibliography

Introduction

I believe that this topic is very relevant today. Currently, Russia is going through a period of reforming economic and socio-political relations, accompanied by contradictory results and polar opposite assessments in various strata of Russian society. This causes a heightened interest in the reforms in the past, in their origins, content and results. One of the most turbulent and most fruitful reform eras is the era of Peter I. Therefore, there is a desire to delve into the essence, the nature of the processes of a different period of breaking up society, to study in more detail the mechanisms of change in a huge state.

For two and a half centuries, historians, philosophers and writers have been arguing about the meaning of Peter’s reforms, but regardless of the point of view of one or another researcher, everyone agrees on one thing - it was one of the most important stages history of Russia, thanks to which all of it can be divided into pre-Petrine and post-Petrine eras. IN Russian history It is difficult to find a figure equal to Peter in terms of the scale of his interests and the ability to see the main thing in the problem being solved.

In my work, I would like to consider in detail the reasons for the reforms of Peter I, the reforms themselves, and also highlight their significance for the country and society.

1. Russia at the end of the 17th century. Prerequisites for Peter's reforms

.1 Russia's position at the end 17th century

In the countries of Western Europe in the 16th - 17th centuries, important historical events took place - the Dutch bourgeois revolution (XVI century) and the English bourgeois revolution (XVII century).

Bourgeois relations were established in Holland and England, and both of these countries were far ahead of other states in their socio-economic and political development. Many European countries were backward compared to Holland and England, but Russia was the most backward.

The reasons for Russia's historical backwardness were due to the fact that:

1.During the era of the Mongol-Tatar invasion, the principalities were saved Western Europe from the hordes of Batu, but they themselves were ruined and fell under the yoke of the Golden Horde khans for more than 200 years.

2.The process of overcoming feudal fragmentation due to the vast territory that was to be unified took about three hundred years. Thus, the unification process took place in Russian lands much more slowly than, for example, in England or France.

.Trade, industrial, cultural and, to a certain extent, diplomatic ties between Russia and Western countries were complicated due to Russia’s lack of convenient sea harbors in the Baltic.

.Russia at the end of the 17th century had not yet fully recovered from the consequences of the Polish-Swedish intervention at the beginning of the century, which devastated a number of regions in the north-west, south-west and center of the country.

.2 Internal prerequisites for transformation

In the XVII century. As a result of the activities of the first representatives of the Romanov dynasty, the socio-economic and political crisis of the state and society caused by the events of the time of troubles was overcome. At the end of the 17th century, a trend towards Europeanization of Russia emerged, and the prerequisites for future Peter’s reforms were outlined:

The tendency to absolutize the supreme power (liquidation of the activities of the Zemsky Sobors as class-representative bodies), the inclusion of the word "autocrat" in the royal title; registration of national legislation (Conciliar Code of 1649). Further improvement of the code of laws associated with the adoption of new articles (in 1649-1690, 1535 decrees were adopted to supplement the Code);

Activation of foreign policy and diplomatic activity of the Russian state;

Reorganization and improvement of the armed forces (creation of regiments of a foreign system, changes in the order of recruitment and recruitment into regiments, distribution of military corps by districts;

Reform and improvement of financial and tax systems;

The transition from craft production to manufacturing using elements of hired labor and simple mechanisms;

Development of domestic and foreign trade (adoption of the “Charter of Customs” in 1653, “New Trade Charter” of 1667);

The demarcation of society under the influence of Western European culture and Nikon’s church reform; the emergence of Nazis nal-conservative and Westernizing movements.

.3 Reasons for the need for reforms

reform politics diplomatic

When speaking about the reasons for Peter's reforms, historians usually refer to the need to overcome Russia's lag behind the advanced countries of the West. But, in fact, not a single class wanted to catch up with anyone, did not feel the internal need to reform the country in a European manner. This desire was present only among a very small group of aristocrats, led by Peter I himself. The population did not feel the need for changes, especially such radical ones. Why then did Peter “raise Russia on its hind legs”?

The origins of Peter's reforms must be sought not in the internal needs of the Russian economy and social strata, but in the foreign policy sphere. The impetus for reforms was the defeat of Russian troops near Narva (1700) at the beginning of the Northern War. After it, it became obvious that if Russia wants to act as an equal partner of the main world powers, it must have an army of the European type. It could only be created by carrying out large-scale military reform. And this, in turn, required the development of its own industry (to provide troops with weapons, ammunition, and uniforms). It is known that manufactories, factories and factories cannot be built without large investments. The government could receive money for them from the population only through fiscal reform. People are needed to serve in the army and work in enterprises. To provide the required number of “military ranks” and labor, it was necessary to rebuild the social structure of society. All these transformations were able to carry out only a powerful and effective apparatus of power, which did not exist in pre-Petrine Russia. Such tasks faced Peter I after the military disaster of 1700. All that remained was either to capitulate or reform the country in order to win in the future.

Thus, the need for military reform that arose after the defeat at Narva turned out to be the link that seemed to pull the entire chain of transformations along with it. All of them were subordinated to a single goal - strengthening Russia’s military potential, turning it into a world power, without whose permission “not a single cannon in Europe could fire.”

In order to put Russia on a par with developed European countries, it was necessary:

1.To achieve access to the seas for trade and cultural communication with European countries (in the north - to the coast of the Gulf of Finland and the Baltic; in the south - to the shores of the Azov and Black Seas).

2.Develop national industry faster.

.Create a regular army and navy.

.Reform the state apparatus, which did not meet new needs.

.Catch up on lost time in the field of culture.

The struggle to solve these state problems unfolded during the 43-year reign of Peter I (1682-1725).

.4 The need for access to the seas

Distinctive feature Russia's foreign policy in the first quarter of the 18th century was highly active. The almost continuous wars waged by Peter I were aimed at solving the main national task - Russia's acquisition of the right to access the sea. Without solving this problem, it was impossible to overcome the technical and economic backwardness of the country and eliminate the political and economic blockade on the part of Western European states and Turkey. Peter I sought to strengthen the international position of the state and increase its role in international relations. It was a time of European expansion, the seizure of new territories. In the current situation, Russia had to either become a dependent state, or, having overcome the backlog, enter the category of Great Powers. It was for this that Russia needed access to the seas: shipping routes were faster and safer, the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth in every possible way prevented the passage of merchants and specialists to Russia. The country was cut off from both the northern and southern seas: Sweden prevented access to the Baltic Sea, Turkey held the Azov and Black Seas. Initially, the foreign policy of the Petrine government had the same direction as in the previous period. This was Russia’s movement to the south, the desire to eliminate the Wild Field, which arose in very ancient times as a result of the onset of the nomadic world. It blocked Russia’s path to trade in the Black and Mediterranean Seas and impeded the country’s economic development. A manifestation of this “southern” foreign policy line were Vasily Golitsyn’s campaigns in the Crimea and Peter’s “Azov” campaigns. The wars with Sweden and Turkey cannot be considered as alternatives - they were subordinated to one goal: to establish large-scale trade between the Baltic and Central Asia.

2. Reforms of Peter I

In the history of Peter's reforms, researchers distinguish two stages: before and after 1715 (V.I. Rodenkov, A.B. Kamensky).

At the first stage, the reforms were mostly chaotic in nature and were caused primarily by the military needs of the state related to the conduct of the Northern War. They were carried out mainly by violent methods and were accompanied by active government intervention in economic affairs (regulation of trade, industry, tax, financial and labor activities). Many reforms were ill-conceived and hasty in nature, which was caused both by failures in the war and by the lack of personnel, experience, and pressure from the old conservative apparatus of power.

At the second stage, when military operations had already been transferred to enemy territory, the transformations became more systematic. The apparatus of power was further strengthened, manufactories no longer only served military needs, but also produced consumer goods for the population, state regulation of the economy weakened somewhat, and traders and entrepreneurs were given a certain freedom of action.

Basically, the reforms were subordinated to the interests not of individual classes, but of the state as a whole: its prosperity, well-being and inclusion in Western European civilization. The main goal of the reforms was for Russia to acquire the role of one of the leading world powers, capable of competing with Western countries militarily and economically.

.1 Public administration reforms

Initially, Peter tried to make the old order system more effective. The Reitarsky and Inozemsky orders were merged into the Military. The Streletsky order was liquidated, and Preobrazhensky was established in its place. In the early years, the collection of money for the Northern War was carried out by the Town Hall, Izhora offices, and the Monastery Prikaz. The Mining Department was in charge of the mining industry.

However, the competence of orders was increasingly reduced, and the fullness of political life was concentrated in the Near Office of Peter, formed in 1701. After the founding of the new capital, St. Petersburg (1703), the term “office” began to be applied to the St. Petersburg branches of the Moscow orders, to which all administrative prerogatives were transferred. As this process developed, the Moscow order system was liquidated.

The reforms also affected other central government bodies. Since 1704, the Boyar Duma no longer met. No one dispersed it, but Peter simply stopped giving new boyar ranks, and the Duma members died out physically. Since 1701, its role was actually played by the Council of Ministers, which met in the Near Chancellery.

In 1711 the Senate was established. At first it existed as a temporary governing body, created during the absence of the sovereign (Peter was on the Prut campaign). But upon the return of the tsar, the Senate was retained as a government institution that acted as the highest court, dealt with financial and fiscal problems, and recruited the army. The Senate was also in charge of personnel appointments to almost all institutions. In 1722, the prosecutor's office was created under him - the highest control body that monitored compliance with the laws. Closely connected with the prosecutor's office was the special position of fiscals, introduced back in 1711 - professional informers who controlled the work of government institutions. Above them stood the chief fiscal, and in 1723 the post of fiscal general was established, who led the entire network of “sovereign eyes and ears.”

In 1718 - 1722 Collegiums were established based on the model of the Swedish government (a remarkable fact: Russia waged a war with Sweden and at the same time “borrowed” the concept of some reforms from it). Each board was in charge of a strictly defined branch of management: the Board of Foreign Affairs - external relations, the Military Board - the ground armed forces, the Admiralty Board - the fleet, the Chamber Board - revenue collection, the State Office Board - state expenditures, the Revision Board - control over budget execution, The Justic Collegium was in charge of legal proceedings, the Patrimonial Collegium was in charge of noble land ownership, the Manufactory Collegium was in charge of industry, except for metallurgy, which was in charge of the Berg Collegium, and the Commerce Collegium was in charge of trade. In fact, as a collegium, there was a Chief Magistrate in charge of Russian cities. In addition, the Preobrazhensky Prikaz (political investigation), the Salt Office, the Copper Department, and the Land Survey Office operated.

The new authorities were based on the principle of cameralism. Its main components were: a functional organization of management, collegiality in institutions with a precise definition of the responsibilities of each, the introduction of a clear system of clerical work, uniformity of bureaucratic staff and salaries. The structural divisions of the collegium were offices, which included offices.

The work of officials was regulated by special rules - regulations. In 1719 - 1724 The General Regulations were drawn up - a law that defined the general principles of the functioning of the state apparatus, which had a very strong resemblance to the military regulations. For employees, an oath of allegiance to the sovereign was even introduced, similar to a military oath. The responsibilities of each person were recorded on a special paper called “position”.

In the new government institutions, faith in the omnipotence of circulars and instructions quickly took root, and the cult of bureaucratic orders flourished. It is Peter I who is considered the father of the Russian bureaucracy.

2.2 Administrative and local government reforms

Pre-Petrine Russia was divided into counties. In 1701, Peter took the first step towards administrative reform: a special district was established from Voronezh and the recently conquered Azov. In 1702 - 1703 a similar territorial unit arose in Ingria, annexed during the Northern War. In 1707 - 1710 provincial reform began. The country was divided into large lands called provinces. In 1708, Russia was divided into eight provinces: Moscow, St. Petersburg, Kyiv, Arkhangelsk, Smolensk, Kazan, Azov and Siberian. Each of them was ruled by a governor appointed by the king. The provincial chancellery and the following officials were subordinate to him: chief commandant (in charge of military affairs), chief commissar (in charge of collecting taxes) and landricht (responsible for legal proceedings).

The main goal of the reform was to streamline the financial and fiscal system to meet the needs of the army. The registration of regiments was introduced in the provinces. Each regiment had Kriegs commissars who were in charge of collecting funds for their units. A special Kriegs-Commissioner office, headed by the Ober-Stern-Kriegs-Commissar, was established under the Senate.

The provinces turned out to be too large for effective management. At first they were divided into districts, headed by commandants. However, these territorial units were also too cumbersome. Then in 1712 - 1715. The provinces were divided into provinces headed by chief commandants, and the provinces into districts (counties) under the command of zemstvo commissars.

In general, the system of local government and administrative structure was borrowed by Peter from the Swedes. However, he excluded its lowest component - the Swedish zemstvo (Kirchspiel). The reason for this is simple: the tsar had disdain for the common people and was sincerely convinced that “in the district from the peasantry smart people No".

Thus, a single, centralized administrative-bureaucratic system of governance emerged for the entire country, in which the decisive role was played by the monarch, who relied on the nobility. The number of officials has increased significantly. The costs of maintaining the administrative apparatus have also increased. General Regulations of 1720 Introduced a unified system of office work in the state apparatus for the entire country.

2.3 Military reforms

New types of troops were established in the army: engineering and garrison units, irregular troops, and in the southern regions - land militia (militia of single-dvoriers). Now the infantry consisted of grenadier regiments, and the cavalry - of dragoon regiments (dragoons were soldiers who fought both on foot and on horseback).

The structure of the army has changed. The tactical unit was now the regiment. Brigades were formed from regiments, and divisions from brigades. Headquarters were established to control the troops. A new system of military ranks was introduced, the highest ranks of which were occupied by generals: general from infantry (in the infantry), general from cavalry and general-feldtzeichmeister (in artillery).

A unified training system was established in the army and navy, and military educational institutions were opened (navigation, artillery, engineering schools). The Preobrazhensky and Semenovsky regiments, as well as a number of newly opened special schools and the Naval Academy, served to train officers.

The internal life of the army was regulated by special documents - the “Military Charter” (1716) and the “Naval Charter” (1720). Their main idea was strict centralization of command, military discipline and organization: so that “the commander would be loved and feared by the soldier.” The “Military Article” (1715) determined the military criminal process and the system of criminal penalties.

The most important part of the reforms was the creation by Peter of Russia of a powerful navy. The first warships, built in 1696 for the Second Azov Campaign in Voronezh, along the river. Don descended into the Sea of ​​Azov. Since 1703, the construction of warships in the Baltic has been going on (the Olonets shipyard was opened on the Svir River). In total, during the years of Peter's reign, more than 1,100 ships were built, including the largest 100-gun battleship, Peter I and II, laid down in 1723.

In general, the military reforms of Peter I had a positive impact on the development of Russian military art and were one of the factors that determined the success of the Russian army and navy in the Northern War.

.4 Social policy

The goal of Peter’s reforms was “the creation of the Russian people.” The reforms were accompanied by large-scale social disruption, a “shake-up” of all classes, often very painful for society.

Dramatic changes occurred among the nobility. Peter physically destroyed the Duma aristocracy - he stopped making new appointments to the Boyar Duma, and the Duma ranks died out. Most of the service people “according to their fatherland” were turned into nobility (as the nobility was called under Peter). Some of the service people “according to the fatherland” in the south of the country and almost all the service people “according to the device” became state peasants. At the same time, a transitional category of odnodvortsy arose - personally free people, but owning only one yard.

The goal of all these transformations was to consolidate the nobility into a single class bearing state duties (in 1719 - 1724 the single-dvorets were rewritten and subject to poll tax). It is not for nothing that some historians even talk about the “enslavement of the nobility” by Peter I. The main task was to force the aristocrats to serve the Fatherland. To do this, it was necessary to deprive the nobility of material independence. In 1714, the “Decree on Single Inheritance” was issued. Now the local form of land ownership was eliminated, only the patrimonial form remained, but the patrimonial form was henceforth called an estate. Only the eldest son received the right to inherit the land. All the rest found themselves landless, deprived of a means of subsistence, and had the opportunity to choose only one path in life - to enter the public service.

However, this was not enough, and in the same 1714 a decree was issued that a nobleman could acquire property only after 7 years military service, or 10 civil, or 15 years in the rank of merchant. Persons who were not in public service could never become owners. If a nobleman refused to enter the service, his estate was immediately confiscated. The most unusual measure was the ban on noble children marrying until they had learned the sciences necessary for service.

The service introduced a new criterion for the nobles: the principle of personal service. In its clearest form it is expressed in the “Table of Ranks” (1722 - 1724). Now the basis of career growth was the rule of gradual ascent through career ladder from rank to rank. All ranks were divided into four categories: military, naval, civilian and court. Those who reached the 8th grade received hereditary nobility (this corresponded to approximately 10 years of service and the ranks of major, chief fiscal, chief secretary of the college.

"Table of ranks."

ClassesMilitary ranksCivil ranksCourt ranksNavalLandIAdmiral GeneralGeneralissimo Field MarshalChancellor (State Secretary) Actual Privy Councilor IIAdmiralGeneral of Artillery General of Cavalry General of InfantryActual Privy Councilor Vice-ChancellorOber Chamberlain Ober Schenck IIIVice Admiral Lieutenant General Privy Councilor Chamberlain IVRear AdmiralMajor GeneralActual State CouncilorChamberlain VCaptain-CommanderBrigadierState Councilor VICaptain 1st Rank Colonel Collegiate Advisor Chamber Fourier VIICaptain 2nd RankLieutenant Colonel Court Advisor VIIIFleet Lieutenant Commander Artillery Captain 3rd Rank Major Collegiate Assessor IXArtillery captain-lieutenantCaptain (in the infantry) Rotmister (in the cavalry) Titular councilor Chamber cadet XFleet Lieutenant Artillery Lieutenant Staff Captain Staff Captain Collegiate Secretary XISenate Secretary XIIFleet midshipmanLieutenantGovernment SecretaryValet XIIIArtillery ConstableLieutenantSenate Registrar XIVEnsign (in the infantry) Cornet (in the cavalry) Collegiate registrar

Theoretically, any personally free person could now rise to become an aristocrat. On the one hand, this made it possible for people from the lower strata to climb the social ladder. On the other hand, the autocratic power of the monarch and the role of state bureaucratic institutions sharply increased. The nobility turned out to be dependent on the bureaucracy and the arbitrariness of the authorities, who controlled any advancement up the career ladder.

At the same time, Peter I made sure that the nobility, although serving, was a higher, privileged class. In 1724, a ban was issued for non-nobles to enter the clerical service. The highest bureaucratic institutions were staffed exclusively by nobles, which made it possible for the gentry to remain the ruling class of Russian society.

Simultaneously with the consolidation of the nobility, Peter carried out the consolidation of the peasantry. He eliminated various categories peasants: in 1714 the division of peasants into local and patrimonial peasants was abolished, and during the church reforms there were no more church and patriarchal peasants. Now there were serfs (owners), palace and state peasants.

An important social policy measure was the elimination of the institution of servitude. Even during the recruitment of troops for the Second Azov Campaign, the slaves who signed up for the regiments were declared free. In 1700 this decree was repeated. Thus, by enlisting as a soldier, a slave could free himself from his owner. When conducting a census of the population, slaves were ordered to “write in salary,” i.e. in legal terms, they became closer to the peasants. This meant the destruction of servitude as such. On the one hand, Peter’s merit in eliminating slavery in Russia, a legacy of the early Middle Ages, is undoubted. On the other hand, this hit the serf peasantry: the lordly plowing increased sharply. Before that, the master's lands were mainly cultivated by arable serfs, but now this duty fell on the peasants, and the size of the corvee approached the limits of human physical capabilities.

The same harsh policies were applied to the townspeople. In addition to the sharp increase in tax burden, Peter I actually attached the residents of the town to the cities. In 1722, a decree was issued on the return of all fugitive draft traders to the settlements and on the prohibition of unauthorized departure from the settlement. In 1724 - 1725 A passport system is being introduced in the country. Without a passport, a person could not move around Russia.

The only category of townspeople that escaped attachment to the cities was the merchant class, but the trading class also underwent unification. On the morning of January 16, 1721, all Russian merchants woke up as members of guilds and workshops. The first guild included bankers, industrialists and wealthy merchants, the second - small entrepreneurs and merchants, retailers, and artisans.

Under Peter I, the merchants bore the brunt of the state's fiscal oppression. During the census, officials, in order to increase the number of the tax-paying population, called “merchants” even those who had not the slightest relation to them. As a result, in the census books it turned out a large number of fictitious "merchants". And the total amount of taxes levied on the city community was calculated precisely according to the number of wealthy citizens, which merchants were automatically considered to be. These taxes were distributed among the townspeople “according to strength”, i.e. the bulk of the contribution for their impoverished fellow countrymen was made by real merchants and rich townspeople. This order interfered with the accumulation of capital and slowed down the development of capitalism in the cities.

Thus, under Peter, a new structure of society emerged, in which the class principle, regulated by state legislation, was clearly visible.

.5 Economic reforms

Peter was the first in Russian history to create a system of state regulation of the economy. It was carried out through bureaucratic institutions: the Berg College, the Manufacturer College, the Commerce College and the General Magistrate.

A state monopoly was introduced on a number of goods: in 1705 - on salt, which gave the treasury 100% of the profit, and on tobacco (800% of the profit). Also, based on the principle of mercantilism, a monopoly was established on foreign trade in grain and raw materials. By 1719, at the end of the Northern War, most of the monopolies were abolished, but they played their role - they ensured the mobilization of the state's material resources in wartime. However, private domestic trade was dealt a severe blow. The merchants found themselves excommunicated from the most profitable branches of commercial activity. In addition, fixed prices were introduced for a number of goods supplied by merchants to the treasury, which deprived merchants of the opportunity to receive income from their sales.

Peter widely practiced the forced formation of cargo flows. In 1713, trade through Arkhangelsk was prohibited, and goods were sent through St. Petersburg. This almost led to a halt in commercial operations, since St. Petersburg was deprived of the necessary trading infrastructure (exchanges, warehouses, etc.). Then the government softened its ban, but according to the decree of 1721, trade duties on trade through Arkhangelsk became three times higher than when transporting goods through the Baltic capital.

St. Petersburg generally played a fatal role in the fate of the Russian merchants: in 1711 - 1717. The best merchant families of the country were forcibly sent there. This was done to economically strengthen the capital. But few of them managed to establish their business in a new place. This led to the fact that the “strong” merchant class in Russia was halved. Some famous names have disappeared forever.

The centers of trade were Moscow, Astrakhan, Novgorod, as well as large fairs - Makaryevskaya on the Volga, Irbitskaya in Siberia, Svinskaya in Ukraine and smaller fairs and markets at the crossroads of trade roads. Peter's government paid great attention to the development of waterways - the main form of transport at that time. Active construction of canals was underway: Volga-Don, Vyshnevolzhsky, Ladoga, and work began on the construction of the Moscow-Volga canal.

After 1719, the state somewhat weakened mobilization measures and its intervention in economic life. Not only were monopolies abolished, but measures were also taken to encourage free enterprise. A special Berg privilege is established for the extractive industry. The practice of transferring manufactories to private individuals is spreading. However, the foundations of state regulation remained. Enterprises still had to primarily fulfill huge government orders at fixed prices. This ensured the growth of Russian industry, which enjoyed state support (during the years of Peter’s reign, more than 200 new manufactories and factories were built), but at the same time, the Russian industrial economy was initially devoid of competition, focused not on the market, but on government orders. This gave rise to stagnation - why improve quality, expand production, if the authorities will still buy the goods at a guaranteed price?

Therefore, the assessment of the results of Peter I’s economic policy cannot be unambiguous. Yes, a Western, bourgeois-style industry was created, which allowed the country to become an equal participant in all political processes in Europe and the world. But the similarities with the West affected only the technological sphere. Socially, Russian manufactories and factories did not know bourgeois relations. Thus, Peter, to a certain extent, solved the technical problems of the bourgeois revolution without its social components, without creating classes of bourgeois society. This circumstance led to serious distortions in the country's economic development, which took many decades to overcome.

The most striking example of such economic "perversions" is the establishment in 1721 of "possession manufactories" - enterprises in which serfs assigned to this manufactory worked instead of hired workers. Peter created an economic monster unknown to the capitalist mode of production. According to all market laws, slaves cannot work in factories and factories instead of hired workers. Such an enterprise is simply not viable. But in Petrine Russia, it successfully existed, using the support of the state.

.6 Financial and fiscal reforms

Under Peter I, these areas were subject to the same tasks: building a strong state, a strong army, expropriation of estates, which caused a sharp increase in duties and taxes. Such a policy solved its task - the mobilization of funds - but it led to an overstrain of the state's forces.

Another goal of fiscal reforms was to create a material base for maintaining the army in peacetime. At first, the government planned to establish something like labor armies from units returning from the fronts of the Northern War. But this project was not implemented. But permanent conscription was introduced. The soldiers settled in the villages in proportions: one infantryman for 47 peasants, one cavalryman for 57 peasants. For the first time in Russian history, the country was covered by a network of military garrisons feeding off the local population.

However, the most effective way to replenish the treasury was the introduction of the poll tax (1719 - 1724). From 1718 to 1722, a population census (revision) was carried out. Special officials collected information about potential taxpayers and entered them into special books - “revision tales.” The rewritten people were called "revision souls". If before Peter taxes were paid from the yard (household), now every “revision soul” had to pay them.

.7 Church reform

The measures of Peter I in this area were distinguished by the same characteristics: mobilization and expropriation of church resources for the needs of the state. The main task of the authorities was to destroy the church as an independent social force. The Emperor was especially wary of an alliance between the anti-Petrine opposition and Orthodox priests. Moreover, there were rumors among the people that the reformer king was the Antichrist or his forerunner. In 1701, a ban was even issued on keeping paper and ink in monastery cells to stop the writing and distribution of anti-government works.

In 1700 Patriarch Andrian died. Peter did not appoint a new one, but established the position of “locum tenens of the patriarchal throne.” It was occupied by the Metropolitan of Ryazan and Murom Stefan Yavorsky. In 1701, it was restored liquidated in the 1670s. A monastic order that regulated issues of church land ownership, and monks were attached to their monasteries. A norm of funds was introduced, relying in the monasteries for the maintenance of the brethren, - for one monk 10 rubles and 10 quarters of bread per year. Everything else was confiscated in favor of the treasury.

The ideology of further church reform was developed by Pskov Archbishop Feofan Prokopovich. In 1721, he created the Spiritual Regulations, the purpose of which was to “correct the clergy.” The patriarchate in Russia was liquidated. A Spiritual College was established, later renamed the Synod. He was in charge of purely church affairs: interpretation of church dogmas, orders for prayers and church services, censorship of spiritual books, the fight against heresies, management of educational institutions and removal of church officials, etc. The Synod also had the functions of a spiritual court. The presence of the Synod consisted of 12 highest church hierarchs appointed by the king, to whom they took an oath. For the first time in Russian history, a secular bureaucratic institution was placed at the head of a religious organization. Control over the activities of the Synod was carried out by the Chief Prosecutor, and a specially created staff of church fiscals - inquisitors - was subordinate to him. In 1721 - 1722 The parish clergy was placed on a capitation salary and rewritten - an unprecedented case in world practice, so that tax duties were assigned to clergy. States were established for priests. There was a proportion: one priest for 100 - 150 parishioners. The "superfluous" were turned ... into serfs. In general, the clergy as a result of these reforms was reduced by one third.

However, at the same time, Peter I exalted that side of church life that met the tasks of state building. Going to church was seen as a civic duty. In 1716, a decree was issued on compulsory confession, and in 1722, a decree was issued on violating the secret of confession if a person confessed to state crimes. Now the priests were obliged to denounce their parishioners. The clergy widely practiced anathemas and sermons “on occasion” - thus, the church became an instrument of the state’s propaganda machine.

At the end of Peter's reign, a monastic reform was being prepared. It was not carried out due to the death of the emperor, but its direction is indicative. Peter hated the black clergy, claiming that “monks are parasites.” It was planned to prohibit monastic vows for all categories of the population except retired soldiers. This showed Peter's utilitarianism: he wanted to turn the convents into giant nursing homes. At the same time, it was supposed to keep a certain number of monks to serve the veterans (one for 2 - 4 invalids). The rest were waiting for the fate of serfs, and the nuns - work in the possession of manufactories.

3. Results and significance of Peter's reforms

.1 General assessment of reforms

With regard to the Petrine reforms, beginning with the dispute between the Slavophiles and the Westerners in the 19th century, there are two points of view in the scientific literature. Supporters of the first (S. M. Solovyov, N. G. Ustryalov, N. I. Pavlenko, V. I. Buganov, V. V. Mavrodin, etc.) point to the undoubted successes of Russia: the country has strengthened its international position, built industry , army, society, culture of a new, European type. The reforms of Peter I determined the appearance of Russia for many decades to come.

Scientists who share a different point of view (V. O. Klyuchevsky, E. V. Anisimov and others) ask the question about the price that was paid for these transformations. Indeed, in 1725, the commission of P.I. Yaguzhinsky, which audited the results of the reforms, came to the conclusion that they must be stopped immediately and moved to stabilization. The country is overextended and overextended. The population could not withstand fiscal oppression. At the end of the reign of Peter I, famine began in a number of districts due to unbearable exactions. This group of historians also raise objections to the methods of implementing reforms: they were carried out “from above”, through strict centralization, mobilization of Russian society and attracting it to the service of the state. According to V.O. Klyuchevsky, Peter’s decrees “as if written with a whip.”

There was no support for reforms in society: not a single social layer, not a single class acted as a bearer of reforms and was not interested in them. The reform mechanism was purely statist. This created serious imbalances in the economic and social infrastructure, which Russia had to overcome for many years.

3.2 The meaning and price of Peter’s reforms, their impact on the further development of the Russian Empire

The reign of Peter I opened a new period in Russian history. Russia has become a Europeanized state and a member of the European community of nations. Management and jurisprudence, the army and various social strata of the population were reorganized in a Western way. Industry and trade developed rapidly, and great achievements appeared in technical education and science.

When assessing Peter's reforms and their significance for the further development of the Russian Empire, it is necessary to take into account the following main trends:

The reforms of Peter I marked the establishment of an absolute monarchy, in contrast to the classical Western one, not under the influence of the genesis of capitalism, the balancing of the monarch between the feudal lords and the third estate, but on a serf-noble basis.

The new state created by Peter I not only significantly increased the efficiency of public administration, but also served as the main lever for modernizing the country.

In terms of their scale and speed of carrying out the reform of Peter I, they had no analogues not only in Russia, but also, at least in European history.

A powerful and contradictory imprint was left on them by the features of the previous development of the country, extreme foreign policy conditions and the personality of the king himself.

Based on some trends that emerged in the 17th century. in Russia, Peter I not only developed them, but also, in a minimal historical period of time, brought it to a qualitatively higher level, turning Russia into a powerful power.

The price for these radical changes was the further strengthening of serfdom, the temporary inhibition of the formation of capitalist relations and the strongest tax and tax pressure on the population.

Despite the contradictory personality of Peter and his transformations, in Russian history his figure has become a symbol of decisive reformism and selfless service to the Russian state, not sparing either himself or others. Among his descendants, Peter I - practically the only one of the tsars - rightfully retained the title of the Great, granted to him during his lifetime.

Transformations of the first quarter of the 18th century. so grandiose in their consequences that they give reason to talk about pre-Petrine and post-Petrine Russia. Peter the Great is one of the most prominent figures in Russian history. Reforms are inseparable from the personality of Peter I - an outstanding commander and statesman.

Contradictory, explained by the peculiarities of the time and personal qualities, the figure of Peter the Great constantly attracted the attention of the most important writers (M.V. Lomonosov, A.S. Pushkin, A.N. Tolstoy), artists and sculptors (E. Falcone, V.I. Surikov, M. N. Ge, V. A. Serov), theater and film figures (V. M. Petrova, N. K. Cherkasova), composers (A. P. Petrova).

How to evaluate Peter's perestroika? The attitude towards Peter I and his reforms is a kind of touchstone that determines the views of historians, publicists, politicians, scientists and cultural figures. What is this - a historical feat of the people or measures that doomed the country to ruin after Peter's reforms?

Peter's reforms and their results are extremely contradictory, which is reflected in the works of historians. Most researchers believe that the reforms of Peter I were of outstanding importance in the history of Russia (K. Valishevsky, S. M. Solovyov, V. O. Klyuchevsky, N. I. Kostomarov, E. P. Karpovich, N. N. Molchanov, N. I. Pavlenko and others). On the one hand, the reign of Peter entered into national history As a time of brilliant military victories, it was characterized by rapid rates of economic development. It was a period of a sharp breakthrough towards Europe. According to S. F. Platonov, for this purpose Peter was ready to sacrifice everything, even himself and his loved ones. As a statesman, he was ready to exterminate and destroy everything that went against the benefit of the state.

On the other hand, some historians consider the creation of a “regular state” to be the result of the activities of Peter I, i.e. state bureaucratic in nature, based on surveillance and espionage. Authoritarian rule is becoming established, the role of the monarch and his influence on all spheres of life of society and the state are increasing enormously (A. N. Mavrodin, G. V. Vernadsky).

Moreover, researcher Yu. A. Boldyrev, studying the personality of Peter and his reforms, concludes that “Petrine reforms aimed at Europeanizing Russia did not achieve their goal. Peter’s revolutionary spirit turned out to be false, since it was carried out while maintaining the basic principles of the despotic regime, general enslavement.”

The ideal of government for Peter I was a “regular state,” a model similar to a ship, where the captain is the king, his subjects are officers and sailors, acting according to naval regulations. Only such a state, according to Peter, could become an instrument of decisive transformations, the goal of which was to turn Russia into a great European power. Peter achieved this goal and therefore went down in history as a great reformer. But what at the costwere these results achieved?

Multiple increases in taxes led to the impoverishment and enslavement of the bulk of the population. Various social uprisings - the revolt of the Streltsy in Astrakhan (1705 - 1706), the uprising of the Cossacks on the Don under the leadership of Kondraty Bulavin (1707 - 1708), in Ukraine and the Volga region were directed personally against Peter I and not so much against the reforms as against the methods and means of their implementation.

Carrying out the reform of public administration, Peter I was guided by the principles of cameralism, i.e. introduction of bureaucratic principles. A cult of institution has developed in Russia, and the pursuit of ranks and positions has become a national disaster.

Peter I tried to realize his desire to catch up with Europe in economic development through accelerated “manufacturing industrialization,” i.e. through the mobilization of public funds and the use of serf labor. The main feature of the development of manufactories was the fulfillment of state, primarily military, orders, which saved them from competition, but deprived them of free economic initiative.

The result of Peter's reforms was the creation in Russia of the foundations of a state-monopoly industry, feudal and militarized. Instead of a civil society with a market economy emerging in Europe, Russia, by the end of Peter’s reign, was a military-police state with a nationalized monopolized serf-owning economy.

The achievements of the imperial period were accompanied by deep internal conflicts. The main crisis is ripening in the national psychology. The Europeanization of Russia brought with it new political, religious and social ideas that were adopted by the ruling classes of society before they reached the masses. Accordingly, a split arose between the top and bottom of society, between intellectuals and the people.

The main psychological support of the Russian state is Orthodox Church- at the end of the 17th century. was shaken in its foundations and gradually lost its importance, starting from 1700 and until the revolution of 1917. Church reform of the beginning of the 18th century. meant for Russians the loss of a spiritual alternative to state ideology. While in Europe the church, separating from the state, became closer to believers, in Russia it moved away from them, becoming an obedient instrument of power, which contradicted Russian traditions, spiritual values, and the entire age-old way of life. It is natural that many contemporaries called Peter I the Tsar-Antichrist.

There was an aggravation of political and social problems. The abolition of Zemsky Sobors (which removed the people from political power) and the abolition of self-government in 1708 also created political difficulties.

The government was acutely aware of the weakening of contacts with the people after Peter's reforms. It soon became clear that the majority did not sympathize with the Europeanization program. In carrying out its reforms, the government was forced to act cruelly, as Peter the Great did. And later the concept of prohibitions became familiar. Meanwhile, Western political thought influenced the Europeanized circles of Russian society, which absorbed the ideas of political progress and gradually prepared to fight absolutism. Thus, Peter's reforms set in motion political forces that the government subsequently could not control.

In Petra we can see before us the only example of successful and generally completed reforms in Russia, which determined its further development for almost two centuries. However, it should be noted that the cost of the transformations was prohibitively high: when carrying out them, the tsar did not take into account the sacrifices made on the altar of the fatherland, nor with national traditions, nor with the memory of ancestors.

Conclusion

The main result of the entire set of Peter's reforms was the establishment of a regime of absolutism in Russia, the crown of which was the change in the title of the Russian monarch in 1721 - Peter declared himself emperor, and the country began to be called the Russian Empire. Thus, what Peter was aiming for all the years of his reign was formalized - the creation of a state with a coherent system of governance, a strong army and navy, a powerful economy, influencing international politics. As a result of Peter's reforms, the state was not bound by anything and could use any means to achieve its goals. As a result, Peter came to his ideal of government - a warship, where everything and everyone is subordinated to the will of one person - the captain, and managed to lead this ship out of the swamp into the stormy waters of the ocean, bypassing all the reefs and shoals.

Russia became an autocratic, military-bureaucratic state, in which the central role belonged to the nobility. At the same time, Russia's backwardness was not completely overcome, and reforms were carried out mainly through brutal exploitation and coercion.

The role of Peter the Great in the history of Russia is difficult to overestimate. No matter how you feel about the methods and style of his reforms, one cannot help but admit that Peter the Great is one of the most prominent figures in world history. Many historical studies and works of art are devoted to the transformations associated with his name. Historians and writers have assessed the personality of Peter I and the significance of his reforms in different, sometimes even opposite, ways. Peter's contemporaries were already divided into two camps: supporters and opponents of his reforms. The dispute continues to this day.

Some experts say that Peter's reforms led to the conservation of the feudal-serf system, violation of individual rights and freedom, which caused further upheavals in the life of the country. Others argue that this is a major step forward on the path of progress, albeit within the framework of a feudal system.

It seems that in the specific conditions of that time, Peter’s reforms were progressive in nature. The objective conditions for the country's development have given rise to adequate measures to reform it. Great A.S. Pushkin most sensitively guessed and understood the essence of that time and the role of Peter in our history. For him, on the one hand, Peter is a brilliant commander and politician, on the other hand, he is an “impatient landowner” whose decrees are “written with a whip.”

The emperor's extraordinary personality and lively mind contributed to the country's dramatic rise and strengthened its position on the world stage. Peter reformed the country based directly on the needs of this time in Russian history: in order to win, you need a strong army and navy - as a result, a large-scale military reform was carried out. To provide the army with weapons, ammunition, uniforms, the development of its own industry, etc. is required. Thus, having carried out a series of reforms, sometimes spontaneous, dictated only by the momentary decision of the emperor, Russia strengthened its international position, built an industry, received a strong army and navy, a society, and a culture of a new type. And, despite the serious distortions in the economic and social infrastructure that the country had to overcome for many years, brought to its completion, Peter’s reforms are undoubtedly one of the outstanding periods in the history of our state.

Bibliography

1. Goryainov S.G., Egorov A.A. History of Russia IX-XVIII centuries. A textbook for students of secondary schools, gymnasiums, lyceums and colleges. Rostov-on-Don, Phoenix Publishing House, 1996. - 416 p.

2. Derevianko A.P., Shabelnikova N.A. History of Russia: textbook. allowance. - 2nd ed., revised. and additional - M.: TK Welby, Prospekt Publishing House, 2005. - 560 p.

Orlov A.S., Georgiev V.A., Georgieva N.G., Sivokhina T.A. History of Russia from ancient times to the present day. Textbook. Second edition, revised and expanded. - M. “PBOYUL L.V. Rozhnikov", 200. - 528 p.

Filyushkin A.I. History of Russia from ancient times to 1801: A manual for universities. - M.: Bustard, 2004. - 336 pp.: map.

Http://www.abc-people.com/typework/history/doch-9.htm

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Page 30, Key questions before paragraph

What did Peter the Great change in the Russian state? How did contemporaries and descendants assess the essence and significance of his reforms?

Peter the Great changed the entire way of life in the Russian state: the economy, social sphere, the government system, the judicial system, the army, the life of high society. Contemporaries and descendants treated his reforms and still treat them very differently. Supporters assess the reforms positively, they believe that he “awakened” Russia, despite the violent nature of the reforms, they became the basis for the future successful development of Russia, placing it among the leading European powers. Opponents say that the forced transfer of the country to the rails of European development deprived Russia of its identity, its own road historical development. In addition, they believe that the transition to the European development model was achieved at a very high cost and sacrifice.

Page 38, questions for the document

1. Determine who and what people this document is addressed to. What is the purpose of its publication?

This document is addressed to people of different classes, not excluding serfs. The purpose of its publication: to attract active, enterprising people to the development of industry (manufacturing), to explore and establish the extraction of iron ore and the production of goods from metals, especially weapons.

2. What role is assigned to the initiative of individuals in the Berg Privilege, and what role to the state?

Individual people - looking for useful ores, building factories

State (Berg-privilege officers) - permission to build factories, financing the construction of factories.

3. Name the names of historical figures who actively took advantage of the opportunities provided by the Berg privilege.

Nikita Demidov and his family

Page 38. Questions after the paragraph

2. Present in the form of diagrams:

A) the structure of central government bodies established by Peter I

B) the system he established for dividing the country’s territory

3. Explain what the meaning of the transition from house tax to poll tax was. What consequences did this change have for the tax-paying population?

The introduction of the poll tax streamlined and tightened class policy, a system of clear control over the population emerged, and tax revenue to the treasury increased. When collecting taxes (taxes) from the courtyard, they collected much less than from each male soul.

The consequences for the tax-paying population were rather negative, the economic burden on each household (family) increased, even serfs paid the poll tax, as well as some non-Russian peoples, previously free from taxes.

4. Conduct a role-playing discussion on the topic “The class policy of Peter I.” Express the characteristics of the tsar’s actions in relation to individual classes (nobles, clergy, peasants, merchants) on behalf of representatives of these classes. Support your opinions with facts.

I am pleased with the actions of the tsar in relation to the nobility; he issued a decree on single inheritance. Now not only the patrimony, but also the estate is inherited by the eldest son.

And I am the youngest son, the inheritance is not given to me, I must earn money in the service of the sovereign. For faithful service and awards and honors. The serfs remain the property of the nobles, but factories must be built and the peasants must be assigned there. However, if you don’t want to build factories, don’t build them, live as before, just serve the Fatherland and the sovereign faithfully.

Priests:

The life of the church under Tsar Peter is not sweet, he does not observe ancient customs, he oppresses the clergy, he removed the bells from churches, melted them down for cannons, and then completely destroyed the power of the patriarch, he says: “There cannot be two kings in a state.” And instead of the patriarchate, the Holy Synod was established, the head of which, the Chief Prosecutor, he himself appoints. He subjugated everyone to his will. No wonder the churchmen call him the Antichrist.

And Archbishop Feofan Prokopovich supports Peter, in his sermons he praises his victories both in the country and abroad in the wars with the Swedes. “Everything is for the benefit of Russia and the Russian people,” says Feofan.

Peasants:

Peasant life is not easy, but under Tsar Peter it became very difficult. Taxes from the courtyard were replaced by taxes from the male soul (poll taxes). A man will die, but his entire family will still have to pay for him until there is another audit. And also duties and other taxes. Factories began to be built, and whoever works at them, again, we are peasants. We are torn away from the land, from our family, and assigned to factories. The wages at the factories are small, there is not enough to feed the family, and the work is hard. However, artisans are paid well, with honor and respect. And how St. Petersburg was built, so many peasant souls perished at that construction site.

Our father, Tsar Peter, is a benefactor. Trade developed under him, privileges were given to all merchants and craftsmen, and loans were given to open factories and manufactories, and trade by sea was improved, and customs duties for us Russian merchants were reduced, and for foreign merchants increased. Canals were also built under Peter to help trade.

5. Tell us about the development of manufacturing production in Russia in the first quarter of the 18th century. What contributed to this?

Manufactories appeared in textile production. The first was in Moscow - Khamovny Dvor, where canvas for sails was produced. Then Tannery, Cloth and other “yards” appeared - industrial enterprises. Glass, hosiery, hat and other manufactories were built. This was facilitated by the following circumstances: wars for access to the sea; to wage wars, a fleet was needed, which was intensively built and there was a need for the production of sails, uniforms for the army, etc.

6. Explain what protectionist policies are. How did Peter I conduct it?

The policy of protectionism is to encourage the sale of Russian raw materials and products to other countries and limit the influx of goods from abroad. In 1724, a Customs Tariff was introduced, under which duties on exports were reduced and duties on imports were increased. Particularly high duties were imposed on goods that could compete in the market with domestic products. It has become profitable to buy Russian products rather than foreign ones. In 1726, Russian exports were twice as high as imports.

7*. What do you think gave historians the basis to claim that Peter I made the Russian nobility a truly service class?

The basis for historians’ assertion that Peter I made the Russian nobility a truly service class was the publication of a decree on single inheritance. In accordance with this decree, only the eldest son inherited the patrimony or estate. All other sons had to serve in the civil service and receive a salary, i.e. earn a living.

8*. What new has appeared in Russia with the widespread use of manufactories? Who was the owner of the factories? Who worked for them? How did Russian manufactories differ from Western European manufactories of that time?

With the widespread spread of manufactories, many new things appeared: goods that had not been produced before, a layer of working people was formed who received payment for their work. The owners of manufactories were mainly the state, but there were also private owners from merchants and even from former serfs. Free people There were few people who could work in factories. Therefore, state peasants were “assigned” to manufactories and factories; they were called assigned peasants. In 1721, enterprises were allowed to buy serfs. They became the property of the plant. Such peasants were called possessions (from the Latin posessio - possession).

Russian manufactories differed from Western European manufactories of that time in that in Europe people free from land worked in manufactories. These are ruined peasants driven off the land, the poorest artisans who have lost their workshops. In Russia, peasant labor was used to work in factories.

Reforms of Peter I: new page in the development of the Russian Empire.

Peter I can confidently be called one of the greatest Russian emperors, because it was he who began the necessary reorganization of all spheres of society, the army and the economy for the country, which played a significant role in the development of the empire.
This topic is quite extensive, but we will talk briefly about the reforms of Peter I.
The emperor carried out a number of important reforms at that time, which should be discussed in more detail. And so what reforms of Peter I changed the empire:
Regional reform
Judicial reform
Military reform
Church reform
Financial reform
And now it is necessary to talk about each of the reforms of Peter I more separately.

Regional reform

Judicial reform

Military reform

Church reform

Financial reform

Reforms in industry and trade

Education reform