League of Nations and its role in the development of international relations essay on international relations, essays on international relations. League of Nations League of Nations International Economic Conference

In the 20-30s of the twentieth century. in the world there were many territorial disputes between states, aggressive acts of some countries against others, annexations, hotbeds of tension were created with impunity, which, taken together, led to the Second World War. The League of Nations not only failed to solve at least one of the problems, but often itself condoned aggression.

In 1920, in violation of the agreement just signed between Poland and Lithuania, Poland seized the capital of Lithuania, the city of Vilna, with an area inhabited by Belarusians, Lithuanians and Poles. Lithuania, which became a member of the League of Nations in September 1921, turned to the Council of this organization with a request for support. After lengthy discussions and delays, the League of Nations recognized the occupied territory as Polish.

In the 1920s there was also a dispute between Lithuania and Germany over port city Memel (Klaipeda) and the entire Memel region. Germany considered them part of East Prussia. After World War I, Memel was occupied by the allied forces. In the Paris (Versailles) agreements, the issue of Memel was not resolved. In 1924, an agreement was signed between the Entente allies and Lithuania, which considered Memel as an autonomous entity within Lithuania. After Hitler came to power, Germany began to challenge the status of Memel, and on March 23, 1939, Lithuania signed with Nazi Germany an agreement according to which the Memel region was renounced by the city of Memel in favor of Germany. On the same day, German troops entered Memel. The League of Nations regarded these processes with indifference.

In 1921, disputes began between Sweden and Finland over the Åland Islands, whose inhabitants speak Swedish. During the plebiscite on the question of the nationality of the disputed territory, the absolute majority of the population of the islands spoke in favor of joining Sweden, which was more developed at that time. However, the League of Nations decided to transfer the islands to Finland with the conditions that, firstly, they must have internal self-government (have their own local council, elected by universal suffrage, and an executive bureau), and, secondly, Finland will be limited in the right to build fortifications on them and use the islands for military purposes.

In 1923, fascist Italy occupied the Greek island of Corfu. The League of Nations, to which Greece turned, discussed the conflict for a long time and, in the end, resigned itself to an act of aggression. In 1925, border disputes began between Greece and Bulgaria, but the League of Nations again failed to help resolve them.

In 1931, Japan committed an act of aggression against China, occupying Manchuria and announcing the creation of the puppet state of Manchukuo there. The League of Nations, of which Japan was a permanent member of the Council, considered this conflict at the request of China. In October 1932, she accepted the recommendation to withdraw Japanese forces from Manchuria, to restore Chinese sovereignty over the province, but with greater autonomy for the province. The League of Nations called on all states to refuse recognition of the puppet state. In response, Japan withdrew from the League of Nations (1933), and in 1937 its troops moved from Manchuria to Beijing, Shanghai, Nanjing and Inner Mongolia, from where it began to threaten the Soviet Union as well. The League of Nations only contemplated these aggressive acts, being unable to take any effective action to organize a rebuff to the aggressors.

In 1935, Italy provoked a conflict on the border between Somalia under its control and Ethiopia, an independent state, a member of the League of Nations. Ethiopia offered to resolve the conflict through international arbitration, but Mussolini rejected this proposal and organized an intervention in a sovereign country. On April 9, 1936, the capital of Ethiopia, Addis Ababa, was occupied, and the King of Italy, Victor Emmanuel III, was declared Emperor of Ethiopia. Attempts by the Negus of Ethiopia, Haile Selassie, to find support from the League of Nations were unsuccessful. True, the League of Nations condemned the Italian aggression, and the Council of the League voted in favor of imposing economic sanctions against the aggressor, but they turned out to be ineffective due to the fact that the leading countries of Europe did not comply with them, because they did not want to spoil relations with Mussolini.

She could not prevent the war between Bolivia and Paraguay in 1932-1935. The Anschluss of Austria and the occupation of sovereign Czechoslovakia by Germany are classic examples of the helplessness of the League of Nations. The only country with respect to which the League showed unanimity was the USSR.

When US President F. Roosevelt asked British Prime Minister W. Churchill to characterize the Second world war, he chose the words "unnecessary war." In his memoirs of the Second World War, this world famous for his integrity and responsibility statesman wrote: "There has never been a war easier to prevent" than this one. Who is to blame for not stopping her? The answer is contained in the plot of the first volume formulated by the author of the memoirs, which describes the events that immediately preceded the war and led to it. She says: “how the English-speaking peoples, due to their imprudence, carelessness and good nature, allowed evil (Germany - D.M.) rearm" . This sounds in complete dissonance with the allegations that the USSR, which signed the Non-Aggression Pact with Germany and the secret protocol to it, is also to blame for the start of the war.

The signing of the Soviet-German non-aggression pact really came as a surprise to the majority of contemporaries and aroused in many of them a feeling of surprise and bitterness. This feeling was due to the fact that throughout the expansion from Italy, Germany and Japan, the USSR remained the only country that did not recognize the legality of aggressive actions and persistently advocated collective action to curb the aggressors. Western countries then they did not want to see and hear the efforts and voices of the USSR. Encouraging Hitler, they pushed him to the East in every possible way, hoping to pit Germany and the USSR against each other.

In 1938, France and England "sacrificeed Czechoslovakia, and the ruling circles of Poland not only refused to let Soviet troops through their territory, but also declared, flirting with Hitler, that they would never conclude an agreement on mutual assistance with the USSR, ”Churchill testifies. When Germany invaded Czechoslovakia, Poland fell upon the victim of aggression from the north, trying to snatch a piece for itself. “But soon she will have to pay for it,” the author of the memoirs summed up.

The Soviet government, concerned about the occupation of Czechoslovakia by Germany, on March 19, 1939, turned to the Western powers-members of the League of Nations with a proposal to convene a conference of the six leading countries at that time to develop effective measures to ensure collective security. British Prime Minister Chamberlain, one of the culprits behind the surrender of Czechoslovakia to Hitler, reacted negatively to this proposal. In a private letter dated March 26, the text of which is reproduced by Churchill in his memoirs, he confessed “to deep distrust of Russia. I do not believe in her ability to carry out an effective offensive, even if she wants to, nor in her motives, which, it seems to me, have little to do with our ideas of freedom ... Moreover, she is hated and suspicious by many small countries, namely Poland, Romania and Finland,” Chamberlain wrote. Churchill did not agree with his prime minister and believed that without Soviet Russia no appeasement in Europe was already possible: “If the USSR, France and Great Britain had united, Hitler would not have been able to start a war on two fronts,” he testifies.

Who is to blame for the fact that these countries - permanent members of the Council of the League of Nations - did not unite against the aggressor? In search of an answer to this question, let us turn again to Churchill. And not because there is no other evidence, but only because the assessments by a convinced opponent of Bolshevism of a situation where the USSR is a party to international relations are very instructive.

On April 16, 1939, the USSR made a proposal to France and Great Britain to conclude an alliance of three countries - permanent members of the Council of the League of Nations. If "Mr. Chamberlain, upon receiving this Soviet proposal, had replied: 'Yes, let's unite and break Hitler's neck,' or words of similar force, and Parliament had supported," writes Churchill, "Stalin would have understood and history would have taken a different turn." But they didn't. England responded to the Soviet proposal only on May 7, and then evasively. On May 17, this proposal was discussed in the British Parliament. England's oldest politician, Lloyd George, spoke out strongly in support of the Soviet proposal. “Germany has always wanted a lightning war,” he said. - A prolonged war is like a peninsula of war, leading it to the bottom. The great Russian defense defeated Napoleon. The same thing happened in 1914, when Germany expected to achieve victory over the summer, but it turned out differently. Churchill supported Lloyd George. But Chamberlain again spoke out against accepting the Soviet proposal. He stated that cooperation with Russia should be avoided in every possible way, that “a country with such a huge size, population and unlimited resources is negative factor in the situation we are facing."

On May 31, the Chairman of the Council of Ministers of the USSR repeated the proposal Soviet Union and spoke in favor of ensuring minimum conditions for security in Europe, namely:

1) the conclusion between Britain, France and the USSR of an effective pact on mutual assistance against aggression;

2) guarantee from these three powers of the states of Central and of Eastern Europe, including here also Latvia, Estonia and Finland, from the attack of the aggressors;

3) the conclusion of a specific agreement between the USSR, Great Britain and France on the forms and amounts of immediate and effective assistance rendered to each other and to the guaranteed states in the event of an attack by aggressors.

Unfortunately, this proposal was not accepted either. France followed England, while Poland, Romania and the Baltic republics made no secret of their hostility towards the USSR. As early as the beginning of 1934, Poland signed a “friendship agreement” with Nazi Germany, and the offer of “friendship” came from Poland. On March 23, 1939 Lithuania signed the treaty with Germany. On June 7, 1939, non-aggression pacts with Germany were signed by Latvia and Estonia.

When, in the summer of 1939, attacks on Western countries intensified in the German press, Britain and France decided to resume negotiations with the USSR. It was decided to send delegations to Moscow. former minister Foreign Affairs of Great Britain A. Eden, who resigned as a sign of disagreement with foreign policy Chamberlain, expressed his readiness to lead the British delegation. But Chamberlain appointed a completely unknown person in diplomatic circles as the head of the delegation. Churchill calls this "another mistake" by Chamberlain. The negotiations in Moscow ended with an agreement on ... new negotiations.

On August 10, the British government sent Admiral Drex to Moscow. He had only verbal authority to negotiate. The French delegation was headed by General Dumaine. Negotiations dragged on in every possible way, the partners of the USSR refused to take on any serious obligations. Excerpts from the transcript of the negotiations, as evidence of the frivolity of their intentions, are reproduced in Churchill's memoirs. “Probably the Russians came to the conclusion that neither Britain nor France would fight unless they were attacked,” he was forced to state. “The looming storm was about to break and Russia should worry about itself.”

Under these conditions, on August 15, Moscow receives a request from the German Foreign Minister to meet with him to negotiate the signing of a non-aggression pact. Since the USSR left the request unanswered, it was repeated on 20 August. This time Moscow agreed, and three days later the German Foreign Minister arrived there, and a day later the non-aggression pact was signed. What grounds could the USSR have for refusing the proposal made to it? Yes, none! The Charter of the League of Nations (Art. 13) obliged all member states not to enter into military conflicts with each other. The Protocol to the Charter of the League of October 2, 1920 "On the Peaceful Settlement of International Disputes" (Article 10) required the member states of this organization to resolve all problems through negotiations and the signing of bilateral agreements. In the early 30s. The League of Nations recommended that all states sign non-aggression pacts among themselves. Dozens of states have already signed such pacts. The permanent member of the Council of the League, which the USSR had been since 1934, could not refuse the offer to sign such a pact.

Lessons from the League of Nations

After the withdrawal from the League of Nations of Germany, Italy and Japan, the exclusion of the USSR, the cessation of independent states Austria and Czechoslovakia, this organization actually lost even the appearance of efficiency and ceased to function. During World War II, some League of Nations services were transferred from Geneva to Canada and the United States. Last meeting The Council of the League of Nations took place after the creation of the UN - April 8, 1946 - to decide on "self-dissolution".

Thus, the League of Nations, as the first universal institution for the maintenance of peace and security, proved to be ineffective from the very beginning. This happened because the ruling circles of the leading European countries forced to establish this institution at the request of their peoples, in fact did not want to have a relatively independent center of world politics, the decisions of which they would be obliged to follow. The rivalry between the founders of the League of Nations was also strong, which could not but affect the activities of this institution. Having invested in the Charter of the League of Nations the principle of unanimity in decision-making, the founders of this institution doomed it to sterility. But, as they say, even negative experience is the experience of history, which will guide posterity. Indeed, lessons learned from this history have been learned from the founding of the United Nations.

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League of Nations and its historical role.

The purpose of the creation of the League of Nations, its tasks and role in the new post-war system of international relations, the differences of the Entente powers regarding its Charter.

The idea of ​​creating the League of Nations belongs to Great Britain. At the end of 1915, Foreign Secretary Gray proposed the creation of an international organization to fight for peace.

The issue of the League on the agenda turned out to be one of the main ones for at least two main reasons. First, how international body The League could indeed make a practical contribution to the regulation of international relations and the reduction of the danger of war. Secondly, the League and its Charter were called upon to give legal and moral sanction to the policy of the great powers, to legalize it in the eyes of public opinion, which by the 1920s was already becoming an important political factor, primarily in democratic and liberal countries. A commission was set up to draw up the League's charter, headed by Wilson. A struggle began between England, France and the United States regarding the draft charter. Later, England and the United States united.

The creation of the League caused serious controversy among the main participants of the conference. At one of the first meetings, it turned out that the plans for its creation, coming from different delegations, differ in terms of length and degree of elaboration of details. The French plan, in particular, was much more detailed than the British. Paris irreconcilably demanded the inclusion in the Charter of a clause on the creation of international armed forces capable of maintaining security in Europe. France hoped to use her superiority in ground forces and to make them the basis of a future international army, which, if necessary, could be sent against Germany. At the same time, the French delegation believed that it was first necessary to prepare and sign an agreement with Germany, and then engage in the creation international organization.

In this, Clemenceau met with very serious resistance from Wilson, who believed that the creation of a world order should begin precisely with the building of the League. According to the United States, the League, as the main international organization for creating a new system of collective security, could even be delegated the right to develop a peace treaty with Germany. Wilson insisted on the preparation of a project for the creation of the League by a special commission. Within the framework of the conference, a committee was formed (January 25, 1919) to prepare the project of the League of Nations. The resolution on its establishment, proposed by the British delegation, provided that the League: F 0 B 7 would be created to resolve all issues related to the establishment of peace and promote international cooperation, the implementation of guarantees for the fulfillment of international obligations; F 0 B 7 will become an integral part of the general peace treaty and remain open to the accession of every civilized nation that will accept and support its goals; F 0 B 7 will ensure periodic meetings of its members at international conferences (sessions), in the interest of which a permanent organization and a secretariat will be created to ensure the work of the League in between conferences (sessions).

The adoption of the resolution was Wilson's undoubted success, but it did not guarantee the preparation of the Charter of the organization before the work on the treaty with Germany was completed. Wilson's opponents did not hide their hopes that the work of the commission under his chairmanship would fail. But the American delegation showed stubbornness. The President of the United States himself, with the help of a member American delegation D. H. Miller revised his original draft of the League twice. The last one was completed on February 2, 1919.

Members of the League of Nations.

Of the 65 major states that existed on the planet in 1920, all except the United States and Saudi Arabia(formed in 1932), at one time or another were members of the League. Founding countries are marked with an asterisk (*). The year of adoption and/or the year of the declaration of withdrawal (which came into effect after two years) are indicated in brackets.

Australia* Austria (accepted in 1920, annexed by Germany in 1938) Albania (accepted in 1920, annexed by Italy in 1939) Argentina* Afghanistan (accepted in 1934) Belgium* Bulgaria (accepted in 1920) Bolivia* Brazil (withdrew in 1926) Hungary ( adopted 1922, withdrew 1939) Venezuela* (withdrew 1938) Haiti* (withdrew 1942) Guatemala* (withdrew 1936) Germany (accepted 1926, withdrew 1933) Honduras* (withdrew 1936) Greece* Denmark* Dominican Republic(accepted 1924) Egypt (accepted 1937) India* Iraq (accepted 1932) Ireland (accepted 1923) Spain* (withdrew 1939) Italy* (withdrew 1937) Canada* China* Colombia* Costa Rica (accepted in 1920, withdrew in 1925) Cuba* Latvia (accepted in 1921) Liberia* Lithuania (accepted in 1921) Luxembourg (accepted in 1920) Mexico (accepted in 1931) Netherlands* Nicaragua* (withdrawn in 1936) New Zealand* Norway* Panama * Paraguay* (withdrew in 1935) Persia (Iran)* Peru* (withdrew in 1939) Poland* Portugal* Romania* (withdrew in 1940) El Salvador* (withdrew in 1937)

Siam (Thailand)* United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland* Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (adopted 1934, expelled 1939) Turkey (accepted 1932) Uruguay* Finland (accepted 1920) France* Czechoslovakia* Chile* (withdrew 1938) Switzerland* Sweden* Ecuador (admitted 1934) Estonia (admitted 1921) Ethiopia (admitted 1923) Yugoslavia* Union of South Africa* Japan* (withdrew 1933)

The main tasks of the League of Nations building peace through cooperation; the guarantee of peace through collective security; This was the first time in history that the guarantor of international custom

was to become an international organization. The main point of the Charter of the LN. was: providing guarantees to member countries: - collective action in case of violation of the charter and war - preservation of the independence and territorial integrity of the powers - if the conflict cannot be resolved independently, its participants can

apply to arbitration or the LN Council. -- Parties must not resort to hostilities for 3 months

after convening a conference on the conflict (that is, the war is allowed!) Measures against violations: breaking the peace is seen as a war against all members of the League -- waging complete economic and political isolation -- raising troops from national contingents to force

world These sanctions were applied in 1935 against Italy during the aggression and Ethiopia.

Ineffective. Cons of the Charter of LN and generally cons the sanctions were not all-encompassing - decisions in the Assembly were made by unanimity, and any member of the LN

could put a veto and paralyze the activities of the LN - LN did not acquire an influential character due to the absence of the USA and the USSR - The number of committees was not limited - there were a huge number of them.

The missing coordinating body and only in last years 2 Coordination Committees were created.

Structure. The League of Nations included the member states of the League, the Assembly, the Council, the Secretariat, various technical commissions and auxiliary services. The structure, functions and powers of the League were defined in the Charter. The League's annual budget was ca. 6 million dollars. The headquarters of the main organs of the League was Geneva (Switzerland).

The Assembly included representatives of all states that were members of the League of Nations. The sessions of the Assembly were held annually in September, in addition, special sessions were convened from time to time. Each member of the Assembly had one vote. The Assembly had broad powers that covered the entire scope of the League's activities. Paragraph 3 of the Charter stated that the Assembly had the right to consider "any question within the League's powers or affecting the peace of the world." The internal structure of the Assembly met the principles of building legislature, it included 7 permanent commissions, which usually operated in parallel with the technical services of the League. The Council was originally intended for representatives of 9 states. US non-participation reduced the number of members of the Council to 8. Over the next 20 years, this figure fluctuated, and on January 1, 1940, the number of members of the Council reached 14. Membership in the Council could be permanent, non-permanent and temporary. The purpose of this division was to grant the right to permanent membership in the Council; the representation of small powers was carried out on the basis of the principle of rotation. In accordance with the Charter, Council sessions were held 4 times a year, not counting special sessions. The functions of the Council, determined by the Charter, were as broad as the functions of the Assembly, however, the Council had exclusive rights in solving minority problems, issues related to the system of mandates, the problems of Danzig (Gdansk), Saar, in resolving conflicts and applying the articles of the Charter, dedicated to collective security. The Secretariat was the administrative body of the League. The secretariat acted on a permanent basis and had a strong influence on the policy of the League. The Secretariat was headed by the Secretary General, the administrative head of the League. In 1940, the staff of the Secretariat included employees from 50 countries of the world.

Functions.

The main goals of the League were to preserve peace and improve the conditions of human life. Among the measures used to preserve peace were the reduction and limitation of armaments; the obligations of the member states of the League to oppose any aggression; mutual agreements to arbitrate, legally settle or conduct special investigations by the Council; agreements of the members of the League on mutual actions in the application of economic and military sanctions. In addition to these basic conditions, a number of various provisions such as the registration of treaties and the protection of minorities.

Reasons for the collapse of the League of Nations .

An objective, unprejudiced approach to evaluating the peacekeeping activities of the League of Nations, a balanced analysis of the results of its activities indicate that this international organization had both negative and positive features. And although it was unable to prevent the Second World War, through its activities in the first stage (20s), the League contributed to the peaceful settlement of dozens of conflicts. For the first time responsibility for collective action against the violator international law translated into specific solutions. Another new phenomenon was that the League of Nations had a global character and had a global responsibility for the prevention of war by the concerted actions of its members. The charter provided guarantees to the members of the organization in maintaining their political independence and territorial integrity against external aggression. The organization was created to ensure the peaceful resolution of conflicts,

preventing war. The Charter provided for the collective action of all members of the League of Nations in the event that the aggressor violated the Charter and unleashed a war. A certain procedure for resolving conflicts was established. If the conflicting parties were unable to resolve the disputed issue through negotiations, they had to apply to arbitration, the Permanent Court of International Justice or the Council of the League. The parties to the conflict were not to resort to war for at least three months after the decision was made by the body that dealt with the conflict. But after this period, the hands of the conflicting parties were actually untied. An important shortcoming of the Charter of the League was that war as a method of resolving controversial issues was not prohibited. Measures against violators of the peace were regulated by the Charter. Breaking the peace was seen as an act of war against all members of the League. Immediate total economic and political isolation of the violator was assumed. The Council also had the right to recommend military sanctions, including the creation of a unified armed force from contingents of League members.

Nevertheless, many important provisions of the Charter were not implemented due to the position of the main participants in the organization, primarily England and France, whose interests did not coincide in many respects. The envisaged sanctions were also weakened by the possibility of such an interpretation of the Charter, which made it possible for each member to decide independently on participation in the general activities of the organization. And the reality testified that among the members of the League there was no conviction that any war, wherever it began, was a threat to them. The weakness of the League as an instrument for maintaining peace was already predetermined by the Charter of the organization itself. Decisions of both the Assembly and the Council were taken by unanimity. The only exception was voting on procedural issues and on admission to the League, when decisions were made by two-thirds, that is, by a qualified majority. Considering the presence of sharp disagreements between the members of the League, the obstacles on the way to the adoption by the organization of urgent, urgent decisions from political, military and other important issues. An important drawback of the Charter was the fact that only the decision of the Assembly and the Council on administrative issues that concerned the League itself had binding force. Even the sanctions were actually voluntary, since the decisions had the character of recommendations.

The absence of a number of large states among its members had a negative effect on the effectiveness of the League's activities. The United States, which was among the initiators of the creation of the League of Nations, did not become a member. The growing influence of the isolationists, who demanded that the United States not be drawn into European affairs, not bind its hands by the obligations of the Charter of the League, was the reason that the Treaty of Versailles, of which the provisions for the creation of the League of Nations were part, was not ratified by the American Congress. The participation of the USSR in the work of the League turned out to be short-lived. It was adopted in 1934 and excluded in 1939 due to the Soviet-Finnish war. Germany joined the League in 1926 and left it in 1935, submitting a corresponding application in 1933. So, the League of Nations is not a permanent, indeed, universal organization. In 1932, it had 60 members. For various reasons, 16 powers left it. main role England and France played the leadership of the League of Nations. All this narrowed the possibilities for making informed decisions, taking into account the national interests of all states and the interests of common security. The League of Nations was called upon to maintain the status quo that had been created as a result of the First World War. But the Treaty of Versailles was built on great disagreements, injustices associated with the predatory division of territories and the forcible solution of other fundamentally important issues. The League proved unable to quell the first dangerous fires of war that the fascist states were kindling. The Second World War finally buried the League of Nations, although it formally lasted until July 31

1946 The collapse of the League of Nations seriously undermined the idea of ​​collective security. There are quite enough preconditions for negative assessments of this international organization.

But it would be a mistake to cross out the entire history of the League, to reduce its activities to mere shortcomings. There were achievements in her work. The League played a positive role in a number of cases in solving post-war problems. Thus, during the first 10 years of its existence (1919-1929), the League of Nations considered 30 international conflicts, and most of them were resolved. League setbacks in decision political problems often obscure her achievements in the social and humanitarian fields, downplaying the importance of her activities in the field of international economic policy and financial regulation, international communications and the transit system, in improving the health system in many countries of the world, scientific cooperation, codification of international law, preparation of conferences on disarmament and other social and humanitarian areas. Successes include establishing control over the spread of opium and the slave trade (mainly by women). In addition, significant progress has been made in protecting the rights and interests of young people. The League was closely connected with its legal body - the Permanent Court of International Justice, which had its own structure and made independent decisions. In addition, the League worked closely with many international organizations that did not have formal or historical ties with it. It should be noted that the first attempt at official codification was made within the framework of the League of Nations. In 1924, the Council of the League formed a committee of experts of 16 jurists, which was to deal with the codification of international law, including the law of treaties. A report was prepared on this branch of law, which was never discussed. The first international legal act that codified the most established norms of the law of treaties was the Inter-American Convention on Treaties of 1928, which consisted of only 21 articles.

The results of the existence of the League of Nations.

The lessons and experience of the League of Nations were used in the creation of the United Nations. The very fact of the creation of a permanent international organization of a general political nature with a permanent apparatus was an important event. historical significance. The League of Nations was built as a body of collective peacekeeping, which meant a step towards the internationalization of responsibility for maintaining peace. When studying the experience of the League of Nations, one should take into account the discrepancy in the assessments of its activities given by different authors at different historical stages. Summarizing the existing concepts, it is not difficult to see, first of all, two trends: the desire of some to depict the actions of the League in a rosy light and the opposite effort of others - to paint the entire history of this international organization with one black paint, focusing only on its shortcomings and mistakes. The latter trend can be clearly seen in the publications of Soviet authors, who analyzed the actions of the League of Nations mainly from the point of view of the extent to which they contradicted or met the interests of Soviet state. The helplessness of the League of Nations in the context of the outbreak of the Second World War undermined the confidence of the world community in this international organization as an instrument of peace and common security.

But sad story The League did not destroy the very idea of ​​the need for united efforts in the interests of maintaining peace. The desire for collective security, even more than the existence of the League, prompted the search for a new, thorough and effective international organization. Actively developed

projects to create a new international organization in the United States. Thus, in 1939, the Commission for the Study of the Organization of the World was created, in which leading international experts collaborated. During 1941-1944. The Commission prepared four reports, which set out thoughts and specific proposals for the formation of a new world organization. In 1944, the Committee on International Organizations, which included 15 American experts, published a draft charter for the main international organization. The US State Department summarized the proposals of various private organizations, developing the American vision of a new international organization. In England, the League of Nations, under the leadership of Lord Robert Sessil, prepared its proposals for the formation of a world organization. The concept of post-war organization was also worked out at the level of international relations of countries anti-Hitler coalition. Atlantic Charter of August 14, 1941; United Nations Declaration of January 1, 1942; Moscow Declaration of 1943; Tehran Conference 1943; Dumbarton Oxy Conference 1944; Yalta Conference 1945; Francisco in 1945 took the most important steps towards the formation of the UN. It should be noted that the optimal model of the new organization was formed in a complex search, in the process of discussing fundamentally opposite options. One of the problems was the confrontation between the concept of universal, global security and the concept of regional security.

As W. Churchill recalls, in 1943, during the Tehran Conference, Roosevelt, in a conversation with Stalin, discussed his management plan post-war world. According to Roosevelt's plan, it was to be carried out by "four policemen", namely the USSR, the USA, Great Britain and China. This proposal did not meet with support from Stalin, who said that "four policemen can hardly count on a benevolent attitude from the small countries of Europe." Stalin, as an alternative, proposed the creation of one committee for Europe and a second for Far East, and the European committee was to consist of England, the USSR, France and possibly another European state. As W. Churchill pointed out, this proposal was somewhat similar to his own idea regional committees: one for Europe, one for the Far East and one for the Americas

Bottom line big creative work was the birth in 1945 of the United Nations, in which the collectively developed ideas of a world international organization were embodied in life, which was called upon to replace the League of Nations and become the main instrument for protecting the peace and security of all mankind. Given the discrediting of the League of Nations, which was ingloriously buried in the ruins of the Second World War, the creators of the new organization tried in every possible way to protect it from the previous one. It was not about restructuring, improving the League, but about creating a fundamentally new organization with a qualitatively new Charter, principles of functioning. It was even decided to abandon Geneva as the seat of the UN headquarters, so that the new organization would not have anything to do with the discredited League of Nations. The UN was created primarily as an instrument of struggle for the preservation of peace and international security. The concept of collective security was taken as the basis of the UN Charter and all its peacekeeping activities.

Application CHARTER OF THE LEAGUE OF NATIONS Entered into force on January 10, 1920 The High Contracting Parties, taking into account that in order to develop cooperation between peoples and to guarantee their peace and security, it is important to accept certain obligations not to resort to war, to support in full publicity international relationships, based on justice and honor, strictly observe the prescriptions of international law, which are henceforth recognized as the valid rule of conduct for governments, establish the rule of justice and conscientiously observe all the obligations imposed by treaties in the mutual relations of organized peoples who accept the present Charter, which establishes the League of Nations. Article 1 1. The original Members of the League of Nations shall be those of the signatories whose names appear in the Appendix to this Constitution, and also the States alike named in the Appendix, which shall accede to this Constitution without any reservation, by means of a declaration deposited with the Secretariat within

two months prior to the entry into force of the Statute, which will be notified to other Members of the League. 2. All States, Dominions, or Colonies which are freely governed, and which are not listed in the Appendix, may become Members of the League, if two-thirds of the Assembly (Assembly) vote in favor of their admission, insofar as they will give valid guarantees of their sincere intention to observe international obligations and in so far as they will accept the regulations laid down by the League regarding their military, naval and air forces and armaments. 3. Any Member of the League may, after two years' prior warning, withdraw from the League, provided that by that time he has fulfilled all his international obligations, including obligations under this Charter. Article 2 The activities of the League, as defined in these Statutes, are carried out by the Assembly and the Council, which has a permanent Secretariat. Article 3 1. The Assembly shall consist of representatives of the Members of the League. 2. It meets at the appointed time and at any other time, if circumstances so require, at the seat of the League or such other place as may be appointed. 3. The Assembly is in charge of all matters which fall within the League's sphere of action and which affect the peace of the world. 4. Each Member of the League may have no more than three representatives in the Assembly and shall have only one vote. Article 4 1. The Council shall consist of representatives of the Principal Allied and Associated Powers (Note: USA, british empire, France, Italy and Japan), as well as representatives of four other Members of the League. These four Members of the League shall be appointed at the discretion of the Assembly and for such terms as it may wish to elect. Pending their first appointment by the Assembly, the representatives of Belgium, Brazil, Spain and Greece shall be members of the Council. 2. With the approval of a majority of the Assembly, the Council may appoint other Members of the League, whose representation on the Council shall henceforth be permanent. He may, with the same approval, increase the number of Members of the League to be elected by the Assembly to be represented on the Council (Note. On 25 September 1922 the number of members of the Council to be chosen by the Assembly was increased to six, and on 8 September 1926 to nine ). 2-a. The Assembly will establish, by a two-thirds majority, the procedure for electing temporary members of the Council, in particular, determine the period of their participation in it and the conditions for a new election. (This amendment went into effect July 29, 1926.)

3. The Council meets when circumstances so require, and at least once a year, at the seat of the League or such other place as may be appointed. 4. The Council is in charge of all matters within the scope of the League and affecting the peace of the world. 5. Any Member of the League not represented on the Council is invited to send a representative to attend when a question is brought before the Council that especially affects its interests. 6. Each Member of the League represented in the Council has only one vote and has only one representative. Article 5 1. In so far as there are no specifically contrary provisions of this Statute or provisions of this Treaty, the decisions of the Assembly or the Council shall be taken unanimously by the Members of the League represented in the assembly. 2. Any questions of procedure arising at meetings of the Assembly or Council, including the appointment of commissions to which the investigation is entrusted special occasions, shall be decided by the Assembly or the Council, and the decision shall be made by a majority of the Members of the League represented at the meeting. [...] Article 6 1. A permanent Secretariat shall be established at the seat of the League. It includes the Secretary General, as well as the necessary secretaries and necessary staff. [...] Article 7 1. The seat of the League shall be Geneva. Article 8 1. The Members of the League recognize that the preservation of peace requires the limitation of national armaments to the minimum compatible with national security and with the fulfillment of the international obligations imposed by the general action. 2. Council, taking into account the geographical position and special conditions each state, prepares plans for this restriction for consideration and decision by the various governments. 3. These plans shall be the subject of a new review and, if necessary, revision at least every ten years. 4. After they have been adopted by the various Governments, the armaments limit so fixed may not be exceeded without the consent of the Council. 5. Considering that the private production of munitions and war material is seriously objected to, the Members of the League instruct the Council to give an opinion on measures capable of eliminating its harmful effects, taking into account the needs of those Members of the League who are unable to manufacture equipment and war material necessary for their security.

6. The Members of the League undertake to exchange in the most frank and exhaustive manner all information relating to the extent of their armaments, to their military, naval and air programs, and to the state of those branches of their industry that can be used for war. Article 9 A Permanent Commission shall be formed to present to the Council its opinions on the implementation of the provisions of Articles 1 and 8 and likewise on general military, maritime and air matters. Article 10 The Members of the League undertake to respect and preserve, against any external attack, the territorial integrity and existing political independence of all Members of the League. In the event of an attack, threat or danger of attack, the Council shall indicate the measures to ensure the fulfillment of this obligation. Article 11 1. Declares expressly that every war or threat of war, whether directly or not affecting any of the Members of the League, is of interest to the League as a whole, and that the latter must take measures capable of effectively safeguarding the peace of nations. In such a case, the General Secretary shall immediately convene the Council at the request of any Member of the League. 2. In addition, it is declared that every Member of the League has the right to draw the attention of the Assembly or Council in a friendly manner to any circumstance capable of affecting international relations and, therefore, threatening to shake the peace or good harmony among nations, on which the world depends. Article 12 1. The members of the League agree that if a dispute arises between them, which may lead to a rupture, they will submit it either to arbitration or judicial permission or for consideration by the Council. They also agree that they must in no case resort to war before the expiration of a period of three months after the decision of the arbitrators or the judgment, or the report of the Council. 2. In all cases provided for in this article, the decision of the arbitrators or the judgment shall be rendered within a reasonable time, and the report of the Council shall be drawn up within six months from the date of the submission of the dispute to its consideration. Article 13 1. The Members of the League agree that if a dispute arises between them, which, in their opinion, may be resolved by arbitration or judicial decision, and if this dispute cannot be satisfactorily settled by diplomatic means, then the matter will be fully submitted to arbitration or judicial permission.

2. Disputes which relate to the interpretation of a treaty, to any question of international law, to the existence of any fact which, if established, would amount to a breach of an international obligation, or to the amount and manner of remedy to be awarded for such breach. 3. The tribunal to which all such disputes are to be referred shall be the Permanent Court. International Court of Justice(Justice) established under Article 14, or any other tribunal on which the parties to the dispute agree among themselves or which is established by any convention existing between them. 4. Members of the League undertake to carry out in good faith the decisions or resolutions passed and not to resort to war against a Member of the League who will comply with them. In case of non-compliance with the decision or regulation, the Council proposes measures to ensure their implementation. Article 14 The Council is instructed to draw up a draft of the Permanent Court of the International Court of Justice and submit it to the Members of the League. This Chamber shall be in charge of all disputes of an international character which the parties submit to it. It will also give advisory opinions on all disputes and on all questions that are brought before it by the Council or the Assembly. Article 15 1. If a dispute arises between the Members of the League, which may lead to a rupture, and if this dispute is not subject to arbitration or judicial proceedings provided for in article 13, then the Members of the League agree to submit it to the Council. It is enough for one of them to point this dispute to the Secretary General, who takes all measures for a full investigation and consideration. 2. As soon as possible, the Parties shall communicate to him the statement of their case with all relevant facts and corroborative documents. The Council may order their immediate publication. 3. The Council shall endeavor to secure a settlement of the dispute. If he succeeds, he publishes, to the extent he sees fit, a statement conveying the facts, the relevant explanations and the terms of this settlement. 4. If the dispute could not be settled, the Council shall draw up and publish a report, adopted either unanimously or by a majority of votes, to inform about the circumstances of the dispute, as well as the solutions proposed by it, as the most just and most suitable for the case. 5. Any Member of the League represented on the Council may likewise publish a statement of the facts relating to the dispute and its own conclusions.

6. If the report of the Council is adopted unanimously, and the votes of the representatives of the parties are not taken into account in establishing this unanimity, then the Members of the League undertake not to resort to war against any side that is consistent with the conclusions of the report. 7. In the event that the Council fails to achieve acceptance of its report by all its members other than the Representatives of the Parties to the dispute, the Members of the League reserve the right to do as they see fit for the preservation of law and justice. 8. If one of the Parties asserts, and if the Council accepts, that the dispute relates to a matter conferred exclusively within the internal jurisdiction of that Party by international law, the Council shall so state in the report without proposing any solution to the matter. 9. The Council may, in all cases provided for in this article, bring the dispute before the Assembly. The Assembly will have to deal with the dispute also at the request of one of the Parties; this motion must be submitted within fourteen days from the date the dispute was brought before the Council. 10. In any case referred to the Assembly, the provisions of this Article and Article 12 relating to the actions and powers of the Council shall equally apply to the actions and powers of the Assembly. It is agreed that a report drawn up by the Assembly with the approval of the representatives of the Members of the League represented on the Council and of the majority of the other Members of the League, except in each case the Representatives of the Parties to the dispute, shall have the same force as a report of the Council unanimously accepted by its Members, except Representatives of the parties to the dispute. Article 16 1. If a Member of the League resorts to war contrary to the obligations assumed in Articles 12, 13 or 15, he is ipso facto considered to have committed an act of war against all other Members of the League. The latter undertake to immediately break off all commercial or financial relations with him, to prohibit all communications between their own citizens and the citizens of the state that has violated the Charter, and to cut off financial, commercial or personal communications between the citizens of this state and the citizens of any other state, whether it is a Member of the League or not. . 2. In this case, the Council is obliged to propose to the various Governments concerned the strength of the military, naval or air force by which the Members of the League shall, by affiliation, participate in a military force intended to maintain respect for the obligations of the League. 3. The Members of the League furthermore agree to give each other mutual support in the application of the financial and economic measures to be taken by virtue of this Article, in order to reduce to a minimum the losses and inconveniences which may result therefrom. They likewise give mutual support to counter any special measure directed against one of them by a state that has violated the Charter. They accept

necessary arrangements to facilitate the passage through their territory of the forces of any Member of the League participating in the general action, in order to maintain respect for the obligations of the League. 4. Any Member found guilty of violating one of the obligations arising from the Charter may be expelled from the League. The exception is decided by the votes of all other members of the League represented in the Council. Article 17 1. In the event of a dispute between two States, of which only one is a Member of the League, or of which neither is a member of it, the State or States outside the League shall be invited to submit to the obligations incumbent on its Members, for the purpose of settling the dispute on conditions deemed fair by the Council. If this invitation is accepted, the provisions of Articles 12 to 16 shall apply, subject to modifications deemed necessary by the Council. 2. After this invitation has been sent, the Council shall open an inquiry into the circumstances of the dispute and propose such measure as seems to it the best and most effective in the present case. 3. If the invited State, refusing to assume the duties of a Member of the League for the purpose of settling a dispute, resorts to war against a Member of the League, the provisions of Article 16 shall apply to it. 4. If both invited parties refuse to assume the duties of a Member of the League for the purposes of settling a dispute , the Council may take all measures and make any proposals capable of preventing hostile actions and leading to a solution to the conflict. Article 18 Any international treaties or international obligations entered into in the future by a Member of the League must be immediately registered with the Secretariat and published as soon as possible. None of these international treaties or agreements will not become binding until registered. Article 19 The Assembly may from time to time invite the Members of the League to reopen the consideration of treaties which have become inapplicable, and international provisions the preservation of which could endanger the peace of the world. 1. The Members of the League acknowledge, each insofar as it concerns him, that this Charter shall revoke all inter se obligations or agreements inconsistent with its terms, and solemnly undertake not to enter into such in the future. 2. If, before joining the League, a Member has assumed obligations inconsistent with the terms of the Charter, then he must accept immediate action to free yourself from these obligations. Article 21

International obligations, such as arbitration treaties, and agreements limited to known areas, such as the Monroe Doctrine, which ensure the preservation of peace, shall not be considered inconsistent with any of the provisions of this Charter. Article 22 1. The following principles apply to colonies and territories which, as a result of war, have ceased to be under the sovereignty of the states that previously ruled them, and which are inhabited by peoples who are not yet capable of self-governing themselves in especially difficult conditions modern world. The well-being and development of these peoples is the sacred mission of civilization, and it is appropriate to include guarantees for the fulfillment of this mission in the present Charter. 2. best method to put this principle into practice is to entrust the guardianship of these peoples to the advanced nations [...] who are willing to accept it: they would exercise this guardianship in their capacity as Mandate-holders and in the name of the League. 3. The nature of the mandate must vary according to the degree of development of the people, geographic location territory, its economic conditions and any other similar circumstances. [...] 7. In all cases, the Mandatory shall send to the Council an annual report concerning the territories assigned to him. [...] Article 23 Subject to the provisions international agreements which currently exist or will be concluded thereafter, and in agreement with them, the Members of the League: a) will endeavor to secure and maintain just and humane conditions of work for man, woman and child in their own territories, as well as in all countries, to which their commercial and industrial relations apply. [...] Article 24 All international bureaus previously established by collective agreements shall, subject to the agreement of the Parties, be placed under the leadership of the League. Any other international bureaus and any commissions for settling cases of international importance which are subsequently set up will be placed under the leadership of the League. [...]

The content of the article

THE LEAGUE OF NATIONS, the first world organization whose goals included the preservation of peace and the development of international cooperation. It was formally founded on January 10, 1920 and ceased to exist on April 18, 1946 with the formation of the UN. The League of Nations found its practical expression in the ideas and projects proposed since the 17th century. up until the First World War. Of the 65 large states that existed on the planet in 1920, all, with the exception of the United States and Saudi Arabia (formed in 1932), were members of the League at one time or another.

Structure

The League of Nations included the member states of the League, the Assembly, the Council, the Secretariat, various technical commissions and auxiliary services. The structure, functions and powers of the League were defined in the Charter. The League's annual budget was ca. 6 million dollars. The headquarters of the main organs of the League was Geneva (Switzerland).

The Assembly included representatives of all states that were members of the League of Nations. The sessions of the Assembly were held annually in September, in addition, special sessions were convened from time to time. Each member of the Assembly had one vote. The Assembly had broad powers that covered the entire scope of the League's activities. Paragraph 3 of the Charter stated that the Assembly had the right to consider "any question within the League's powers or affecting the peace of the world." The internal structure of the Assembly corresponded to the principles of building a legislative body, it included 7 standing committees, which usually acted in parallel with the technical services of the League.

The Council was originally intended for representatives of 9 states. US non-participation reduced the number of members of the Council to 8. Over the next 20 years, this figure fluctuated, and on January 1, 1940, the number of members of the Council reached 14. Membership in the Council could be permanent, non-permanent and temporary. The purpose of this division was to grant the right to permanent membership in the Council; the representation of small powers was carried out on the basis of the principle of rotation. In accordance with the Charter, Council sessions were held 4 times a year, not counting special sessions. The functions of the Council, defined by the Charter, were as broad as the functions of the Assembly, however, the Council had exclusive rights in resolving minority problems, issues related to the system of mandates, the problems of Danzig (Gdansk), Saar, in resolving conflicts and applying the articles of the Charter devoted to collective security issues.

The Secretariat was the administrative body of the League. The secretariat acted on a permanent basis and had a strong influence on the policy of the League. The Secretariat was headed by the Secretary General, the administrative head of the League. In 1940, the staff of the Secretariat included employees from 50 countries of the world.

Members of the League of Nations

Founding countries are marked with an asterisk (*). The year of adoption and/or the year of the declaration of withdrawal (which came into effect after two years) are indicated in brackets.

Australia *
Austria (adopted in 1920, annexed by Germany in 1938)
Albania (adopted 1920, annexed by Italy 1939)
Argentina *
Afghanistan (adopted in 1934)
Belgium *
Bulgaria (adopted in 1920)
Bolivia *
Brazil (withdrew in 1926)
Hungary (adopted in 1922, withdrew in 1939)
Venezuela* (withdrew in 1938)
Haiti* (withdrew in 1942)
Guatemala* (withdrew in 1936)
Germany (accepted in 1926, withdrew in 1933)
Honduras* (withdrew in 1936)
Greece *
Denmark *
Dominican Republic (adopted 1924)
Egypt (adopted in 1937)
India *
Iraq (adopted in 1932)
Ireland (adopted 1923)
Spain* (withdrew in 1939)
Italy* (withdrew in 1937)
Canada *
China *
Colombia *
Costa Rica (adopted in 1920, withdrew in 1925)
Cuba *
Latvia (adopted in 1921)
Liberia*
Lithuania (adopted in 1921)
Luxembourg (adopted in 1920)
Mexico (adopted in 1931)
Netherlands *
Nicaragua* (withdrew in 1936)
New Zealand *
Norway *
Panama *
Paraguay* (withdrew in 1935)
Persia (Iran)*
Peru* (withdrew in 1939)
Poland *
Portugal *
Romania* (withdrew in 1940)
Salvador* (released 1937)
Siam (Thailand)*
United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland *
Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (adopted in 1934, excluded in 1939)
Turkey (adopted in 1932)
Uruguay *
Finland (adopted in 1920)
France *
Czechoslovakia *
Chile* (withdrew in 1938)
Switzerland*
Sweden *
Ecuador (adopted in 1934)
Estonia (adopted in 1921)
Ethiopia (adopted 1923)
Yugoslavia*
Union of South Africa *
Japan* (withdrew in 1933)

Functions

The main goals of the League were to preserve peace and improve the conditions of human life. Among the measures used to preserve peace were the reduction and limitation of armaments; the obligations of the member states of the League to oppose any aggression; mutual agreements to arbitrate, legally settle or conduct special investigations by the Council; agreements of the members of the League on mutual actions in the application of economic and military sanctions. In addition to these basic conditions, a number of different provisions have been adopted, such as the registration of contracts and the protection of minorities.

Despite the fact that the League managed to resolve - to varying degrees successfully - more than forty political conflicts, its efforts to resolve the main contradictions through the use of paragraph 16 of the League's Collective Security Charter led to its weakening and termination of activity. The unsuccessful attempt of the League in 1931 to apply effective sanctions against Japan, which attacked Manchuria, and the even more serious failure to influence events during the Italian aggression against Ethiopia, clearly demonstrated to potential aggressors the weakness of the mechanism for the use of force in a peaceful settlement.

The failures of the League in solving political problems often obscure its achievements in the social and humanitarian fields, downplay the importance of its activities in the field of international economic policy and financial regulation, international communications and the transit system, in improving the health system in many countries of the world, scientific cooperation, codification of international law. , preparing conferences on disarmament and other social and humanitarian fields. Successes include establishing control over the spread of opium and the slave trade (mainly by women). In addition, significant progress has been made in protecting the rights and interests of young people. The League was closely connected with its legal body - the Permanent Court of International Justice, which had its own structure and made independent decisions. In addition, the League worked closely with many international organizations that did not have formal or historical ties with it.

The exclusion of the USSR from the League in 1939 led to the fact that only one great power remained in its composition - Great Britain. In the critical days leading up to September 1939, not a single country resorted to the help of the League; by January 1940, the League ceased its activities in settling political issues. At the last session of the Assembly on April 18, 1946, a decision was made to transfer the property and material assets of the League to the United Nations, and its social and economic functions were combined with the activities of the Economic and Social Council.

APPLICATION

CHARTER OF THE LEAGUE OF NATIONS

High Contracting Parties,

Bearing in mind that in order to develop cooperation among peoples and to guarantee their peace and security, it is important

make certain commitments not to resort to war,

maintain in full publicity international relations based on justice and honor,

strictly observe the prescriptions of international law, which are now recognized as the valid rule of conduct for governments,

establish the rule of justice and observe in good faith all the obligations imposed by treaties in the mutual relations of organized peoples who accept the present Charter, which establishes the League of Nations.

1. The original Members of the League of Nations are those of the signatories whose names appear in the Appendix to this Constitution, and also the States alike named in the Appendix, which shall accede to this Constitution without reservation, by means of a declaration deposited with the Secretariat within two months before the entry into force of the Charter, of which the other Members of the League will be notified.

2. All States, Dominions, or Colonies which are freely governed, and which are not listed in the Appendix, may become Members of the League, if two-thirds of the Assembly (Assembly) vote in favor of their admission, insofar as they will give valid guarantees of their sincere intention to observe international obligations and in so far as they will accept the regulations laid down by the League regarding their military, naval and air forces and armaments.

3. Any Member of the League may, after two years' prior warning, withdraw from the League, provided that by that time he has fulfilled all his international obligations, including obligations under this Charter.

The activities of the League, as defined in these Statutes, are carried out by the Assembly and the Council, which has a permanent Secretariat.

1. The Assembly consists of representatives of the Members of the League.

2. It meets at the appointed time and at any other time, if circumstances so require, at the seat of the League or such other place as may be appointed.

3. The Assembly is in charge of all matters which fall within the League's sphere of action and which affect the peace of the world.

4. Each Member of the League may have no more than three representatives in the Assembly and shall have only one vote.

1. The Council shall be composed of representatives of the Principal Allied and Associated Powers (Note: USA, British Empire, France, Italy and Japan), as well as representatives of four other Members of the League. These four Members of the League shall be appointed at the discretion of the Assembly and for such terms as it may wish to elect. Pending their first appointment by the Assembly, the representatives of Belgium, Brazil, Spain and Greece shall be members of the Council.

2. With the approval of a majority of the Assembly, the Council may appoint other Members of the League, whose representation on the Council shall henceforth be permanent. He may, with the same approval, increase the number of Members of the League to be elected by the Assembly to be represented on the Council (Note. On 25 September 1922 the number of members of the Council to be chosen by the Assembly was increased to six, and on 8 September 1926 to nine ).

2-a. The Assembly will establish, by a two-thirds majority, the procedure for electing temporary members of the Council, in particular, determine the period of their participation in it and the conditions for a new election. (This amendment went into effect July 29, 1926.)

3. The Council meets when circumstances so require, and at least once a year, at the seat of the League or such other place as may be appointed.

4. The Council is in charge of all matters within the scope of the League and affecting the peace of the world.

5. Any Member of the League not represented on the Council is invited to send a representative to attend when a question is brought before the Council that especially affects its interests.

6. Each Member of the League represented in the Council has only one vote and has only one representative.

1. Insofar as there are no specifically contrary provisions of this Statute or provisions of this Treaty, the decisions of the Assembly or the Council shall be taken unanimously by the Members of the League represented in the assembly.

2. Any questions of procedure arising at meetings of the Assembly or Council, including the appointment of commissions to which the investigation of special cases is entrusted, shall be decided by the Assembly or Council, and the decision shall be made by a majority of the Members of the League represented at the meeting. [...]

1. The Permanent Secretariat is established at the seat of the League. It includes the Secretary General, as well as the necessary secretaries and necessary staff. [...]

1. The seat of the League shall be Geneva.

1. The members of the League recognize that the maintenance of peace requires the limitation of national armaments to the minimum compatible with national security and with the fulfillment of international obligations imposed by a common action.

2. The Council, taking into account the geographical location and special conditions of each State, shall prepare plans for this limitation for the consideration and decision of the various Governments.

3. These plans shall be the subject of a new review and, if necessary, revision at least every ten years.

4. After they have been adopted by the various Governments, the armaments limit so fixed may not be exceeded without the consent of the Council.

5. Considering that the private production of munitions and war material is seriously objected to, the Members of the League instruct the Council to give an opinion on measures capable of eliminating its harmful effects, taking into account the needs of those Members of the League who are unable to manufacture equipment and war material necessary for their security.

6. The Members of the League undertake to exchange in the most frank and exhaustive manner all information relating to the extent of their armaments, to their military, naval and air programs, and to the state of those branches of their industry that can be used for war.

A permanent commission will be formed to present to the Council its opinions on the implementation of the provisions of Articles 1 and 8 and likewise on general military, naval and air matters.

The Members of the League undertake to respect and preserve, against any external attack, the territorial integrity and existing political independence of all Members of the League. In the event of an attack, threat or danger of attack, the Council shall indicate the measures to ensure the fulfillment of this obligation.

1. Declares expressly that every war or threat of war, whether directly or not directly affecting any of the Members of the League, is of interest to the League as a whole, and that the latter must take measures capable of effectively safeguarding the peace of nations. In such a case, the General Secretary shall immediately convene the Council at the request of any Member of the League.

2. In addition, it is declared that every Member of the League has the right to draw the attention of the Assembly or Council in a friendly manner to any circumstance capable of affecting international relations and, therefore, threatening to shake the peace or good harmony among nations, on which the world depends.

1. The Members of the League agree that if a dispute arises between them, which may lead to a break, they will submit it either to arbitration, or judicial decision, or consideration of the Council. They also agree that they must in no case resort to war before the expiration of a period of three months after the decision of the arbitrators or the judgment, or the report of the Council.

2. In all cases provided for in this article, the decision of the arbitrators or the judgment shall be rendered within a reasonable time, and the report of the Council shall be drawn up within six months from the date of the submission of the dispute to its consideration.

1. The Members of the League agree that if a dispute arises between them, which, in their opinion, may be resolved by arbitration or judicial decision, and if this dispute cannot be satisfactorily settled by diplomatic means, then the matter will be fully submitted to arbitration or judicial decision.

2. Disputes which relate to the interpretation of a treaty, to any question of international law, to the existence of any fact which, if established, would amount to a breach of an international obligation, or to the amount and manner of remedy to be awarded for such breach.

3. The tribunal to which all such disputes are to be referred shall be the Permanent Court of Justice of the International Court of Justice established in accordance with Article 14, or any other tribunal on which the parties to the dispute agree among themselves, or which is established by some existing convention between them.

4. Members of the League undertake to carry out in good faith the decisions or resolutions passed and not to resort to war against a Member of the League who will comply with them. In case of non-compliance with the decision or regulation, the Council proposes measures to ensure their implementation.

The Council is instructed to draw up a draft of the Permanent Court of the International Court of Justice and present it to the Members of the League. This Chamber shall be in charge of all disputes of an international character which the parties submit to it. It will also give advisory opinions on all disputes and on all questions that are brought before it by the Council or the Assembly.

1. If a dispute arises between the Members of the League, which may lead to a rupture, and if this dispute is not subject to arbitration or judicial proceedings provided for in Article 13, then the Members of the League agree to submit it to the Council. It is enough for one of them to point this dispute to the Secretary General, who takes all measures for a full investigation and consideration.

2. As soon as possible, the Parties shall communicate to him the statement of their case with all relevant facts and corroborative documents. The Council may order their immediate publication.

3. The Council shall endeavor to secure a settlement of the dispute. If he succeeds, he publishes, to the extent he sees fit, a statement conveying the facts, the relevant explanations and the terms of this settlement.

4. If the dispute could not be settled, the Council shall draw up and publish a report, adopted either unanimously or by a majority of votes, to inform about the circumstances of the dispute, as well as the solutions proposed by it, as the most just and most suitable for the case.

5. Any Member of the League represented on the Council may likewise publish a statement of the facts relating to the dispute and its own conclusions.

6. If the report of the Council is adopted unanimously, and the votes of the representatives of the parties are not taken into account in establishing this unanimity, then the Members of the League undertake not to resort to war against any side that is consistent with the conclusions of the report.

7. In the event that the Council fails to achieve acceptance of its report by all its members other than the Representatives of the Parties to the dispute, the Members of the League reserve the right to do as they see fit for the preservation of law and justice.

8. If one of the Parties asserts, and if the Council accepts, that the dispute relates to a matter conferred exclusively within the internal jurisdiction of that Party by international law, the Council shall so state in the report without proposing any solution to the matter.

9. The Council may, in all cases provided for in this article, bring the dispute before the Assembly. The Assembly will have to deal with the dispute also at the request of one of the Parties; this motion must be submitted within fourteen days from the date the dispute was brought before the Council.

10. In any case referred to the Assembly, the provisions of this Article and Article 12 relating to the actions and powers of the Council shall equally apply to the actions and powers of the Assembly. It is agreed that a report drawn up by the Assembly with the approval of the representatives of the Members of the League represented on the Council and of the majority of the other Members of the League, except in each case the Representatives of the Parties to the dispute, shall have the same force as a report of the Council unanimously accepted by its Members, except Representatives of the parties to the dispute.

1. If a Member of the League resorts to war contrary to the obligations assumed in Articles 12, 13 or 15, then he is ipso facto considered to have committed an act of war against all other Members of the League. The latter undertake to immediately break off all commercial or financial relations with him, to prohibit all communications between their own citizens and the citizens of the state that has violated the Charter, and to cut off financial, commercial or personal communications between the citizens of this state and the citizens of any other state, whether it is a Member of the League or not. .

2. In this case, the Council is bound to propose to the various Governments concerned that strength of military, sea or air force by which the Members of the League shall, as appropriate, participate in the armed forces intended to maintain respect for the obligations of the League.

3. The Members of the League furthermore agree to give each other mutual support in the application of the financial and economic measures to be taken by virtue of this Article, in order to reduce to a minimum the losses and inconveniences which may result therefrom. They likewise give mutual support to counter any special measure directed against one of them by a state that has violated the Charter. They shall make the necessary arrangements to facilitate the passage through their territory of the forces of any Member of the League participating in the general action, in order to maintain respect for the obligations of the League.

4. Any Member found guilty of violating one of the obligations arising from the Charter may be expelled from the League. The exception is decided by the votes of all other members of the League represented in the Council.

1. In the event of a dispute between two States, of which only one is a Member of the League, or of which neither is a member of it, the State or States outside the League shall be invited to submit to the obligations incumbent on its Members, for the purpose of settling the dispute on terms, deemed fair by the Council. If this invitation is accepted, the provisions of Articles 12 to 16 shall apply, subject to modifications deemed necessary by the Council.

2. After this invitation has been sent, the Council shall open an inquiry into the circumstances of the dispute and propose such measure as seems to it the best and most effective in the present case.

3. If the invited State, refusing to assume the duties of a Member of the League for the purpose of settling a dispute, resorts to war against a Member of the League, the provisions of Article 16 shall apply to it.

4. If both invited parties refuse to assume the duties of a Member of the League for the purpose of settling the dispute, then the Council may take all measures and make any proposals that can prevent hostile actions and lead to a solution of the conflict.

Any international treaties or international obligations entered into in the future by a Member of the League must be immediately registered with the Secretariat and published as soon as possible. None of these international treaties or agreements will become binding until they are registered.

The Assembly may from time to time invite the Members of the League to come to a new consideration of treaties which have become inapplicable, as well as of international provisions, the maintenance of which might endanger the peace of the world.

1. The Members of the League acknowledge, each insofar as it concerns him, that this Charter shall revoke all inter se obligations or agreements inconsistent with its terms, and solemnly undertake not to enter into such in the future.

2. If, before joining the League, a Member has assumed obligations inconsistent with the terms of the Charter, then he must take immediate measures to free himself from these obligations.

International obligations, such as arbitration treaties, and agreements limited to known areas, such as the Monroe Doctrine, which ensure the preservation of peace, shall not be considered inconsistent with any of the provisions of this Charter.

1. The following principles apply to colonies and territories which, as a result of the war, have ceased to be under the sovereignty of the states that previously ruled them, and which are inhabited by peoples who are not yet capable of self-governing themselves in the especially difficult conditions of the modern world. The well-being and development of these peoples is the sacred mission of civilization, and it is appropriate to include guarantees for the fulfillment of this mission in the present Charter.

2. The best method of putting this principle into practice is to entrust the guardianship of these peoples to the advanced nations [...] who are willing to accept it: they would exercise this guardianship in their capacity as Mandatory and in the name of the League.

3. The nature of the mandate must vary according to the degree of development of the people, the geographical position of the territory, its economic conditions and all other similar circumstances. [...]

7. In all cases, the Mandatory shall send to the Council an annual report concerning the territories assigned to him. [...]

Subject to and in agreement with the provisions of international agreements now in existence or to be made thereafter, the Members of the League:

(a) endeavor to secure and maintain just and humane working conditions for men, women and children in their own territories, as well as in all countries to which their commercial and industrial relations extend. [...]

1. All international bureaus previously established by collective agreements shall, subject to the consent of the Parties, be placed under the leadership of the League. Any other international bureaus and any commissions for settling cases of international importance which are subsequently set up will be placed under the leadership of the League. [...]

In the early years of the League of Nations, there was hope that it would ease international tensions. So, until the 1930s, about 30 interstate disputes, conflicts and disputes arose, which were successfully resolved, for example, the conflict on the Greek-Bulgarian border in 1925.

The big test for the League came in 1931 when Japan attacked Chinese Manchuria in September. At this crucial moment, the Council of the League did not take effective measures, since Great Britain and France did not want to apply economic or military sanctions to the aggressor.

The next major test for the League was the Italian war against Ethiopia in 1935. And this time the League showed its inaction and inefficiency. This time, Great Britain and France were afraid of Hitler and practically allowed his satellites to conquer. However, 50 countries out of 54 member countries of the League applied sanctions against Italy in accordance with Article 16 of the Treaty. They did not supply weapons to Italy, did not issue loans, banned the import of goods from Italy, banned the export of strategic materials to Italy (rubber, tin, aluminum). These measures affected the country's economy, but did not stop the takeover of Ethiopia. As a result, Italy's gold reserves were significantly depleted and the lira devalued. The measures taken were half-hearted, the embargo did not include food, coal, steel and oil, the country was not blockaded by the sea. As a result (and not without the efforts of Great Britain and France) in July 1936, the sanctions were lifted.

As a result, after these two great events, the countries of the world community lost confidence in the effectiveness of the League of Nations and tried not to interfere in the aggression of some countries against others. Later, this position allowed Hitler to painlessly capture Austria and Czechoslovakia.

At the same time, despite the lack of funds, the League carried out economic and social work, which was subsequently continued in the UN. In addition to the Council for Economic and social work there were a dozen different organizations (agencies) that collected and disseminated information and knowledge. By the end of the 1930s, the importance of the economic and social work of the League had increased. This led to a reorganization of the agencies in order to expand their links with countries and to expand the powers of the Council for Economic and Social Work. However, the outbreak of World War II put an end to all this activity.

Thus, the League of Nations represented the interests of both radicals and conservatives and had more than 20 years of experience. It was a radical idea to create an international organization with appropriate agencies, but it remained conservative in its essence, as it was based on the existing order.

Within the League, there was little cooperation between countries, such important countries as the United States did not take part in its work, and such countries as the USSR and Germany participated in the work for a short time. The League of Nations was poorly armed for its purposes, that is, it was based on inadequate peace and cooperation, and international organizations proved to be incompatible with state sovereignty. As a result, all this led to the fact that the League of Nations ceased to exist, but its experience was used in the creation of another international organization - the United Nations.