Expecting a baby is an exciting time for expectant parents. They begin preparing for the arrival of the little man in advance. And one of its stages is choosing the best stroller for a newborn.

But which stroller is really good? In this article we will analyze the types of strollers and rank the best.

What types of strollers are there?

Modern children's stores offer their customers a wide selection of different strollers. And inexperienced couples are sometimes confused by the huge range of transport for newborns.

Modern strollers are made in various forms and colors, with different chassis and drawings. But strollers are classified into the following types:

Transformers.

Strollers 2 in 1 or 3 in 1.

What are the features of each?

Transformers are the best option for those who want to save money. And it's not so much about the price as it is about ergonomics. The stroller can be transformed from a transport for the smallest (children from 0 to 6 months) into a stroller for babies who are already sitting. The transformer will last up to 3 years.

Carrycot strollers are equipped with a comfortable, anatomically correct surface that will be very comfortable for newborns. But cradles also have a drawback: their service life is relatively short - only six months. But this does not depend on the quality, but on the growing up of the child. As soon as he learns to sit, it will be uncomfortable for him to be in such a stroller.

3 in 1 or 2 in 1 strollers are a popular choice for modern parents. The advantage of these models is their versatility: they transform into a cradle for newborns, a walking version and a car seat.

What is the main thing in a stroller?

Young parents should select a stroller based on several important criteria, which will affect not only the appearance, but also the convenience for the child himself. To choose the best stroller for a newborn, you need to pay attention to the following:

Increased child safety. Transporting your baby must be done safely. The chassis must be stable and responsive to the road, the brakes must work without failure, the cradle body must be durable and equipped with seat belts.

Comfort. A newborn should feel great in a stroller. The shock absorption of the vehicle should be smooth so that the baby does not shake during the trip. The place to lie should be comfortable and moderately hard. In addition, there should be a mosquito net and a raincoat so that the newborn feels comfortable in bad weather.

Maneuverability. Controlling the stroller should be comfortable: the wheels are easy to turn, the handle can be adjusted to different positions.

Availability of accessories. Not many stroller manufacturers provide their devices with additional accessories. Necessary additions are: a bag for mothers, a pump for rubber wheels, a rain cover, an insect net.

Price. Many parents are concerned about the price of the stroller they buy. It will depend on the manufacturer’s brand, functionality, and quality.

Rating of the best manufacturers

The most popular strollers are from European manufacturers.

1. Made in England, they are renowned for their modern, fashionable designs as well as superior quality. The following brands are in high demand in the Russian markets: Happy Baby, Lonex, Bloom, Silver Cross, Cosatto, Britax.

2. Strollers from German manufacturers. The product is famous for its high quality and price variety. The most popular are: FD-Design, Teutonia, Hartan, Hauck, Concord, Noordline, Zekiwa.

3. Strollers from Norway are endowed with excellent quality and excellent, modern design. But they have one drawback - the price. She is very tall. Norwegian brands include: Esspero, Stokke, Noordi.

4. Portuguese manufacturers have been producing strollers with good quality and reliability. The most popular model in Russia is the Bebecar product.

5. Strollers from Chinese manufacturers are no less in demand, since their cost is much lower than the competitors listed above. But the quality is not always good. Chinese strollers: Geoby, Jetem, Seca.

6. Russian brands are somewhat inferior to European companies. But this good way save money, because the price of domestic strollers is significantly lower, but the quality is not the worst. Representatives of Russian manufacturers: APEX, Fairy, Little trek.

Transformable strollers: 2017 models

Transformers, sometimes called winter-summer strollers, although they are an outdated model, do not lose their popularity. Their demand is associated with a number of worthy qualities:

• high cross-country ability in off-road conditions;
• convenient folding in the form of a “book”;
• easy transformation of the stroller from the “winter” state to the “summer” state;
• spacious place for the baby;
• Convenient storage and transportation when folded.

In 2017, transformable strollers from the following manufacturers are in demand: Adamex, Bebetto, Slaro Capri.

Adamex

The answer to the question: “Which stroller is best for winter for newborns?” It will be the Adamex stroller. This model combines all the advantages of transformable strollers: quality, reliability, convenience and price.

There are 2 in 1 and 3 in 1 models. The latter is distinguished only by the inclusion of a carrying bag for infants.

Adamex are available with both rubberized wheels and plastic ones. However, regardless of this, the chassis has good responsiveness to various roads.

Based on customer reviews, Adamex is considered a good stroller for newborns, since it is relatively light in weight (compared to other transformers).

Bebetto

Another representative of transformers. Despite heavy weight, the stroller is still not without its advantages. Among them are:

• compact assembly for transportation in a car;
• waterproof upholstery material, allowing the baby to withstand bad weather comfortably;
• maneuverability on the road;
• good design for transformers.

Slaro Capri

This model of strollers is distinguished by the presence of swivel front wheels that can be locked. Thanks to these wheels, the stroller fits perfectly into turns and is able to turn around in one turn.

The place for the baby is spacious and comfortable.

The material is durable, moisture-resistant, and prevents wind and draft from penetrating inside. In addition, the stroller upholstery is easy to clean.

The stroller can easily be transformed into a walking version, and can also be easily folded and placed in the trunk of a car.

Carrycot strollers: preferences of 2017

A cradle stroller is a convenient option for babies from birth until they reach 6-8 months (until the child learns to sit).

Perhaps such limited operation is the only significant drawback cradle.

Nevertheless, the demand for models is growing year by year. And this is facilitated by the baby’s comfortable stay inside the stroller, as well as the quality and stylish modern design.

According to data collected in 2016-2017, the following models became the most popular strollers-cradles among buyers:

1. Navington Caravel.
2. Navington Galeon.
3. Inglesina Vittoria.
4. Peg-Perego Culla-auto.
5. Baby Care Sonata.
6. Little Trek Neo Alu.
7. Cam Linea Sport.
8. Inglesina Classica.

The best stroller for newborns in the cradle stroller category is this particular model. This is the opinion of the overwhelming number of young parents who bought this vehicle for their child.

Objectively assessing the qualities of Navington Caravel, users include the following as advantages:

• Stability on the roads even with them poor quality. Owners of the stroller note that it “holds” the road well, creating the effect of a smooth rocking motion over bumps. The child feels comfortable without feeling any irregularities.
• Patency. The transport is convenient to operate both in summer on dry roads and in autumn and winter, on mud and snow.
• Smooth wheel turning. Navington Caravel is easy to operate and does not require additional effort. The stroller takes turns well.
• Design and quality of upholstery. The design of the transport is made of fabric materials or eco-leather, and the place for placing a newborn is upholstered in cotton fabric. The design is modern and stylish. The stroller can be selected in several color resolutions.

However, Navington Caravel also has disadvantages, which, however, do not detract from its consumer demand.

• Heavy weight, which makes transporting the stroller a little difficult;
• Markedness. Dirt that gets on the upholstery instantly settles and is difficult to clean.

2. Navington Galeon. This is another model from the manufacturer Navington. The price starts from 34,000 rubles.

These models are also considered the best bassinet strollers for newborns. They have several advantages:

• A spacious cradle in which the baby feels comfortable.
• The kit includes the necessary accessories for comfortable use: a bag for mothers, a rain cape, and an insect net.
• Handle height adjustment;
• Stylish design.

There are also disadvantages: difficulties in repairing the chassis system, as well as squeaks when moving.

3. Inglesina Vittoria - an expensive, but very stylish stroller for those who value reliability and modern design.

You can purchase this model at a price of 60,000 rubles. However, the cost is completely justified by the quality. The frame design and upholstery material guarantee the reliability of the stroller, allowing the vehicle to be used for 3 years.

The chassis is maneuverable, equipped with smooth shock absorption. Management will bring great pleasure to parents.

The cradle is spacious, which is undoubtedly good for a child.

The design of the stroller looks modern and expensive.

The disadvantages of the Inglesina Vittoria include the meager equipment (no mosquito net and rain cover), the lack of a handle on the “roof” of the cradle for carrying it, as well as squeaking wheels. The last drawback is easily corrected with lubrication.

4. Peg-Perego Culla-auto.

The cost of this model from the Italian manufacturer starts from 33,000 rubles. What gives it the right to be included in the rating of the best strollers for newborns?

• A spacious cradle that allows your child to move freely.
• Beautiful, modern design, allowing the stroller to be used by both boys and girls;
• Removable cover.
• Lots of pockets for storing small items.

5. Baby Care Sonata.

In addition, it is popular because of the following:

• lightweight body;
• a spacious cradle that creates space for the child;
• the presence of a mosquito net;
• excellent maneuverability.

In addition, the stroller has a modern, fashionable design.

Modules 2 in 1 and 3 in 1

For modern parents, 2 in 1 and 3 in 1 modules are the best strollers for newborns. Their cost, of course, is higher than that of transformers and cradles, but they “captivate” with their versatility.

Such modules have won the hearts of buyers relatively recently; they are truly a modernized type of strollers.

Many people confuse them with transformers. But they are not much alike.

Modules are strollers with replaceable blocks. A cradle can be installed on the frame (for the little ones), or a walking module (for kids who have learned to sit), or a car seat (for infants up to summer period). 2 in 1 strollers do not have a car seat.

Since modules are very popular, it is worth considering the rating of the best 3-in-1 strollers for newborns:

Concord Neo Travel Set - strollers for newborns in the ranking of the best 3in1. The advantages of the model are:

• maneuverability on roads and ease of operation;
• easy rearrangement of blocks using a special button on the frame;
• superior, streamlined design;
• the walking module is equipped with a reclining backrest;
• increased level of safety for the child;
• the seat is located high above the ground;
• waterproof upholstery material;
• lightness - the stroller weighs only 10.6 kg;
• convenient transportation in a car;
• brake adjustment is located on the handle;
• complete set consisting of 3 blocks, a bag, a cover for the child’s feet, a raincoat and a mosquito net.

Another masterpiece from Italian manufacturers is the 3 in 1 Brevi Millestrade module, the price of which varies between 40,000 rubles.

The answer to the question: “Which strollers are best for newborns?” There are obvious advantages of Brevi Millestrade:

• quality and reliability of the main frame, as well as additional fasteners;
• lightweight, for strollers, weight - 14 kg;
• spacious cradle;
• durable shopping basket;
• high-quality material for external and internal finishing;
• high cross-country ability.

3. Peg-Perego Book Plus Pure Set Modular is ranked #3. The average cost of the model is 48,500 rubles.

The colors in which the strollers are made are universal; they are suitable for both boys and girls. The design is consistent modern style, with a touch of sophistication.

Peg-Perego Book Plus Pure Set Modular is considered the best stroller for newborns. What are the advantages of this model?

• a soft, spacious cradle with a hood that completely protects the child from the sun and wind;
• smooth turning of the guide wheels;
• soft shock absorption, allowing the baby not to feel the unevenness of the roads;
• the removable cradle can be used as a cradle installed next to the bed;
• the mass of the assembled stroller is 11 kg - the model belongs to the category of lightweight strollers;
• the upholstery is made of durable materials that prevent moisture and wind from penetrating inside the stroller;
• The cradle is equipped with seat belts and an adjustable backrest.

4. Noordi Sole Sport can be purchased for 41,000 rubles. This option is suitable for connoisseurs of sports style, for those who prefer active recreation. The baby will feel comfortable from being in the stroller, and parents will feel comfortable from its control.

Noordi Sole Sport is valued for:

• a spacious cradle with high-quality upholstery and equipped with small windows with a ventilation effect;
• reliable seat belts;
• high-quality handling and smooth movement;
• leather bumper trim;
• adjustable control handle.

5. Cosatto Woop - a modular three-wheel stroller. You can purchase it at a price of 52,000 rubles.

According to ratings and reviews in 2017, Cosatto Woop is recognized as one of the best strollers. And there are several reasons for this:

• unusually colorful colors;
• ease of management and transportation;
• several options for backrest position;
• convenient transformation of the cradle into a walking block.

3in1 modules are characterized by increased comfort and “keep up with the times.” Their cost is several times higher than that of other types of strollers, but the price is very justified.

2 in 1: strollers for newborns. Rating of the best (with photo)

Unlike 3-in-1 modules, 2-in-1 modules do not come with a car seat. These are strollers consisting of a cradle and a walking block, which can be easily installed on one landing frame.

Which 2 in 1 strollers are the best according to estimates of 2017?

1st place - MIMA XARI. An expensive version of the 2 in 1 module, the cost of which is 83,000 rubles. The model combines futuristic design, elegance and status.

The Spanish-made MIMA stroller is incredibly comfortable to use. The wheels smoothly make all turns and confidently hold the road. They are made of dense rubber, which is highly durable and reliable.

With just one movement, the stroller turns from a walking position into a cradle.

The material with which the blocks are upholstered is artificial leather, and the back of the cradle is lined with a cotton mattress.

In addition, MIMA has a shopping basket and a compartment that can be closed with a lid.

MIMA XARI is the embodiment of modernity and real comfort for the baby.

2nd place goes to Seed Pli Mg. You can buy a stroller for 37,000 rubles.

The original design makes this stroller stand out from the rest. It is easy to operate, can easily be placed in the trunk of a car, and also does not take up much space in the apartment.

The frame of Seed Pli Mg is made of a durable alloy of aluminum and magnesium, which ensures reliable fastening of the planting blocks and, accordingly, protection for the child.

Driving the stroller is a pleasure: it is light, smooth when riding, and fast.

The only drawback is the lack of additional accessories. You will have to buy them separately.

In 3rd place is the 2 in 1 module Noordi Fjordi - a favorite of Norwegian production. Its cost is 39,000 rubles.

Only visually can you understand that this is a Noordi Fjordi 2 in 1, since its design is in a winter style with a corresponding pattern.

The wheels are powerful and have good maneuverability in bad weather conditions. They are made of durable rubber that is resistant to punctures and cuts. The shock-absorbing spring creates softness on road irregularities.

The fabric used to cover the cradle is durable and impermeable to wind and moisture. The baby will be reliably protected in the cold, because the stroller is designed for walking in bad weather.

The stroller has practically no disadvantages. The only reason, due to which they may not buy it - this is a classic chassis and block design, which may not be to your taste.

Demand for strollers

So which stroller is best for newborns? Customer reviews indicate that 2-in-1 or 3-in-1 stroller modules are in great demand. Despite the high price, they are equipped with all the necessary additions that will be useful for both the child and the parents. In addition, the modules are made of high-quality materials that withstand their entire service life with dignity.

Carrycot strollers and transformers are also in consumer demand, mainly due to their budget cost.

Conclusion

The selection of strollers is impressive. You can choose one for every taste and income. The rating presented in this article will help you decide, understand how the models differ and what are the advantages of each. And photos of the best strollers for newborns will help you visually distinguish them from each other.

Plato's doctrine of man

3. Plato's teaching about the 3 natures of man

Characterizing man, Plato, as in all his ideas, relies on metaphysics and the theory of knowledge. V.V. Mironov points out that just as Plato divides everything that exists into two unequal spheres - eternal and self-existent ideas, on the one hand, and transient, fluid and dependent things of the sensory world, on the other - he also distinguishes in man the immortal soul and the mortal, corruptible body. See Mironov V.V. Philosophy: textbook. - M., 2009. - 44s.

According to Plato, man has three natures: physical, social and spiritual. He explains this in his dialogue with the help of myth, how the Gods gave abilities to all living things, including humans, in order to survive. See Matveev P. E. Lectures on the history of foreign philosophy 2014 At the same time, Plato considers man as a rational being. In his dialogue, he writes: “Meanwhile, reflection showed him that of all things, by their nature visible, not a single creation devoid of mind can be more beautiful than one that is endowed with mind, if we compare both as a whole, and the mind cannot dwell in anyone apart from the soul” Plato Timaeus // Philebus, Republic, Timaeus, Critias - 475 p. . Also, if we recall Plato’s three estates, then in the first place we see philosophers who should rule the state. And philosophers, according to our thinker, are the smartest of people. This also emphasizes the importance of reason for Plato. Reason also ensures that a person achieves courage, bravery, and justice. It was justice that Plato considered the main virtue. But he also has a soul, and the immortal part of the soul is in his head.

The soul, according to Plato, is divided into three parts: rational, furious and passionate. In his dialogue “Phaedrus” he gives the famous image of the chariot of the soul: “Let us liken the soul to the united force of a winged pair of teams and a charioteer. Among the gods, both horses and charioteers are all noble and descend from nobles, while among the rest they are of mixed origin. Firstly, it is our lord who rules the team, and then his horses - one is beautiful, noble and born from the same horses, and the other horse is his opposite and his ancestors are different. It is inevitable that ruling us is a difficult and tedious task.” Plato Phaedrus // Decree. Op. - . The driver here represents the mind, the good horse the strong-willed part of the soul, and the bad horse the passionate or emotional part of the soul.

A rational principle, directed towards knowledge and entirely conscious activity mind. The next two souls are subordinate to this soul, since only it can make behavior moral.

Fierce beginning, strives for order and overcoming difficulties. As Plato says: “we notice how a person, overcome by lusts despite the ability to reason, scolds himself and is angry at these rapists who have settled in him. The anger of such a person becomes an ally of his reason in this feud, which seems to be going on only between two sides” Plato Republic // Philebus, Republic, Timaeus, Critias -530c. . Plato notes that the violent principle is especially noticeable in a person, “when he believes that he is being treated unfairly, he boils, gets irritated and becomes an ally of what seems fair to him, and for this he is ready to endure hunger, cold and all similar torments , just to win; he will not give up his noble aspirations - either to achieve his goal or die, unless he is humbled by the arguments of his own reason” Plato Republic // Philebus, Republic, Timaeus, Critias -542c.

And a passionate beginning, expressing the countless desires of a person. It is with this soul that one falls in love, experiences hunger, thirst and other lusts.

The soul is also located in the human body, but this is a contradiction according to Plato. The body is the abode of the soul. Thanks to the soul, the body lives, so it must be at the service of the soul. But the body is the root of all evil, since it is the source of passions that give rise to hostility, disagreement, even madness and mental illness. Therefore, for the soul the body is not the most the best place habitat and is the “prison of the soul” from which it strives to escape.

The soul rules over the body. Therefore, the quality of the soul also determines general characteristics man and his purpose, and social status. In the dialogue "Phaedrus" Plato distinguishes 9 categories of souls, each of which corresponds to a specific person. The division is based on the degree of knowledge of the souls of the world of ideas: “The soul that has seen the most of all falls into the embryo of the future philosopher and lover of beauty, devoted to the Muses and Eros; the second behind her - into a king who observes the laws, into a warlike man and capable of governing, the third - into a statesman, into a master, into a businessman; the fourth - in the one who diligently exercises or heals the body; the fifth in order will lead the life of a soothsayer or participant in the sacraments; the sixth will become a poet or artist; the seventh will become a craftsman or farmer; the eighth - a sophist or demagogue; the ninth is a tyrant. Of all of them, the one who lives, observing justice, will get the best share, and those who violate it will get the worst.” Plato Phaedrus // // Works: in 4 vols. T. 2.. 1993.- 157 - 158s . Thus, in the first place in the hierarchy of souls is the soul of the philosopher, in the last place is the soul of the tyrant.

As V.F. emphasizes Shapovalov, health of the soul (virtue), according to Plato, more important than health body, and the highest task of a person is “caring for the soul,” which means its purification through a break with the sensual and connection with the related world of the ideal and supersensible See Shapovalov V.F. Fundamentals of philosophy: from classics to modernity. - M., 1998. - 91 p. .

The soul, according to our philosopher, is immortal, and in his work “Phaedo” he cites four proofs of the immortality of the soul. The philosopher considers the first proof to be the mutual transition of opposites. Just as death comes from life through dying, so life comes from death through revival. In this case, the soul “must exist even after death: after all, it will have to be born again” Plato Phaedo // Works: in 4 volumes. T. 2. - M., 1993. - 32 p.

In the second proof of the immortality of the soul, Plato proceeds from the fact that the human soul is capable of cognizing the motionless and eternal (the world of ideas). But if this is so, Plato notes, then it must have the same nature as the ideal world, be related to it, since, otherwise, everything eternal would remain inaccessible to it. The philosopher also talks about remembering, for example, through leading questions you can force a person who does not understand any science to give the correct solution to any problem of this science. This means that all truths reside in the soul of a person before his birth and earthly journey, therefore, the soul is immortal.

The third argument is related to the fact that everything that exists is divided into two types: self-identical, unchangeable and simple, and changeable and complex. Since the body is closer to the changeable and complex, the soul, on the contrary, is most like the unchangeable and simple, which, due to its simplicity, cannot be divided into any parts and destroyed. Likewise, the unchangeable and simple is comprehended only by thinking, while the complex and annihilated by sensation. The soul, which can neither be seen nor heard, finds itself among the invisible, unchangeable and simple. Then, the soul, according to Plato, experiences the greatest joy in knowledge and thinking, while sensations spoil the soul

And finally, the fourth argument was the dialectical conclusion made by Plato that the soul, the essential feature of which is life, cannot be involved in its opposite - death. And they also talk about the soul as the ruling part over the body. In this way she is more like the divine who rules, and not like a mortal who submits.

In Phaedrus, Plato uses self-motion as evidence of the immortality of the soul. “Every body that is moved from the outside is inanimate, but every body that is moved from within, from itself, is animate, because such is the nature of the soul. If this is so and that which moves itself is nothing other than the soul, it necessarily follows that the soul is ungenerated and immortal” Plato Phaedrus // Works: in 4 vols. T. 2.. 1993. - 155s.

The same can be said about why Plato proves the immortality of the soul: Firstly, justice is important for a philosopher. But if the soul does not receive a reward for virtue, then there is no justice. Without the immortality of the soul it is impossible to talk about the afterlife.

Secondly, without the immortality of the soul we will not be able to know the truth, since the mortal body with its sensations will not allow us to know it. This is possible only with a soul that does not depend on the body for its existence. And true knowledge is very important for Plato, since without it it is impossible to reorganize the Greek polis, and this was the dream of our philosopher.

Thirdly, cosmology is impossible without the immortality of the soul. If the soul is mortal, then the cosmos at a certain time must cease to exist, because it is the immortal soul that sets it in motion. And the principle of the immortality of the soul, according to Plato, explains the rationality of the cosmos, since it does not depend on the body and everything corporeal. And if there is no such soul, then the cosmos will have to be explained only by physical principles, which, in the opinion of our thinker, is impossible. http://www.di-mat.ru/node/231

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Sheckley Robert

Man according to Plato

Robert Sheckley

Man according to Plato

Having safely landed the ship on Regulus-V, the expedition members set up camp and turned on GR-22-0134, their edge robot they called Max. This robot was powered by voice and was a bipedal mechanism designed to protect the camp from invasion by non-earthlings in the event that the expedition had to encounter non-earthlings somewhere. Initially, in strict accordance with the instructions, Max was steel gray in color, but during the endless flight he was painted with soft blue paint. Max's height was one meter and twenty centimeters, and the members of the expedition gradually believed that he was a kind, intelligent metal man, an iron gnome, something like a miniature Tin Woodman from The Wizard of Oz.

Of course, they were mistaken. Their robot did not possess any of the qualities that they attributed to it. GR-22-0134 was no smarter than a reaper and no kinder than an automatic boring line. Morally, he could be compared to a turbine or a radio, but not to a person.

Little pale blue Max with red eyes moved non-stop along the invisible border of the camp, turning on his own. electronic senses at maximum power. Captain Beatty and Lieutenant James took a jet helicopter to explore the planet and were expected to be away for about a week. Lieutenant Halloren remained in the camp to guard the equipment.

Halloren was a stocky, barrel-chested man with bow legs. He was a cheerful, freckled, seasoned, resourceful man and big fan salty expressions. After breakfast, he conducted a communication session with the helicopter, then opened his lounge chair and sat down to admire the scenery.

Regulus V is a delightful place if you have a passion for bleak deserts. Around the camp, a hot plain stretched in all directions, consisting of sand, frozen lava and rocks. Birds that looked like sparrows circled here and there, and sometimes animals that resembled coyotes ran by. Skinny cacti stuck out here and there between the rocks.

Halloran stood up from his sun lounger:

Max, I'll go for a walk. In my absence, you remain in charge of the camp. The robot interrupted its walk.

Yes, sir. I remain in charge.

Don't let any aliens come here, especially two-headed ones with knees topsy-turvy.

I will take your advice into account, sir, - when it came to aliens, Max lost his sense of humor. - Do you know the password, Mr. Halloran?

I know, Max. And you?

I know him, sir.

Great. Well, come on.

And Holloren left the camp.

After wandering around the charming surroundings for an hour and not finding anything interesting, Halloren headed back to the camp. He noted with pleasure that GR-22-0134 was making its endless detour around the border of the camp. This meant that everything was fine there.

Hey, Max! - he shouted. - Have you received any letters for me?

Stop!!! - the robot commanded. - Password!!

Don't be a fool. Max. I can't...

STOP!!! - the robot thundered when Halloren was about to cross the border.

Halloren stopped dead in his tracks. Max's photoelectric eyes flashed and a soft double click signaled that he had brought his small-caliber weapon to combat readiness. Halloren decided to act more cautiously.

I am standing. My last name is Halloren. So, is everything all right, Max?

Please enter your password.

“Bells,” answered Halloren. - Well, now with your permission...

Don’t cross borders, the robot warned. - The password is incorrect.

No matter how it is! I gave it to you myself.

This is the old password.

Former? You've lost your electronic mind! - Halloran exclaimed. - "Bells" is the only one correct password, and you can’t have any new password, because...

Except that...

The robot waited patiently while Halloren weighed this unpleasant thought and finally said it out loud:

Unless Captain Beatty gave you a new password before you left. Was that so?

Yes,” the robot answered.

I should have realized that,” Halloren said, but he was annoyed. Such mistakes had happened before, but there was always someone in the camp who helped correct the situation.

However, there was no reason for alarm. If you think about it carefully, the situation was quite interesting. And it didn’t cost anything to find a way out. It was enough to think a little.

Halloren, of course, assumed that GR-22-0134 was capable of at least a little reflection.

“Max,” Halloran began. - I understand how it happened. Captain Beatty gave you a new password, but he didn't tell me about it. And then I compounded his mistake by not checking the password before I left the camp. The robot said nothing, and Halloren continued:

In any case, this error is easy to fix.

“I sincerely hope that is so,” the robot answered.

“Well, of course,” Halloren said without the same confidence. - Both the captain and I, when giving you a new password, always follow certain rules. Having told you the password, he immediately tells it to me verbally, but just in case of an unforeseen event - like what happened now, he writes it down.

Really? - asked the robot.

Yes, yes,” Halloren replied. - Always. Rigorously. And that means this time too. Do you see a tent behind you?

The robot focused one eye on the tent, keeping the other eye on Halloren.

Yes, I see her.

Great. There is a table in the tent. There is a gray metal clip on the table.

That's right, said Max.

Perfect. A sheet of paper is placed in the clip. The most important data is recorded on it: the frequency at which the distress signal is sent, and the like. The current password is written in the upper corner of the sheet, circled in red.

The negative attitude towards the art of Plato, who proposed expelling poets from the ideal state, is well known. However, if you look more closely, his position regarding art turns out to be far from so clear. It is known that Plato began as a tragic poet, but after meeting Socrates, he abandoned his artistic pursuits and burned his poems. But the form in which he began to present his concept after the death of his teacher shows that he still remained not only a philosopher, but also an artist: Plato’s dialogues, representing the pinnacle of ancient metaphysical thought, are a masterpiece ancient literature. Philosophers of subsequent times often turned to the form of dialogue, trying to convey a certain concept in a publicly accessible form. But no one has ever had this concept so closely connected with plot details, or furnished it with so many situational side remarks, as Plato’s. His dialogues tell us not only a full-fledged and living image of Socrates, about which researchers still cannot agree on what exactly in him is copied from Socrates the man and what is a figment of Plato’s imagination, but also vivid portraits of other participants in the conversations, and also a full-fledged, broadly sketched picture of Greek life. Plato uses artistic techniques so widely both in constructing a plot and in proving his ideas that his denial of art cannot but raise doubts: he turns out to be either a cunning person deliberately misleading, or a spontaneous genius unaware of his own skill. But accusing one of the deepest and most influential thinkers in Europe of deceit, who captivated humanity for millennia with the idea of ​​absolute truth, or of unconsciousness, also seems strange. What is Plato's attitude to art? Plato denies it due to two accusations. Art can either be an imitation of things - and in this case it will simply be a doubling of the world, and therefore, it will turn out to be unnecessary and even harmful, since it turns a person’s interest from truth to useless activity and empty play. Art can be an imitation of something that does not exist, that is, create phantoms - in this case it will be unconditionally harmful, since it will deliberately mislead the mind. Plato rejects these forms of art, but in addition to them he also talks about acceptable, useful forms art. Art can, avoiding error, strive to correspond to the truth, guided by the same principles as rational knowledge, reducing the whole world to unchanging, eternal, universally known forms and abandoning individuality and originality. In this case, Plato placed the canonical and static patterns of Egyptian images above the dynamic and living art of the Greeks53. Plato also recognizes that the art of poets can be a source of wisdom, speak the truth about the world, and therefore move in the same direction as philosophy - but with the drawback that, unlike a philosopher, a poet does not act consciously, but in a state of divine inspiration. In both cases the art lacks completeness and clarity philosophical knowledge, and therefore art, even useful and beneficial, is lower than philosophy. At the beginning of the “Laws” there is a discussion about drinking wine, where its relative usefulness is proven, both for common man , and for the philosopher. It predisposes the first to perceive sublime truth, while the second, on the contrary, somewhat brings it down to earth, making him capable of communication. Philosophy deals with contemplation of a higher order, unclouded ideas, alien to all the diversity and intricacies of the material world. To communicate, to describe this higher order, she uses the means of logical argumentation, pure thinking, avoiding the deceptiveness of sensory perception. But Plato is well aware that the means of logical proof cannot adequately describe the simple understanding of an idea, constantly running into contradictions that were noticed by Socrates in his dialectical conversations and constantly undermine Plato’s system itself. Subsequently, these contradictions forced Aristotle, in his quest for a clear logical system, to partially abandon the theory of the teacher. Rational argumentation fails when trying to build a full-fledged system that covers not only the ideal order, but also its relationship to the material world. As an expression in material form, art always stands below pure speculation, but for communication it can serve as a much more adequate means than a logical argument, since it allows us to display complexities and contradictions that do not fit into the logical system, arising from the very nature of matter (in which we are forced abide) as the principle of plurality as opposed to the idea as the principle of unity. Logical proof also expresses a thought in a certain form, the analysis of the relativity of which was carried out by the sophists. This - the need for communication built into the very system of philosophy - can explain Plato's conscious choice of an artistic form to present his teaching. He does not want to be misled by the false illusion of simplicity and makes explicit through art those complexities that would remain hidden in logical form. In the Symposium, one of Plato’s most artistic and structurally complex dialogues, the narrative of the ascent to truth is removed from us by a triple retelling, preceded and prepared by a number of speeches that partially refute each other and partially complement this narrative, rich in such situational details as confusing pathos Aristophanes' hiccups, amusing bickering over oratorical abilities and relationships between speakers. It is impossible to neglect as an accident the very situation of the feast, where the speakers gathered to make speeches only because, having spent the previous time vigorously, they are simply unable to drink any more - and therefore, all these speeches are pronounced and listened to by no means in a sober state conducive to the highest clarity and in the end, immediately after Socrates’ speech, they are interrupted by the arrival of Alcibiades, who takes up the story of Socrates the lover, where the high is intertwined with the low, “after which they drank indiscriminately.” Here, in the Symposium, another aspect of Plato’s attitude to art is clearly manifested. It can be noted that often in his dialogues, at the most crucial moment for understanding the teaching, he completely leaves aside any logical argumentation, even built into the artistic form, and moves on to a direct presentation of the myth. This is what happens here in Socrates’ speech, and this is what happens in the Phaedo at the decisive moment of proving the immortality of the soul. At these decisive moments, Plato’s Socrates says every time: “I will tell you a myth” - and these myths are fundamentally different from the allegories that interpret the teaching in images and are present in Plato along with myths - such as, for example, the famous “symbol of the cave” from the Republic " Myth is that very “divinely inspired” form of art that Plato did not deny, although it would seem to place it below philosophy. Nevertheless, he resorts to it precisely where philosophical argumentation turns out to be powerless, each time in practice placing it above philosophy. When Plato begins to expound on myth, he never insists on literal belief in it. He offers it as a certain version, one of the possible ones, which as a version could explain something. A myth can be true in two senses: on the one hand, it claims to truthfully describe a certain specific event - but it is in this sense that it is a myth because it is impossible to verify this truthfulness in any way (Plato, through the mouth of Socrates, laughs ironically at this side of the myth ). On the other hand, the description of an event is significant in a myth not in itself, but because it conveys the truth about the world as a whole - but not through allegory or metaphor - the transfer of meaning from one object to another, i.e. obvious falsehood, - but by describing the whole through an integral feature or constant manifestation. And as such, myth is valuable because, speaking of the doubtful part, it nevertheless reveals the truth about the world in that holistic form that can never be achieved through consistent reasoning, since the truth of the world, according to Plato, is what is immediately and directly perceived , and not comprehended gradually, through analysis. This happens because this truth is true being, which can be contemplated with mental vision, but cannot be defined in scattered words. Speaking about truth as an object of contemplation, Plato for the first time clearly formulates what has come to be understood as the basis of the entire Greek worldview, in the words of S. S. Averintsev, which is the “discretion of forms”54. And in fact, he is the author of the first detailed aesthetic theory, since aesthetics speaks of form - albeit in this case we're talking about about the form is by no means necessarily sensually perceived.

MOSCOW STATE UNIVERSITY

Them. M. V. LOMONOSOV

FACULTY OF JOURNALISM

Abstract for the course “Philosophy” on the topic:

"Plato's Metaphysics".

Completed by a 2nd year student

day department 214 groups

Zotova A. M.

Moscow – 2009

Plato

Plato (Πλάτων) - ancient Greek philosopher, student of Socrates, teacher of Aristotle. Real name: Aristocles. His gymnastics teacher nicknamed him “Plato” (“broad”) because of the width of his shoulders. By the way, Plato was not only a philosopher, but also an Olympic champion; twice he won the pankration competition (a mixture of boxing and wrestling) 1.

The exact date of Plato's birth is unknown. Following ancient sources, most researchers believe that Plato was born in 428-427 BC. in Athens or Aegina, just at the height of the Peloponnesian War between Athens and Sparta. According to ancient tradition, his birthday is considered to be May 21, on which, according to mythological legend, the god Apollo was born.

Plato was born into a family of aristocratic origins; the family of his father, Ariston, was traced, according to legend, to the last king of Attica, Codrus, and the ancestor of Periktion, Plato’s mother, was the Athenian reformer Solon. It was also said that Plato was conceived immaculately 3.

Plato's first teacher was the Heraclitian Cratilus, then Socrates. According to legend, in his youth Plato wrote poetry and prepared himself for politics; One day he was carrying a tragedy he had just written to the theater, but he met Socrates, and under the impression of a conversation with him, he burned his tragedy and took up philosophy. This meeting took place when Plato himself was about 20 years old 4.

For the next few years, Plato studied with Socrates, and after the death of his teacher he went traveling. According to legend, he visited Cyrene and Egypt, then went to Southern Italy and Sicily, where he communicated with the Pythagoreans. In Syracuse, he found himself at the court of the tyrant Dionysius I, to whom he tried to present his ideas about the best state structure. Dionysius understood very little from Plato’s words, began to suspect the philosopher of plotting a coup and sold the philosopher into slavery, and Plato’s friends helped him out of this trouble by paying a ransom for him.

Then Plato returns back to Athens, where he founded his own school - the “Plato Academy”. The school was named Academy because it was located in the Academian gardens (which, in turn, were named after the ancient hero Academus). Near the entrance to the academy there was an inscription: “Those who do not know geometry are not allowed to enter.” In general, Plato believed that four disciplines should be taught - arithmetic, geometry, stereometry and theoretical astronomy; at the same time, Plato emphasized not at all the practical usefulness of these sciences, but their importance for exercising the mind and in order to prepare the soul for reflection on higher philosophical problems. And Plato especially respected geometry also because he believed that matter consists of the smallest geometric particles (more on this later).

After Plato's death as an ancient in 347 BC. 5 his academy existed for another 18 years, until in 329 it was closed by the Christian emperor Justinian, who found it impossible to tolerate its pagan ideas.

Plato's "Model of the World"

Plato argued that there is a world of ideas and a parallel material world. In the kingdom of ideas live the ideas themselves (eidos), full of divine meaning. Ideas are the basis of the whole world; these are target reasons charged with the energy of aspiration; this is the divine regulation of all processes occurring in the Universe. There are relationships of coordination and subordination between ideas. The highest idea is the idea of ​​absolute good (Agaton; world Reason; Divinity).

The material world consists of particles of elements. The main components in its formation were fire and earth. Between these components are placed two more middle members - air and water, and air is related to water as fire is to air. These four elements (earth, air, water, fire) are a collection of tiny invisible particles that have the shape of regular polyhedra. So the particles of fire are tetrahedrons, air particles are octahedrons, water particles are icosahedrons, and earth particles are cubes. The fifth element is ether, the particles of which are given the shape of a dodecahedron.

The material world lives, exists and develops in accordance with the rules that are established by ideas. But ideas are not visible to people and cannot be felt. Describing his model of the world, Plato sets out the myth of the cave, in which he figuratively represents the world in which we live as a cave with an exit at the top, and all people as prisoners, tightly bound with chains and sitting in this cave. The prisoners look at the wall, on which reflections of light falling from above form shadows. By looking at shadows, people establish the causes and consequences of phenomena and thus believe that they understand the world. But if you see the true causes of these phenomena, it turns out that everything known on the basis of reflections has almost nothing to do with reality, because shadows represent their prototypes in a highly distorted form. In addition, the very exit from the cave (that is, the beginning of true knowledge) is physically difficult, the eyes are not accustomed to real lighting, and it is completely impossible to look at the sun itself as a source of light.

Plato believes in gods and proves their existence by the fact that people feel an affinity with the nature of the gods: a person is emotional, that is, he has the ability to feel every moment differently; the world of human feelings is the region of “becoming”, where everything arises and dies, forever changing and never truly existing, everything exists only thanks to ideas.

Trying to find man’s place in these two worlds, Plato comes to the conclusion that man is dualistic: his soul is immortal, but his body is perishable. This dualism contains an eternal tragedy - the body pulls a person into the animal world, and the soul into the divine.

Plato on the soul

Plato believed that the human soul is threefold. Its first part is the rational one, addressed to ideas. The rational part of the soul is the basis of virtue and wisdom; The second is the ardent, affective-volitional part of the soul - the basis of courage. The third part is sensual, driven by passions and lusts. This part of the soul must be limited in its manifestations by the mind. The harmonious combination of all parts of the soul under the regulative principle of reason provides a guarantee of justice.

Before birth, the human soul resides in the realm of ideas - pure thought and beauty. Then, in the 5th month of pregnancy, she finds herself on the sinful earth, where, temporarily being in a human body, like a prisoner in a dungeon, she “remembers the world of ideas.” That is, even before birth, the soul solves the main issues of its life in the world of models (paradigms), and, having been born, it already knows everything that needs to be known, and in order to teach a person something, you just need to help him remember it. After death, souls go to trial and get the opportunity to choose a new life, the status in which will depend on the virtue or depravity of the life already lived.

Plato's doctrine of knowledge

Plato believed that true knowledge cannot be conveyed in words or in sensory perception. For the correct movement towards the truth, the soul must be cleansed of incorrect opinions that have accumulated in it during a non-philosophical life, and a person must understand (remember) the correct opinion himself.

Plato divides everything accessible to knowledge into two types: comprehended by sensation and cognizable by the mind. The relationship between the spheres of the sensed and the intelligible also determines the relationship between different cognitive abilities: sensations allow us to understand (albeit unreliably) the world of things, reason allows us to see the truth.

What is felt is again divided into two types - the objects themselves and their shadows and images. The first kind is related to faith, and the second is likeness. By faith we mean the ability to have direct experience. Taken together, these abilities constitute an opinion. Opinion is not knowledge in the true sense of the word, since it concerns changeable objects, as well as their images.

The sphere of the intelligible is also divided into two types - these are the ideas of things and their intelligible similarities. Ideas do not require any prerequisites for their knowledge, representing eternal and unchanging entities accessible only to reason. The second type includes mathematical objects. According to Plato's thought, mathematicians only “dream” existence, since they use inferential concepts that require a system of axioms that are accepted without proof. The ability to produce such concepts is understanding. Reason and understanding together constitute thinking, and only it is capable of cognizing the essence.

Plato introduces the following proportion: as essence is related to becoming, so thinking is related to opinion; and knowledge is related to faith and reasoning is related to assimilation. The same myth about the cave is especially famous in the theory of knowledge.”

Plato about man

Plato saw the essence of man in his eternal and immortal soul, which enters the body at birth. Therefore, it requires cleansing of the soul, cleansing from worldly pleasures, from secular life filled with sensual joys. Man’s task is to rise above disorder (the imperfect sensory world) and with all the strength of the soul to strive to become like God, who does not come into contact with anything evil. It is to free the soul from everything corporeal, to concentrate it on itself, on the inner world of speculation and deal only with the true and eternal. Plato's philosophy is almost entirely permeated with ethical problems: his dialogues discuss such issues as the nature of the highest good, its implementation in people's behavior and in the life of society.

Plato believed that the souls of animals and plants are mortal, and the rational souls of people are immortal, since they were created by God from the same composition as the immortal world soul. It is immortality and receptivity to knowledge that distinguishes man from animals. Plato does not have an absolute opposition between animals and humans. There is a legend according to which Diogenes of Sinope, in response to Plato’s words “Man is an animal with two legs, devoid of feathers,” plucked a chicken and brought it to the philosopher, declaring: “Here is Plato’s man!” Then Plato was forced to add “... and with flat nails” to his definition.

Interesting facts about Plato

Plato was the first to talk about the existence of Atlantis, a lost highly developed civilization.

It was Plato who came up with the hypothesis that everyone is looking for their “soul mate.”

Platonic love was first described in Plato's dialogues, and initially meant the love-friendship of a teacher and a student (for example, Plato and Aristotle).

“The bell for class” is also an invention of Plato. The students of the Academy were called to classes by a signal given by the clock: when all the water flowed out of the container, a stream of air passed through the valve, causing the flute to sound.

Plato on the state

Plato defines the state as “a single whole within which individuals unequal by nature perform their various functions 6.” In addition, Plato believed that the state is like a person. In the state there are the same three principles as in the human soul: reason, rage and lust. The natural (and ideal) state is when the mind leads. Plato considered the Attic city-polis to be an ideal state. The ideal state is located in a specific political time and space. Already in the time of Plato, such a state belonged to the past. The ideal state is the opposite of the individualistic Greek state.

The ideal state for Plato is a closed, self-sufficient entity. The ideal state is a compulsory institution for everyone - and for the aristocracy of reason as well - because they are obliged to rule over "fury" and "lust." For an ideal state, development means damage, destruction, because development is only possible for the best, and this state is already ideal. Therefore, contacts with other city-states are limited. Trade, industry, finance are limited - because this corrupts.

The goal of such a state is the unity and virtue of the entire state as a whole, and the virtue of the individual. Political rule occurs in accordance with the 4 virtues of an ideal state, which are wisdom (philosophers who are guardians of the laws), prudence (unity of views among rulers and subjects), courage (the ability of rulers to constantly maintain the idea of ​​danger instilled in them by education) and justice. In such a state, three different classes (divided according to natural inclinations) do different jobs. Rulers who personify reason ensure the correct implementation of the idea of ​​an ideal state. They come from guardians of the law over 50 years of age. Warriors, personifying rage, protect the state from enemies; they are guardians of the law. Farmers, artisans and merchants personify lust. Their task is to maintain the economic basis of the state. However, they do not have any political rights. Plato considers such a division fair, and complete injustice - the interference of these classes in each other's affairs.

Plato noted that only the guardians of the law have political power, and the problem of maintaining the unity of the state is primarily the problem of maintaining internal unity among the guardian class. Therefore, Plato destroyed their family - otherwise it would have been the beginning of individualism, isolation of interests. In addition, guards should not have any material wealth or engage in trade or agriculture.

In the exercise of power, there is no institutional means to control the rulers; the only thing that binds them is their inner conviction of the need to uphold the law, which is reasonable.

Plato notes that the political elite is the result of proper education. Education is bringing children to a way of thinking that is defined by law as correct and that the oldest and most respectable people have been convinced of its actual correctness by experience. The purpose of law, unwritten custom, and art is to force people to voluntarily perform actions determined by rulers to be fair.

Plato does not deny inequality. He argues that inequality lies in nature itself, therefore it cannot be avoided in an ideal state. In non-ideal states, justice is an agreement between people. The state is the result of a contract between people, concluded in order not to tolerate injustice. In such states there is no natural justice (but it is present in the ideal). Natural justice is that the state is a contract that agrees with the natural basis: social life begins with natural inequality.

Plato recognizes the power of elders over the younger, or “fathers” over “children” (over 20 years old - parents, younger - children). That is why guardians of the law become rulers only after 50 years. In addition, the noble must rule over the ignoble (to justify this, Plato cites a myth that says that the gods put gold in the souls of rulers, silver in the souls of guardians of the law, and iron and copper in the souls of the third estate, and very rarely is born from farmers a child with gold or silver in his soul, but if he is born, he will be transferred to the appropriate class). In addition, masters rule, slaves obey; the strong subjugate the weak. And - most importantly - the ignorant is under the guidance of the intelligent.

Political decline for Plato means the result of moral decline (and lack of knowledge). Plato believes that decline begins with changes in children's games, morals, habits, and business relationships between citizens. Therefore, it is necessary to prohibit all changes - they will lead to the worst. And the state must also control morality in order to prevent moral changes.

Bibliography

Encyclopedia "Around the World". vokrugsveta

Website "New Acropolis". newacropol/

Website "Political Science". politnauka/person/platon.php

"State". Plato. philosophy/library/plato/01/0.html

"On Plato's Republic". studentdream.narod/platon.htm

"Ancient Philosophy". V. F. Asmus. centant.pu/sno/lib/asmus/4-7.htm

Wikipedia ru.

1 According to Olympiodorus.

2 Diogenes Laertius wrote about this.

3 In general, in the biography of Plato there are many parallels with the biography of Jesus.

4 According to Diogenes Laertius.

5 According to legend, Plato died on his birthday

6 studentdream.narod/platon.htm

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