Define the concept of knowledge. Knowledge (concept). Empirical methods of knowledge

When we talk about knowledge, everyone - from young to old - understands what is at stake. But if you ask someone to give a clear formulation, to characterize the essence of the concept of "knowledge", not everyone can handle it. What does it consist of? We will talk about the concept and structure of knowledge today.

Word in dictionary

The definitions of the concept of "knowledge" in the dictionary are as follows:

1. Possession of certain information, awareness in one or more areas. (To be a good teacher you need to have a knowledge of life).
2. Result cognitive activity, which is verified by practice, its adequate reflection in the human mind. (Knowledge of the basics of the subject is the strong point of this student).
3. A set of information in the field of any science or its branch. (The knowledge gained in English lessons helps Egor a lot when traveling abroad).

Let's consider these interpretations in more detail.

true knowledge

As stated above, in one of the meanings of the word "knowledge" is the result of this kind human activity like knowledge of the world. As a rule, knowledge means only such a result of cognition, which is inherent in unchanging truth. This result must be substantiated either factually or logically and implies verification by feelings or practice.

Thus, when talking about knowledge, knowledge that is true is most often meant. True knowledge is the correct reflection of the surrounding reality in thinking. specific person or social thinking. That is, it is an idea, a description, or a message about what actually exists.

Obtaining true knowledge, ideas about the deep structure of phenomena and objects, about their significant relationships is the goal of science, for the implementation of which it uses scientific methods.

Narrow and broad sense

Knowledge of an individual or a group of people is the possession of information that has been verified in one way or another and makes it possible to solve any problems. practical tasks. Knowledge is opposed to ignorance (that is, the lack of verified information about something), as well as faith.

This notion of knowledge is a more simplified, narrower interpretation of knowledge. If we talk about a broader, philosophical interpretation, then, according to it, knowledge is an image of the reality of the subject, existing in the form of concepts and ideas. A broad approach to understanding knowledge makes it closer, equates it to the concept of information. And this leads to the formulation of a difficult question about the types of knowledge, such as:

• True and false (disinformation).
• Ordinary.
• Knowledge understood as opinion.
• Knowledge in the form of evaluation.
• As an imitation.

As a rule, knowledge is fixed, given objectivity, expressed using a language or other sign system or form. But based on what is meant by knowledge, it is also possible to assert that it can also be fixed in sensory images, obtained through direct perception.

Variety of forms

The learning process is not limited to scientific field. Knowledge in its various forms is also present outside of science. At the same time, all forms of social consciousness are characterized by specific, characteristic only for them forms of knowledge. Here we have in mind, for example, such types of consciousness as science, philosophy, politics, religion, mythology.

In addition, there are also different forms of knowledge that have such foundations as conceptual, symbolic, artistic and exemplary.

Game knowledge belongs to the first forms of knowledge in history. It is built on rules and goals that are conditionally accepted by the participants in the action. This form makes it possible to rise above everyday life, not to think about getting benefits, to behave freely, as far as the norms established in the game allow. At the same time, deception of partners and concealment of the truth are allowed.

This type of cognition of the surrounding world has the character of teaching and developing. In the process of its implementation, the possibilities and abilities of a person are revealed, psychological boundaries are expanded during communication.

What are the types of knowledge?

There are the most different types knowledge. These include, for example, such as:

• Scientific knowledge.
• Extrascientific.
• Ordinary practical ( common sense).
• Intuitive.
• Religious.

Ordinary-practical

This is knowledge that appeared in the earliest historical periods. The information that it contained was elementary data about nature and about the entire surrounding world. They included, in particular:

• Simple common sense.
• Various omens.
• The edification of the elders to the younger.
• Recipes for cooking and potions.
• Personal experience of individuals and their groups.
• Established traditions.

Ordinary-practical knowledge is inherent in the nature of oral, unsystematic, unproven. It serves as the basis on which the orientation of people in environment, their everyday behavior and foresight of events are based. As a rule, it contains many errors and contradictions. It refers to outsiders.

Scientific and non-scientific knowledge

Scientific is knowledge, which, unlike ordinary practical knowledge, is based on rationalism, objectivity and universality. It claims to be universal. scientific knowledge is an action in the process of which true, objective knowledge is obtained. Its task includes description, explanation, and prediction of processes and phenomena inherent in reality.

In the course of the development of this type of knowledge, scientific revolutions occur, in the process of which there is a change in theories and principles. They are replaced by periods of normal scientific development when there is a deepening of knowledge and their detailing.

The characteristic features of scientific knowledge are its:

• Based on logical thinking.
• Availability of evidence.
• Repeatability of results.
• The desire to get rid of errors and to remove contradictions.

The form of scientific knowledge is the youngest among other forms related to extra-scientific knowledge. There is an opinion that the latter is not someone's invention, it is generated by certain intellectual communities according to other norms and standards that differ from rationalistic ones. They have their own own sources and learning tools. In the history of culture, these forms of knowledge, classified as non-scientific, are united in such a concept as esotericism.

What is scientific knowledge?

Scientific knowledge according to the method of obtaining it is divided into two types. They can be:

• Empirical, obtained on the basis of sensory experience or by observation.
• Theoretical, obtained by analyzing abstract models.

It should be noted that scientific knowledge in any situation must be based on evidence, whether empirical or theoretical. Theoretical knowledge is based on abstractions and analogies, schemes reflecting the nature and structure of objects. As well as the processes of their change that take place in the subject area. This knowledge helps in explaining various phenomena and can be used to make predictions regarding the behavior of objects.

Types of extra-scientific knowledge

In addition to the already considered ordinary and practical, there are other types of extra-scientific knowledge, these are:

• Parascientific - incompatible with the existing cognitive standard, include thoughts or teachings about various phenomena, without explaining them in terms of the criteria inherent in science.
• Pseudo-scientific is knowledge, through the reporting of which prejudices and conjectures are deliberately exploited. They are characterized by intolerance to the arguments refuting them, pretentiousness, illiterate pathos. They do not possess universality, systematicity, they reveal themselves through quasi-science.
• Quasi-scientific - seek adherents through reliance on coercion and violence. They find their heyday in conditions when science has a strictly hierarchical structure, when criticism is suppressed, ideology is rigidly manifested. For example, defamation of cybernetics, "Lysenkoism".
• Anti-scientific - deliberately distorting scientific ideas about the world. They are associated with the eternal need of a person to find a simple cure for all ailments. Occurs in times of instability in society.
• Pseudo-scientific - manifested in intellectual activity that speculates on popular theories(O Bigfoot, the Loch Ness monster).

Orekhov Viktor Dmitrievich, Ph.D.

The main characteristics of the concept - knowledge are considered. The modern definition of the concept of knowledge is given. The ratio of knowledge and information, explicit and implicit knowledge, the place of knowledge in the process of cognition is presented. The system schemes of knowledge within the framework of cognition and reality are considered.

Key words: knowledge, scientific knowledge, concept, definition, information, cognition, thinking, explicit knowledge.

As the era of “Knowledge” approaches, the importance of a correct definition and understanding of the concept of knowledge also increases. IN last years due to the development of a number of new scientific directions such as cybernetics, knowledge management, systems approach, understanding of the concept of knowledge has changed significantly, but often we see an outdated understanding of the concept of knowledge.

1. Definitions of the concept of knowledge

In dictionaries, you can see the following definition of this concept: “Knowledge is a practice-tested result of cognition of reality, its true reflection in human thinking.”

In this definition this concept essential is that knowledge is the result of cognition of reality. The criterion of verification by practice is also postulated, as well as the fact that the bearer of knowledge is the thinking of a person. Questions of codification and the significance of knowledge remain outside the scope of this definition of this concept. We also note that the algorithms for testing knowledge by practice and the correctness of reflection in human thinking cannot be considered objective.

The classic of the philosophy of science, Karl Popper, believed that it was not rational to require justification for scientific knowledge. He argued that scientific knowledge is rational not because of its justification, but because we are able to analyze it critically. In Logik der Forschung, 1934, Popper pointed out that scientific knowledge does not arise from the emergence of new justifications, but from the criticism of hypotheses that are proposed to solve new problems. Scientific knowledge has empirical and theoretical level, and it is impossible to correctly prove the correctness of the theories.

According to Wikipedia (January 2, 2016): “Knowledge is a form of existence and systematization of the results of human cognitive activity. Knowledge helps people rationally organize their activities and solve various problems that arise in its process.

It is rather strange that a certain form is put in the first place in such a definition of the concept of knowledge, although the meaning of knowledge lies precisely in its content. A timid attempt is also made to indicate the role of knowledge in the activities of mankind.

In some definitions of the concept of knowledge, the function of knowledge is taken as the starting position. For example: "Knowledge is the main patterns of the subject area that allow a person to solve specific production, scientific and other tasks, as well as decision-making strategies in this area." It is noteworthy that in this definition of the concept, basic knowledge is separated from routine knowledge.

2. Correlation between the concepts of knowledge and information

The statement of a certain wise man is known, which says: “An ounce of knowledge is worth a pound of information…”. In this definition, knowledge is related to an object close in nature - information. The knowledge hierarchy model is also known, which is shown in Fig. 1. However, in relation to this model, if it is sufficiently clear in what form data, information and knowledge are presented, then this cannot be said about wisdom.

Rice. 1. Model of the hierarchy of knowledge bySkyrmeandAmidone

A number of authors believe that knowledge, unlike information, should be useful, that is, ready for productive use in a certain context. This property is important for the knowledge used by a particular organization or person. Knowledge of the objective laws of nature or society can almost always find application.

To transform information into knowledge, a process of comprehension is used, which includes the following steps: collecting information, analyzing it, synthesizing something new, sharing best practices with colleagues, and reuse.

Another approach to transforming information into knowledge is a procedure 4C, which includes:

1. Comparison: how does information about this situation compare with others?
2. Consequences: what implications can the information have for actions?
3. Connections: How does this information relate to other information?
4. Judgments: What do other people think about this information?

3. Explicit and implicit knowledge

Knowledge can be presented explicitly (codified, formalized) or implicit (hidden, unformalized). Explicit knowledge is expressed in words, numbers, signs, formulas, diagrams, images, etc. Such knowledge is easily transmitted and multiplied, therefore it is available to all mankind and has an impact on productive activity.

In the above definitions of the concept of knowledge, the importance of testing knowledge was emphasized. However, only explicit knowledge can actually be verified.

In the process of thinking and practical activity, people mainly operate with implicit knowledge that is in their mind. At the same time, only a small part of implicit knowledge, that which can be codified and is not routine knowledge, can be converted into explicit knowledge. Explicit and implicit knowledge are closely related. Four types of transformation in the process of knowledge creation, according to the work of Nonaka and Takeuchi, are shown in Fig. 2 (synonyms of the original terms are given in parentheses; explicit knowledge is visualized by a stack of books, and implicit knowledge by a silhouette of a head).

Rice. 2. Types of transformation of knowledge in the process of its creation

It should be noted that the characteristics of knowledge carriers and creators are constantly evolving over time, which opens up new opportunities for creating both explicit and implicit knowledge.

4. Knowledge and systems approach

From point of view systems approach it is important to understand in which supersystem the this system(knowledge) and what function it performs in it. For knowledge, such a supersystem is the system of "knowledge" or "thinkable". In addition to knowledge, this supersystem includes (Fig. 3) such systems as data, information, hypotheses, false knowledge, sense and thinking organs, information carriers, obsolete knowledge, etc.

Rice. 3. System map of the supersystem of cognition

The supersystem of cognition also includes methods of cognition, verification of knowledge by practice and the correctness of their reflection in human thinking, however, they are subsystems of knowledge.

The sequence of transformations that occur with the prototypes of knowledge in the course of cognition is conventionally shown in Fig. 4. The diagram on the right shows common names prototypes of knowledge, and on the left - their possible implementations. The arrow indicates the direction in which the knowledge of mankind is moving, expanding the scope of the known and striving in the future to fully cognize reality.

Rice. 4. Knowledge in the process of learning

The cognitive process moves not only in the direction indicated above, but also in the opposite direction at separate stages. At the same time, this scheme demonstrates that knowledge is never absolute and thoroughly tested for compliance with reality. It contains a dynamic mixture various types knowledge structures.

Thus, we have come to a systematic understanding of the types of knowledge in the process of cognition. Summing up the analysis of the characteristics of knowledge, we formulate short definition concepts of knowledge.

Knowledge is the essential results of cognition of reality, which are the basis of education, production activity and the natural development of mankind, reflected in thinking or on information carriers and critically tested by qualified experts.

conclusions

1. A refined definition of the concept of Knowledge is proposed: the essential results of the cognition of reality, which are the basis of education, production activity and the natural development of mankind, reflected in thinking or on information carriers and critically tested by qualified experts.
2. The systemic place of knowledge in the system of cognition and reality is shown.

Literature

1. Knowledge in philosophy. Wikia. http://en.science.wikia.com/wiki/
2. Popper K. R. Logic and the growth of scientific knowledge. M., Progress. 1983. http://skepdic.ru/wp-content/uploads/2013/05/popper.pdf
3. Gavrilova T.A., Chervinskaya K.R. Extraction and structuring of knowledge for expert systems. M. : Radio and communication, 1992.
4. Skyrme, D. J. and Amidone, D. M. Creating the Knowledge-Based Business, Wimbledon, Business Intelligence Ltd. 1997.
5. Makarov V.L., Kleiner G.B. Microeconomics of knowledge. Publishing house "Economics", 2007. - P. 23.
6. Knowledge management in organizations: Textbook-method. allowance / Prepared. N.M. Zhavoronkova. Zhukovsky, 2007. - P. 18.
7. Nonaka I., Takeuchi H. The company is the creator of knowledge. - M., 2003. - P.88.

When we were still children, we often heard the phrase of our parents: “Go to school for knowledge”! Even then, being young, we did not understand what knowledge is and why we need it. We thought that knowledge more parents need, not ourselves. Going further along life path we have grown up with the feeling that knowledge is necessary. And they really help us, although in fact we very rarely think about what kind of knowledge we have.

Knowledge cannot be limited. Cognition and knowledge exists beyond the horizon of any science. But each concrete science has knowledge. Wise philosophy, thirsty religion, ambitious politics, mysterious mythology... they all contain knowledge. There is also knowledge, which is based on concepts, symbolism, art, images.

Historically, it is considered that in the origins of knowledge a person had a game knowledge of the world around him. This knowledge was based on the concept of rules and goals, and it helped to lift the veil of beauty, how to rise above life, not to think about your own gain, honor yourself and behave like a new person who has something that cannot be tangible, but this "something" gave more people than material values. It helped to grow psychologically, helped to become more receptive to the concepts of "beautiful" and "terrible". This revealed the boundaries of the relationship of our ancestors. Even at that time, knowledge was divided into: extra-scientific (everyday), scientific, everyday practical (there is ordinary human common sense), religious (regardless of religion), intuitive (inherent in all peoples, the entire human race as a whole).

Knowledge and its formulation

Exploring dictionaries, you can find several formulations of this term.

• Knowledge is formulated information that is based on or used in the process of finding an answer to a problem.
• Knowledge is the certainty of the subject area (connections, principles, patterns), which are obtained as a result of practice and professional (quality) experience, they allow experts in their field to set tasks and solve them in a certain way.
• Knowledge is qualitatively arranged materials, or data about materials, or metadata.
• Knowledge (subject area) is a description of something, the environment of objects, necessary facts, events, as well as the relationship between them.
• Knowledge (artificial intelligence) is a group relationship of something, shown through the qualitative definition of an object. Scientific works in the database industry give high-quality access to a huge number of object type names.

What is knowledge? Knowledge, the sages say, is organized and understood, that which helps us not to make mistakes, that which makes our life more comfortable and safe. But it is worth noting that knowledge is understood subjectively. This means that you, as a reader, will understand the information coming from outside in your own way and apply it later in your own way. The following expression follows from this rule: “Knowledge is not as important as interest, it is interest that makes a person acquire true knowledge.” But no matter how we apply our knowledge, we must adapt it as much as possible to our lives.

Here a person has matured and then the question comes: “What does knowledge give?”. The answer is very simple. Knowledge transforms, old knowledge asks for renewal. realities modern life asking for the latest discoveries. The best discovery of any person will be the knowledge of oneself. Knowledge can free a person from the chains of ignorant life, give an understanding of what is really happening in modern world and what happened before he was born. Knowledge makes a person, as a living being, the one whom we are pleased to listen to, whose works we read, makes us a reasonable person. Only by acquiring knowledge, we think about the origins of the universe, looking for answers to seemingly unanswered questions. And we find these answers! How many people have already learned! We learned to fly, we learned to predict the elements, we discovered penicillin! And this would not have happened if man had not developed and acquired knowledge. Knowledge catalyzes the person himself, making him wiser and more adapted to life and different circumstances.

What is scientific knowledge

Scientific knowledge is a system of human ideas about the laws of nature, society, about oneself.

Scientific knowledge is divided into:

• empirical (obtained as a result of the experience of the person himself, as a result of his observations)
• Theoretical (this knowledge is obtained only as a result of the analysis of any, possibly abstract models).

Scientific knowledge in one case or another must always be based on an empirical or theoretical platform.

Theoretical knowledge is everything that shows us how certain processes occur in life. People use this knowledge as a prediction for the behavior of objects.

And why do we need knowledge in our seemingly routine Everyday life? It seems that everything beautiful is open, all the stars are counted, all discoveries are made. But this is not so - there is always a loophole where we can determine something ourselves. An example is such a bright personality as Bill Gates. He revealed to us endless possibilities using a personal computer! And we are contemporaries of these discoveries. We can also bring something, we can change something. We should only desire it!

Together with skills and abilities, they provide a correct reflection in the ideas and thinking of the world, the laws of nature and society, the relationship of people, the place of a person in society and his behavior. All this helps to determine your position in relation to reality. With the acquisition of new knowledge and the development of self-awareness, the child increasingly masters evaluative concepts and judgments. Comparing new knowledge with already acquired knowledge and assessments, he forms his attitude not only to the objects of knowledge and action, but also to himself. This determines the development of his activity and independence as an active personality.

KNOWLEDGE

English knowledge).

1. The current result of an open for discussion and criticism (within a certain community) study of problems, phenomena (according to the rules of description and standards of satisfaction adopted by this community) according to some formal or informal procedures. The essential point in the concept of 3. is the claim that it is a generalizing expression that reflects the activity of the mind, and claims to be an objective truth (in contrast, for example, from opinions and fantasies, which are not subject to equally strict rules and norms of selection ), which is confirmed by practice.

Also in ancient philosophy one of the central was the problem of attitude 3. and opinion, truth and error. Even then it became clear that the opinions and theoretical constructs used by different natural philosophers in describing the same phenomenon can vary greatly.

In the XIX-XX centuries. a program was launched to exclude or minimize theoretical components in 3. - positivism and neo-positivism. One of the results of its development can be considered the rejection of it and the recognition that almost all measurements or facts are "theoretically loaded".

3. about the same phenomenon of different subjects and communities m. b. not only different in volume, but also poorly commensurable, because the ways of cognition by different subjects and communities can fundamentally differ. In the science of science, the position of T. Kuhn is popular, who analyzed the state of science (as a system of rational 3.) using the concept of a paradigm (fixing accepted by the community 3. formation rules, norms and criteria). At the same time, at any given moment, there may be several fundamentally different paradigms supported by different communities.

3. usually opposed to ignorance as the lack of verified information about a phenomenon (or process) and pseudo-knowledge (paracognition), the methods of obtaining which do not satisfy some basic criteria 3.

2. In a broader sense, 3. is identified with more or less adequate results of cognitive (cognitive) processes. Sometimes elementary 3., due to biological laws, are also attributed to animals, in which they serve as a way of adapting to changing conditions. From the standpoint of the modern systemic approach, the generation and functioning of systems (in particular, human and human-machine systems) that use 3. are successfully described in many ways by schemes similar to those used in the description of biological systems (the scheme of afferent synthesis and its generalizations).

The processes of obtaining, substantiating, verifying and disseminating 3. are studied by logic, methodology, theory of knowledge, science of science, sociology. 3. classified in a variety of ways. Sometimes they are divided into empirical and theoretical, explicit and implicit, declarative, procedural, epistemic. M. Polanyi introduced the concept of personal 3. (closely bordering on implicit 3. and skills), the translation of which in sign form is difficult. The concept of direct 3. (intuition) borders on it, denoting 3., obtained by direct discretion, without rational justification with the help of proof. In philosophy, speculative 3 is singled out separately - a type of theoretical 3., which is derived without recourse to external experience, with the help of reflection. (B. N. Enikeev.)

Addendum ed.: 3. often mixed with experience, with understanding, with information, reflection. Along with this, genuine understanding, erudition and awareness are often mixed up. In ordinary consciousness, the boundaries between them are blurred, as well as the boundaries between 3. and information. Nevertheless, such limits exist. 3. it is always someone's, belonging to someone, it cannot be bought, stolen from someone who knows (except perhaps with the head), and information is no man's territory, it is impersonal, it can be bought, it can be exchanged or stolen, which is often happening. Language is sensitive to this difference. There is a thirst 3. and there is a hunger for information. 3. they are absorbed, they dig into them, and the information is chewed or swallowed (cf. "void swallowers, newspaper readers"). Thirst 3., apparently, has a spiritual nature: "we are tormented by spiritual thirst." However, from time immemorial, "vanity of vanities and vexation of the spirit" have opposed both one and the other thirst.

N. L. Muskhelishvili and Yu. A. Schreider (1998) consider 3. the primary concept. Without defining 3., they gave 4 metaphors for 3. that are available in culture. An ancient metaphor for a wax tablet on which external impressions are imprinted. A later metaphor for a vessel that is filled either with external impressions or with text that carries information about these impressions. In the first 2 metaphors, 3. is indistinguishable from information, respectively, the main means of learning is memory, which is identified with experience and 3. Next. the metaphor of obstetrics is a metaphor of Socrates: a person has a 3., which he cannot realize himself and he needs an assistant, a mentor. The latter, by maeutic methods, helps to give birth to this 3. Finally, the gospel metaphor of growing grain: 3. grows in the mind of a person, like a grain in the soil, i.e. 3. is not determined only by an external message; it arises as a result of cognitive imagination stimulated by the message. In the Socratic metaphor, the place of the teacher-intermediary is clearly indicated, in the gospel metaphor it is implied. In the last metaphors, the cognizer acts not as a "receiver", but as a source of his own 3., at least - as a "successor" of other 3.

In the last 2 metaphors, we are talking about the event of knowledge or its eventfulness. AM Pyatigorsky (1996) distinguishes between "event 3.", "3. about the event" and "3. about the event 3.". The middle term - 3. about the event - is closer to information, and the 1st and 3rd are 3. in the true sense of the word, that is, 3. as an event, from which one step to consciousness. Event knowledge and consciousness are subjective, meaningful, affective. These properties 3. and consciousness make them living formations or functional organs of the individual.

Whatever the sources and origin, everyone has 3. about the world, about a person, about himself, and it differs significantly from scientific 3. even when it belongs to a scientist. This is 3. living about living, i.e. living 3. See Living Knowledge, Human Knowledge. (V.P. Zinchenko.)

KNOWLEDGE

1. Collective meaning - an array of information that a person possesses, or a broader meaning: a group of people or a culture. 2. Those mental components that arise from any and all processes, whether they are given from birth or acquired in social experience. The term is used in both of these senses with the clear implication that knowledge is "deep" or "solid" and that it is more than just a set of predispositions to certain responses or a collection of conditioned responses. The use of this term, at first glance, means a denial of the applicability of the behaviorist model to human thinking. Philosophical and cognitive psychological approaches to epistemology and cognitive science usually differ various forms knowledge; for the most frequently mentioned, see the following dictionary entries. Note that memory is often used as a de facto synonym for knowledge. Composite terms such as "episodic knowledge" and "declarative knowledge" will be used interchangeably with the terms "episodic memory", "declarative memory". For more details and other compound terms not listed here, see memory and the following articles.

The result of the process of cognition is knowledge. Knowledge is the result of cognitive activity, expressed in ideal images and fixed in sign systems. Knowledge, on the one hand, is a reflection of reality in the human mind in the form ideal images- representations, concepts, theories, and on the other hand, it is the basis for social practice.

Elementary ideas about the world, due to biological laws, are also inherent in higher animals, for which they are a necessary factor in the formation of their behavior. human knowledge is fundamentally different in nature, it is social in nature.

Knowledge can come in various forms.

Historically, its first forms were knowledge mythological And religious that reflected the world in an emotional-figurative form.

Ordinary knowledge based on life experience. It is a guideline for people's everyday behavior, their relationships with each other and with the outside world, and acts as the basis for all other forms of knowledge. Ordinary knowledge is expressed in everyday speech of people.

scientific knowledge differs in objectivity, reliability, validity and consistency. Scientific knowledge is expressed in a system of concepts (terms) of a particular science and is included in scientific theories.

philosophical knowledge based on theoretical constructions, its distinctive features are generalization, logic, the presence of alternative points of view. Philosophical knowledge is expressed in the system of philosophical categories.

artistic knowledge It is characterized by an emotionally figurative reflection of reality, it is aimed at satisfying the aesthetic needs of people. Artistic knowledge reflects a person's ability to imaginative thinking and creative imagination; it is expressed in artistic images and most clearly manifested in art.

3. The structure of knowledge. Subject and object of knowledge.

Cognition as a form of a person's active relationship to the world is a complex, structurally organized phenomenon. The main structural elements of cognition:

The object of knowledge (what is known?);

The subject of knowledge (who knows?);

Mechanism, means of cognition (how does the process of cognition take place?);

The purpose of knowledge (why do we know?).

Understanding the relationship and interdependence of these components is necessary to determine the essence of the cognitive process.

Cognitive activity is based on the interaction of subject and object.

Subject of knowledge is a carrier of cognitive activity, a source of activity directed at an object. Object of knowledge- this is that part of objective reality, to which the cognitive activity of the subject is directed. The subject and object of cognition are paired categories, dialectically interconnected. Cognitive activity and its result represent the unity of the objective and the subjective: knowledge is objective in its content, because reflects the processes and phenomena that exist independently of human thinking, and is subjective in its form, because its carrier is only a person, i.e. subject.

In different philosophical teachings, the subject and object of knowledge are understood differently. In objective idealism the existence of thinking outside of man and before man is recognized; the subject of cognition here is recognized as the highest objective spiritual principle that creates and cognizes reality, and the cognitive activity of a person is subordinated to this true subject. For example, in the teachings of Hegel, the absolute idea turns out to be both the subject and the object of knowledge (...). In subjective idealism human consciousness is considered as the only reality, acts as the subject and object of thinking and cognition, i.e. is the subject of itself. In mechanistic materialism XVII–XVIII centuries (J. Locke, T. Hobbes) the object was considered as something existing independently of the subject, and the subject as a separate person with the ability to contemplate and think and passively perceive the object.

In dialectical materialism knowledge is seen as a social phenomenon. Knowledge is not the result of the activity of an individual isolated from society; it is impossible without relying on knowledge accumulated in social experience and outside social practice. Gnoseological subject has a social nature, it is a person who has mastered the achievements of the material and spiritual culture of society. The history of science gives examples of brilliant scientists and their teachings, but in their scientific constructions they relied on the experience and knowledge of many previous generations. Therefore, in epistemology, the subject is considered in an impersonal form - this is a person not as a single individual, but as a socialized humanity, as a society as a whole. Gnoseology is not interested in the personal characteristics of a scientist, but in the content of knowledge, his attitude to reality, the process of his development.