Economically active population. Work force

2.2. Product "labor" in the marketing system

2.2.1. Characteristics of the product "labor force"

The labor force is a commodity of a special kind, the production and creative qualities of which entirely determine the competitiveness and profitability of the enterprise. It is the main resource and is determined by the totality of physical, mental and spiritual abilities, thanks to which a person can participate in labor activity.

The peculiarity of "labor power" as a commodity is that the owner and bearer of this commodity is the worker with all his human rights and a citizen of society, which are guarded by society. The employer cannot use the employee at his own will, he must comply with social norms and morals, the requirements of state legislation and international conventions governing the labor market. The employer does not have the right to violate the law on working hours, remuneration, labor safety in various conditions.

Even more important is the feature of the product "labor power" that this product is for production purposes, a personal factor of production, in contrast to social factors (tools and means of labor, tools, raw materials, buildings, structures, land, etc.). But its essence is that it is the decisive factor of production, and the worker is the main productive force. This is recognized by both economic practice and economic science.

The peculiarity of the commodity "labor" is also that it cannot be put in a warehouse for storage, as can be done with respect to other goods. Let's say, if a worker has not sold his ability to work, then he, as the owner of the goods, does not benefit from this. Moreover, he will have no income, therefore, all necessary for his existence, livelihoods. Nevertheless, the ability to work will require ever new means of subsistence to maintain it. The amount of these means of subsistence and their price in the market of consumer goods necessary for the worker to maintain his ability to work are determined even before the sale of "labor power" and are constantly needed by him, regardless of whether he sold or did not sell his labor. This feature of the commodity "labor power" is of great importance for market economy generally. It is pertinent to note in this connection that in all countries of the market economy labor is paid for by the employer after it has been used by him for some time fixed by the contract for the sale of "labor power", say, at the end of each week. hired worker allows the use of his labor power before it is paid, that is, the worker, as it were, credits the employer. This is proven in cases where the employer becomes insolvent as a result of bankruptcy and the employee loses his wages (in the absence of an appropriate insurance system).

Like any commodity, labor power has a use value. The seller actually gives away only the use-value of labor power sold by him. The buyer of the commodity owns the consumption of the ability to work. The marketing concept of the use value of labor includes a holistic, integral characteristic of the product from the angle of measuring its potential to meet the market interests of each of the participants in the activity.

In the most general terms, the use value of the commodity "labor power" is represented by the following characteristics:

1. The main characteristics determined by the purpose of the product "labor force" of a certain level and content of professional knowledge, skills and abilities.

2. Physical characteristics determined by the demographics of the workforce, such as gender, age, marital status, place of residence, etc.

3. Extended characteristics determined by the features of the psycho-motivational mechanism professional activity(ability and motives for work), purposefulness and activity, working capacity, cultural level.

4. Specific characteristics associated with the specific features of the consumer's requirements for the quality of the goods "labor force". Among these characteristics, one can distinguish: the level of professional flexibility, the degree of geographical mobility, advantages over competitors, sociability, loyalty, knowledge of a personal computer and a foreign language, the availability driving license and so on.

Table 3 presents the characteristics of the product "labor force".

Table 3

Characteristics of the product "labor force"

The product "labor force" can be classified according to the time parameter and according to the type of demand, depending on the combination of characteristics. According to the time parameter, depending on the type of agreement (contract), the product "labor force" can be:

durable. The employer concludes an employment contract for a long term. As a rule, these are workers of the so-called primary labor market, subsequently, some of them may form the personnel core of the enterprise. They have some advantages in the execution of labor agreements and in remuneration;

short term use. These are temporary workers or those working on the principle of part-time employment, or temporary substitutes;

one-time services.

The classification of the product "labor force" according to the time parameter is dictated by the flexible approach of management to personnel policy and associated primarily with the differentiation of the labor force on the basis of their value and, accordingly, attachment to firms. This is manifested in the formation of the so-called "internal labor markets", when a "core" of permanent highly qualified personnel enjoying benefits and privileges is allocated in firms, and a "periphery" - working under individual contracts, on the principles of temporary, part-time employment, etc. The last serves as a kind of "buffer" for sudden technological changes and market fluctuations.

Classification of goods "labor force" by type of demand:

constant demand. The labor force is hired frequently, without much hesitation and with minimal effort compared to the other labor force. Examples of such a labor force may be: junior service personnel, workers in mass enterprises, etc.;

pre-selection. The recruited workforce goes through a questionnaire-testing, interview. Candidates, as a rule, are compared with each other in terms of the suitability of the quality of the labor potential. Examples: highly skilled workers, managers, consultants;

special demand. Employees with specific knowledge and skills for which a significant part of employers are willing to spend additional effort and money: experienced real estate specialists, experienced accountants, sales specialists, leading designers;

passive demand. This could be a workforce that the employer does not know about or knows about but would not normally consider hiring: market research specialists, safety engineers, public relations managers, etc.

The competitiveness of the product "labor" - the degree of development of the complex used in the process labor activity abilities of the individual and his qualifications. This is a property of an individual that characterizes the degree of satisfaction of a specific need in his labor force in comparison with other individuals. The competitiveness of the product "labor force" is determined by the results of marketing research and is an indicator qualitative assessment employee's human capital.

The competitiveness of an individual shows the extent to which his age, professional, qualification, physiological, social and living characteristics correspond to the conditions for hiring labor in the labor market, reflecting the conjuncture of supply and demand for labor of a certain quality.

As a property of the ability to work, competitiveness characterizes the qualitative side of the individual's labor potential. It follows from this that the level of competitiveness depends on the specifics of labor behavior, the degree of realization and development of personal labor potential, which are general rule. Exceptions arise as a result of deformation of the production process. In this case, the transition from the potential capabilities of the worker to directly living labor is also deformed.

The conditions of employment in the labor market are determined by the specifics of employment in specific enterprises. The competitiveness of an employee can be defined as the degree of development used in the enterprise (firm) at a given level of organization of production and labor relations, the abilities and qualifications of the employee. High level the competitiveness of an employee allows him to withstand competition from real and potential applicants for his workplace or apply for another more prestigious job yourself.

From the position of an employee, the level of his competitiveness is an indicator of the stability of his position in the enterprise. From the point of view of an enterprise, information about the level of competitiveness of an employee is necessary to assess the prospects for a successful and sustainable operation of an enterprise, determine the level and direction of investment in employees, the direction of attracting, selecting, distributing, redistributing employees and, in general, for effective organization personnel management.

Of particular note is the importance of information on the number and structure of workers with weakened competitiveness who need social protection(see Table 4).

Table 4

Employee Competitiveness Criteria

When analyzing the personnel situation, it should be taken into account that the model of the movement of workers is determined by the situation in the labor market. Thus, in conditions of full employment, the stability of an employee of low competitiveness and the total non-competitive labor force are falling, since the movement between the spheres of production and labor for this category of workers is not directly related to professional mobility and is determined only by the causes of turnover. The level of stability of a highly competitive employee, on the contrary, is growing, as is the level of stability of the aggregate competitive labor force due to a slight differentiation in wage conditions. At the same time, the level of stability of the aggregate competitive labor force is declining as a result of the selective policies of enterprises aimed primarily at supporting competitive workers. The mobility of a highly competitive worker is growing. As a result of mobility, he chooses the optimal working conditions for him. This ultimately means the development of a trend towards the stability of the aggregate competitive labor force.

The product life cycle is a concept that attempts to describe product sales, consumer profits, competitors, and marketing strategy.

There are three models of the life cycle of such a specific product as the labor force:

1. The life cycle of the total labor force in the field of use.

2. The life cycle of a specialist.

3. The life cycle of a specialist career.

The choice of one or another model of the life cycle of the labor force is determined by the role and goals of the subject in the labor market.

For models life cycle total labor force in the field of production, there is a clear relationship between the life cycle of the product produced by the enterprise and the life cycle of the total workforce (see Fig. 7.).

When a product is brought to market, the demand for labor begins. Naturally, at the stages of growth in demand, maturity of the product, and saturation of the market with the product, the professional and qualification composition of the workforce first grows, and then stabilizes. At the stage of a decline in demand for a product, there is a decrease in the demand for labor. With the introduction of a new product to the market and with a decrease in demand for goods still being produced, it is possible to reduce the number due to temporary workers while maintaining the "core" of skilled labor. But a decrease in demand for labor can be accompanied not only by layoffs, but, for example, by a decrease in the level of wages, the application of part-time employment. The goal is to keep a skilled workforce until a new rise in production, by taking measures to improve the structure of the professional and qualification structure.

The life cycle model of the labor force is based on an attempt to establish a relationship between strategic planning and planning of the labor force, which in this case is one of the providing production resources, the so-called "human resources". Obviously, the key to the successful implementation of this idea is to change the very philosophy of production planning, the attitude of planners and marketers to assessing the importance of planning "human resources", bringing to the awareness of managers the need and the fundamental possibility of coordinating the production and economic strategy of an enterprise with personnel development plans (see Fig. .8., fig.9.).

Strategic planning, especially one of his articles "formation of a portfolio of strategic projects" - is one of the methods for choosing the scope of the enterprise and production planning certain types products by analyzing the share of the product market controlled by the enterprise and its potential growth. The formation of a portfolio of strategic projects makes it possible, on the basis of individual product life cycles, to make decisions on the long-term allocation of resources, including "human" resources.

Correlation problem strategic planning and workforce planning lies in the fact that between them there is always a certain time lag. When appointing, for example, a manager to a position, preference is given primarily to special classes in area that product, the production of which he is called upon to manage, and not general managerial training. This ignores the fact that at different stages of the product life cycle, effective product management requires a different understanding of the role of this product, different criteria for the effectiveness of its production and marketing, appropriate management styles and orientations of managers. That is, the philosophy of intra-production management in this case lies in the fact that as the product moves through its life cycle, Various types managerial knowledge, styles and training.

The second model of the life cycle of the workforce is the life cycle of a specialist. The labor force in a certain profession, specialty or qualification, as a commodity, goes through various stages - from the birth of a specialty (profession, qualification) to its extinction and withering away. At the stage of origin and expansion of the scope of the product, "labor force" - the demand for it grows, in the future it becomes stable, at the stage of extinction and withering away - it is reduced. The duration of each stage is determined primarily by the life cycle of equipment and technology that gave rise to this specialty (profession, qualification), that is, the level of development of scientific and technical progress (see Fig. 10.).

The life cycle model of a specialist can be recommended for the development of training plans for specialists educational institutions, especially for commercial, as well as for the development of the concept of marketing by private recruitment agencies.

Based on the concept of product life cycle, sales growth and profitability are not necessarily a sign of long-term success in the labor market. A product can be profitable for 2-3 or more years, but strategically it can be a bad investment. So, quite recently there was a fairly high demand for accountants. Currently, the labor market is saturated with these specialists, in the future we should expect a decline in demand for them.

Consider the following model of the product life cycle "labor force" - the life cycle of a specialist's career. Each stage of a person's life is characterized by the need to work on certain developmental tasks before he can more or less move on to the next stage. For a specialist, promotion or a career is important. Career- this is an individually conscious sequence of changes in attitudes, attitudes and behavior associated with work experience and activities during work activities during working life. The professional career life cycle is characterized by the career stages that people go through during their working lives, typically pre-employment stage, initial job stage, stable job stage, and retirement. The concept of career stages is fundamental to understanding and managing career development. It is also important to take into account the stages of life. Individuals go through the stages of a career as they go through the stages of life, but, naturally, the interaction between them is very complex (see Table 5).

Table 5

Relationship between stages of life, needs and career stages

Practice has shown that one of the central elements of the personnel planning system is career planning for specialists related to the potential primary labor market. It should proceed from two main conditions: the needs of the company to fill the vacant (vacant) jobs and the needs of the staff to feel progress in their careers. The effect of progress can be achieved not only by moving an employee up the hierarchical ladder, but also by assigning him to other jobs, i.e. when changing the functional area of ​​his work or when assigned to other jobs without changing labor functions.

Thus, the concept of the workforce life cycle is interesting for a number of reasons. First, the life of the commodity "labor force" has become shorter. Secondly, new professions and specialties require significant costs; increased investment in human capital. Thirdly, it is possible to foresee changes in the needs of consumers of labor force, competition. Fourthly, it provides a good basis for planning the product "labor" and its effective use.

Work force- the ability of a person to work, the totality of physical and spiritual forces that a person has and which are used by him in the process of producing material goods. Labor power is the main condition of production in any society. In the process of production, a person not only influences the nature around him, but also develops his production experience, skills for work.

In class-antagonistic societies, workers are deprived of the means of production and subjected to exploitation. The forms of exploitation of labor power depend on the dominance of one or another form of ownership. Under capitalism, labor power is converted into a commodity. The necessary conditions for the transformation of labor power into a commodity were:

1. personal freedom of a person, the ability to dispose of his workforce;
2. the lack of a worker of the means of production, due to which he is forced to sell his ability to work in order to get a livelihood.

Labor power under capitalism, like any commodity, has value and use value. The use value of the commodity labor power lies in the ability of the worker in the process of labor to create more value than she herself has, that is, to bring surplus value, which is the main interest for the capitalist. Only in this he sees the meaning of the purchase of labor power and its consumption.

The cost of labor power is determined by the cost of the means of subsistence necessary to maintain the normal labor activity of its owners, the maintenance of the members of the worker's family, as well as the costs necessary to satisfy the cultural demands of the worker - for education, the acquisition of professional knowledge. The magnitude of the value of labor power changes with the development of society, as the level of needs and the amount of means of subsistence necessary for the worker and his family, as well as the value of these means of subsistence, change.

Due to differences in levels of economic development, national characteristics, historical development individual countries, as well as natural and climatic conditions, the value of the cost of labor varies significantly in various countries. With the development of production, there is a general tendency towards an increase in the level of needs of the worker and an increase in the cost of labor power (see Law of Rise of Needs).

The price of labor power tends to deviate downward from the cost of labor power, which is primarily due to the presence of an army of unemployed, which puts pressure on the labor market. By lowering wages (see Wages under Capitalism), the capitalists seek to reduce the material and cultural needs of the workers to a minimum. However, the struggle of the working class is a factor that counteracts this trend, especially in the presence of the world socialist system, when the working people manage to achieve important concessions from the capitalists, including wage increases.

In a socialist society, labor power is not a commodity. By virtue of the dominance of social ownership of the means of production, the working people here are the masters of all wealth. Relations between individual workers and the socialist state, as well as cooperative associations, are formed on the basis of the planned use of labor resources in the interests of all members of society. Socialist production relations create opportunities for comprehensive development the physical and spiritual strength of workers, the steady improvement of their cultural and technical level and material well-being.

Work is the most important quality characteristic of any production process. The quality of manufactured products and, as a result, the demand for it depend on the quality of labor. This is especially important when the firm is non-price competitive. Thus, labor is the determining factor of production, since through it there is a qualitative merger of the fixed assets of the enterprise (equipment, technologies) and working capital(raw materials, various materials).

Work force- a specific product, a factor of production that is directly involved in the process of creating new goods and services to meet the needs of economic entities. The number of labor force is determined by such concepts as "employment" and "unemployment", and it is they that characterize the economic situation in the country. The labor force is people involved in production, on the one hand, and the totality of human abilities, on the other. The quality of the labor force shows the degree of efficiency of the market economy, how competitive it is in this respect. The labor force at first glance is the number of people of working age and able to work. It is also a combination of physical and spiritual abilities of a person. In other words, in order to be considered a worker in a particular field of activity, an individual must have a share of professionalism, diligence and experience, which determines the quality of his work.

To distribute the labor force, there is a labor market where transactions are made between entrepreneurs and employees. One of the forms of such a market is the labor exchange, which distributes all able-bodied subjects of the economy according to its sectors, thereby filling the shortage of workers in organizations and enterprises and increasing the total volume of production. Can be distinguished following conditions the emergence of the commodity "labor power":

1) the worker must be a legally free person, i.e., at his own discretion, dispose of his own abilities and use the available opportunities;

2) the worker must be deprived of the means of production, which he can receive only in exchange for the sale of his labor qualities.

The labor force has certain qualities.

1. It forms a single whole with the owner and brings him income.

2. If the worker's labor for a long time is not implemented, then its effectiveness decreases over time. Labor is a non-permanent factor of production, since knowledge, skills, experience and others professional quality an employee may be lost. Therefore, in order to carry out effective activities, they must be regularly involved in the production process.

3. The carrier of labor qualities, that is, the person himself, cannot be an object of sale, such is only his labor as the ability to create material and intangible goods, various goods, the circulation of which in the market is the basis of all economic life countries.

Thus, in any country important issue is to increase the workforce. For this, the state supreme body government invests, subsidizes and encourages labor activity.

Increasingly, the term "human capital" is used in science as a set of knowledge, skills and professional experience. The concept of "staff drain" is associated with this type of capital, i.e., luring valuable specialists to a new job with the provision better conditions labor and wages. As a rule, it has an international character.

The labor force is the physical and mental capabilities and skills that allow a person to perform certain types of work with the required level of labor productivity and the quality of manufactured products (services).

The term "labor force" is an economic category that characterizes the totality of human abilities necessary for the implementation of the labor process. Although labor power is considered a commodity, unlike any other commodity, it has two features:

Universality - this means that a person capable of work can be engaged in various types of activities, that is, his ability to work is universal.

The desire of the owners of the labor force for social justice.

Man is a rational being, and this greatly affects the product "labor power". A person has feelings of justice, equality, fraternity and humanity, so he will strive to defend them in his work activity. This goal is served by trade unions, which help workers to protect and defend their interests.

The economic nature of the market, in particular the labor market, often comes into conflict with the social nature of the commodity "labor force", resulting in conflicts. However, any conflict resolved within the framework of legal rules is considered dialectically as a means of further progress. It is precisely such a means that one can consider, for example, a miners' strike, which aims at the timely payment of wages. The social aspect affects the hard pressure of the market, but can distort the patterns of economic development.

We note a number of features of the commodity "labor force". Unlike other commodities, the commodity "labor power" is inseparable from its immediate carrier - the worker, and after the sale is only at the disposal of the employer. The product "labor" has a high maneuverability, which is characterized by the ability of its seller to leave one employer for another, offering a higher price or better working conditions. As a result, there is a migration (movement) of workers between enterprises, industries, regions, countries, which causes a state of constant competition between buyers, i.e. employers. The movement of goods "labor" allows you to create the necessary balance in the market for this product.

12 Question. The balance of labor resources as the basis of labor and labor resources management: concept, structure

Labor resources are the able-bodied part of the country's population, which, due to its psychophysiological and intellectual qualities, is capable of producing material goods or services. Labor resources include people both employed in the economy and not employed, but able to work.

The composition of the labor force does not include children and the elderly, as well as people who do not have the ability to work, as well as those who have lost it, so the number of labor resources in the country is always less than the population. In Russia, labor resources make up about 60% of the country's population.

Labor resources can be structured according to different criteria:

2. Age

3. Education

4. Place of residence

5. Profession

6. Nationality

7. Religion

13 QUESTION. Labor potential: essence, types, correlation with "human potential", "human capital" and "labor force". Quantitative and qualitative indicators of labor potential.

Labor potential--this is a resource category; it should include sources, means, labor resources that can be used to solve a problem, achieve a specific goal, the capabilities of an individual, society, state in a particular area.

In order to perform a certain work, a person must have physical and spiritual abilities. The labor force is a combination of physical and spiritual abilities of a person, which are used by him in the process of production of material goods.

The wealth of any society is created by the labor of people, thanks to the functioning of the labor force. But only under capitalism does the ability to work become a commodity, an object of purchase and sale. By what circumstances? Let's turn to history.

The slave could not dispose of himself, as he was the property of the slave owner. Such is essentially the position of the serf. He was dependent on the owner of the land - the feudal lord and did not have the right to fully dispose of his labor force. Can a person sell what does not belong to him? Clearly not. Anyone who wants to sell his labor force must be a legally free person. But is this condition sufficient for labor power to become a commodity?

No. And that's why. The small peasant or craftsman works for himself - they produce grain, meat, clothes, shoes, etc. They sell not labor power, but the products of their labor.

In what case would a peasant or handicraftsman begin to sell not the products of his labor, but his labor power? Only if he does not have the opportunity to work at home, with the help of his means of production. The peasant or handicraftsman turns into a worker, a proletarian when he is deprived of his own means of production. Under these conditions, labor power can only be used if it is sold to the owner of the means of production, the capitalist.

The worker sells his labor power of his own free will, since he is the rightful owner of it. In the capitalist world there are no laws obliging workers to hire themselves to a factory owner. But at the same time, the proletarian cannot but sell his labor power, since he has no other means of subsistence.

This means that in order for labor power to become a commodity, two conditions are necessary: ​​first, the personal freedom of the proletarian; secondly, the lack of means of production for the small commodity producer, his transformation into a proletarian. This creates the need to sell labor. The transformation of labor power into a commodity marks the beginning of a new historical era - the era of capitalism.

But if labor power is a commodity, then, like any other commodity, it must have both a value and a use value. How is labor cost determined? It is known that the value of any commodity is determined by the amount of socially necessary labor time for its production and reproduction. But labor power is no ordinary commodity. She, as we have already said, is a combination of physical and spiritual abilities of a person. If ordinary goods (shoes, fabric, etc.) are created in factories and factories, then the production of labor power is inextricably linked with the reproduction of man - the living carrier of labor power. Both physical and spiritual abilities, without which work is impossible, are inseparable from a person. A person in the process of labor expends his labor power, and in order to be able to work daily, he must restore his physical and spiritual abilities from day to day.

By consuming various material goods necessary for life, satisfying his spiritual needs, the worker restores his labor power expended in the labor process, and thus gets the opportunity to work again. That is why it can be said that the value of the commodity labor power is essentially the value of those means of subsistence that are necessary for the life activity of the carrier of labor power - a person, in this case a worker, who sells his ability to work to the capitalist.

What means of subsistence are needed to maintain, restore and constantly reproduce the labor force? In other words, what is included in the cost of labor? First, the cost of funds needed to meet the physical needs of the worker. It's about about food, clothing, housing, etc. Secondly, the cost of funds needed to satisfy the spiritual needs of the worker. As the saying goes, man does not live by bread alone. The workers read newspapers, books, go to the cinema, sports competitions, etc. Thirdly, the cost of the means of training the worker. In order to operate machines and mechanisms, some minimum of technical knowledge is required. That is why the cost of industrial training is included in the cost of labor. Fourth, the cost of funds needed to support the family. Capitalist production cannot run smoothly unless the ranks of the working class are constantly replenished. Therefore, the cost of labor inevitably includes the cost of maintaining a family, raising and educating children.

On the volume and composition of the needs of the worker big influence render historical and national features of development of this or that country. There is a great difference between the cost of labor power in England, which for a long time occupied a monopoly position in the capitalist world, and the cost of labor power in economically backward countries, where the standard of living of the people is extremely low. Differences in labor costs may also be due to climatic conditions. For example, in the north, in a harsh, cold climate, a person needs warmer clothes, more high-calorie food, better heated housing, etc.

It should be remembered that human needs depend on many other conditions. These include national customs, traditions that exist in a particular country, among certain peoples.

With the development of human society, human needs expand and change. For example, the needs of the French, English and German workers in our time are far from what they were, let's say, in the 18th century. The range of human needs has expanded significantly. Take, for example, such household items as transistors, radios, televisions, refrigerators, etc., about which a person had no idea not only in the 18th, but also in the 19th century.

But no matter how varied the conditions that determine necessary funds existence of man, and no matter how quickly they change, nevertheless, for a particular country and for a particular period, the value of labor power is a value more or less constant.

It would be a mistake to assume that the working class always receives in the form of wages the entire amount of the value of labor power. In life, things are much more complicated. Labor power under capitalism is a commodity, and its price is always subject to fluctuations. As a rule, capitalists buy labor power at a price much less than the cost. We must not forget that labor power is a special commodity. This product cannot be put into storage and wait for prices to rise. The worker, who has no other means of subsistence than the sale of labor power, is often forced to accept a price that does not cover the expenses necessary for the normal satisfaction of his needs.

There is, however, a lower limit to the value of labor power, this is the value of the physically necessary means of subsistence, without the consumption of which a person cannot exist and work.

Labor power, like any other commodity, has, in addition to value, a use value. What is it expressed in?

The use-value of many commodities is immediately apparent. For example, shoes are needed in order to satisfy the need for shoes. The use value of shoes is realized in the process of wearing them. What is the consumption of labor power? In labor. Labor is the process of spending labor power. But here the peculiarity of the commodity labor power is revealed. Bread, cloth, shoes and other goods disappear and are destroyed in the process of consumption, while the labor force not only remains in the process of labor, but also creates new goods.

This is the peculiarity of the commodity labor power. The most important quality of this product is that in the process of consumption it creates a value greater than it is worth it.

The value of labor power, as we have seen, is equal to the value of the worker's means of subsistence - the value of food, clothing, housing, etc. Suppose that the value of the daily livelihood of the worker can be created with 4 hours of labor. The capitalist bought labor power. Thus he acquired the right to dispose of its use-value. Therefore, the capitalist can force the worker to work not for 4 hours, but more, for example, 6, 7, 8, 10 hours. But the worker in the first 4 hours of work has already created a value equal to the value of his labor power. And for each subsequent hour of work, value is also created. This surplus, this surplus of value created by the worker's labor above the value of his labor power, is surplus value. The ability to create surplus value is the use value of the commodity labor power. This is what the capitalist is interested in. If labor power did not have this capacity, the capitalist would not buy it.

Having discovered the difference between the value of labor power and the value that is created by the labor of the worker, Marx unraveled the mystery of the emergence of surplus value, scientifically, irrefutably proved how the capitalist class lives and enriches itself. The source of surplus value is the labor of workers, the results of which are appropriated by the capitalists free of charge.

Now it becomes clear how the contradictions of the general formula of capital are resolved under the conditions of the capitalist mode of production. Surplus value cannot arise without circulation, since not somewhere, but on the market, the capitalist purchases labor power, an act of purchase and sale is performed - M - C.

But, on the other hand, surplus value is created not in the process of circulation, but in the sphere of production, since the proletarian, by his labor, creates surplus value in addition to the value of his labor power. The capitalist, having sold the commodities produced by the workers in his factory, realizes this surplus-value and thus receives a large amount money- D + d or D g

We now come to the question of how surplus value is created.