What states were part of the USSR. Which republics were part of the Soviet Union

During the existence Soviet Union its borders changed significantly several times. 15 republics of the USSR did not appear immediately, but at the time of the collapse of the country there were exactly that many.

RSFSR

The Soviet Union was formed on December 30, 1922. Then 15 republics of the USSR did not yet exist. Education Treaty new country was signed between four states - the RSFSR, the Ukrainian SSR, the Byelorussian SSR and the Transcaucasian SSR.

The Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic was from the very beginning the center of the new country. It was proclaimed on November 7, 1917, during the October Revolution in Petrograd. A few months later, the All-Russian Central Executive Committee adopted a declaration emphasizing that the republic was a free association of national subjects. This confirmed the federal nature of the state, which replaced the unitary state that existed during the reign of the tsar.

On March 12, 1918, the Bolsheviks transferred the capital of the RSFSR from Petrograd to Moscow. Moreover, later it became the main city of the entire Soviet Union. Of the 15 republics of the USSR, the RSFSR was the largest in terms of territory and population.

Ukraine

The Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic was formally independent until 1922. It was the second region of the USSR in terms of economic importance. The industrial production of Ukraine was four times higher than the indicators of the next most important republic. Fertile chernozem soils were located here, thanks to which the Ukrainian SSR was the breadbasket of the entire vast state.

Until 1934, Kharkov was the capital of Ukraine, after which it was finally transferred to Kyiv. 15 republics of the USSR often changed their borders, but the Ukrainian SSR did it more than others. During administrative reforms 1920s The RSFSR transferred the Donetsk and Luhansk regions to its western neighbor. After the war, Crimea was included in Ukraine. On the eve of the Great Patriotic War, the Soviet Union annexed several regions that previously belonged to Poland. Some of them passed to Ukraine.

Belarus

Belarus was one of the 15 republics of the USSR. The list of allied states according to the Constitution of 1977 put it in third place. Byelorussia approximately doubled in size after the western regions that had been torn away from Poland were annexed to it in 1939. Modern borders were established after the Great Patriotic War. The capital of the republic was Minsk.

Interestingly, until 1936 in Belarus official languages were not only Belarusian and Russian, but also Polish and Yiddish. It was connected with the legacy of the empire. Before the revolution, there was a Jewish Pale of Settlement in Russia, because of which a huge number of Jews could not settle too close to Moscow or St. Petersburg.

Belarus was one of the founders of the USSR. Therefore, when the Belovezhskaya Accords were signed in 1991, the politicians of this republic played a crucial role in the rejection of the Soviet state system.

Transcaucasia

Which states are not yet mentioned from the 15 republics of the USSR? The list cannot do without mentioning the countries of the Caucasus. The borders in this region have changed several times. After the revolution and the civil war, the only Transcaucasian SFSR existed for some time. In 1936 it was finally divided:

• to the Georgian SSR (with the capital Tbilisi),
• Armenian SSR (with capital in Yerevan),
• Azerbaijan SSR (with its capital in Baku).

After the collapse of the Soviet Union, national and confessional contradictions flared up here again. The Armenian SSR was the smallest in size among all the republics of the USSR.

middle Asia

For several years, the Soviet government had to return the territories that previously belonged to Russian Empire. It was most difficult to do this in distant regions. In Central Asia, the process of creating Soviet statehood dragged on until the mid-1920s. Here the national detachments of the Basmachi resisted the communists.

And only with the advent of peace in the region were all the prerequisites for the emergence of the next states from among the 15 republics that are part of the USSR. This is how they were formed:

• Uzbek SSR (capital - Tashkent),
• Kazakh SSR (capital - Alma-Ata),
• Kirghiz SSR (capital - Frunze),
• Tajik SSR (capital - Dushanbe),
• Turkmen SSR (capital - Ashgabat).

the Baltics

This region was annexed to the Russian Empire in the 18th century. When the October Revolution took place, the peoples of the Baltic states opposed the communists. They were supported by whites, as well as some European countries. Since the economy of Soviet Russia was in the most deplorable state, the country's leadership decided to stop the war and recognize the independence of these three countries (Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania).

Independent republics existed for 20 years. When Hitler unleashed the Second world war, he enlisted the support of the USSR, dividing Eastern Europe with Stalin into spheres of influence. The Baltic states were to go to the Bolsheviks.

On July 21, 1940, after ultimatums and the introduction of troops, new governments were formed, which officially asked to include their countries in the Soviet Union. This is how 3 of the 15 republics of the USSR appeared. The list and their capitals are as follows:

• Lithuanian SSR (Vilnius),
• Latvian SSR (Riga),
• Estonian SSR (Tallinn).

The Baltic states were the first to announce their withdrawal from the Soviet Union during the "parade of sovereignties".

Moldova

Of the 15 former republics of the USSR, the Moldavian SSR was the last to be formed. This happened on August 2, 1940. Prior to that, Moldova was part of the Kingdom of Romania. But this historical region (Bessarabia) used to belong to the Russian Empire. Moldova was annexed to Romania in the years civil war between red and white. Now, Stalin, having agreed with Hitler, could calmly return to the Soviet Union those territories that he once claimed.

The 15 republics of the USSR and their capitals joined the Bolsheviks in various ways. This time, Stalin was ready to declare war on Romania. On the eve of the invasion, an ultimatum was sent to King Carol II. In the document, the Soviet leadership demanded that the monarch give up Bessarabia and Northern Bukovina. Carol II played for several days, but a few hours before the expiration of the period given to him, he agreed to yield. The Red Army occupied the territory of Moldova in a few days. Formally, the law on the formation of the next Soviet republic was adopted on August 2, 1940 in Moscow, at the regular session of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR.

Interestingly, in the 60s, a project was considered to create the 16th union republic. Bulgaria, which is close to Moldova, could become it. The General Secretary of the Communist Party of this country, Todor Zhivkov, suggested that Moscow accept the republic as part of the USSR. However, this project was never realized.

Union of Soviet Socialist Republics- a state that existed from 1922 to 1991 in Europe and Asia. The USSR occupied 1/6 of the inhabited land and was the largest country in the world in terms of area on the territory previously occupied by the Russian Empire without Finland, part of the Polish Kingdom and some other territories, but with Galicia, Transcarpathia, part of Prussia, Northern Bukovina, Southern Sakhalin and the Kuriles.

According to the Constitution of 1977, the USSR was proclaimed a single union multinational and socialist state.

After World War II, the USSR had land borders with Afghanistan, Hungary, Iran, China, North Korea (since September 9, 1948), Mongolia, Norway, Poland, Romania, Turkey, Finland, Czechoslovakia, and only sea borders with the USA, Sweden and Japan.

Consisted of the Union Republics (in different years from 4 to 16), which were sovereign states according to the Constitution; each Union republic retained the right to freely secede from the Union. The Union Republic had the right to enter into relations with foreign states, conclude agreements with them and exchange diplomatic and consular representatives, participate in the activities international organizations. Among the 50 founding countries of the UN, along with the USSR, were its two union republics: the BSSR and the Ukrainian SSR.

Part of the republics included autonomous Soviet socialist republics (ASSR), territories, regions, autonomous regions (AO) and autonomous (until 1977 - national) districts.

After World War II, the USSR, along with the United States, was a superpower. The Soviet Union dominated the world socialist system and was also a permanent member of the UN Security Council.

The collapse of the USSR was characterized by a sharp confrontation between representatives of the central allied power and the newly elected local authorities (Supreme Soviets, presidents of the union republics). In 1989-1990, all republican councils adopted declarations of state sovereignty, some of them - declarations of independence. March 17, 1991 in 9 of the 15 republics of the USSR was held All-Union referendum on the preservation of the USSR, at which two-thirds of the citizens spoke in favor of preserving the renewed union. But the central authorities failed to stabilize the situation. The failed coup d'etat of the GKChP was followed by the official recognition of the independence of the Baltic republics. After the All-Ukrainian referendum on independence, where the majority of the population voted for the independence of Ukraine, the preservation of the USSR as a state entity became virtually impossible, as was announced in Agreement establishing the Commonwealth of Independent States, signed on December 8, 1991 by the heads of the three union republics - Yeltsin from the RSFSR (Russian Federation), Kravchuk from Ukraine (Ukrainian SSR) and Shushkevich from the Republic of Belarus (BSSR). The USSR officially ceased to exist on December 26, 1991. At the end of 1991 Russian Federation was recognized as the successor state of the USSR in international legal relations and took its place in the UN Security Council.

Geography of the USSR

With an area of ​​22,400,000 square kilometers The Soviet Union was the largest state in the world. It occupied a sixth of the land, and its size was comparable to the size North America. The European part made up a quarter of the country's territory, and was its cultural and economic center. Asian part (up to Pacific Ocean in the east to the border with Afghanistan in the south) was much less populated. The length of the Soviet Union was more than 10,000 kilometers from east to west (across 11 time zones), and almost 7,200 kilometers from north to south. There are five climatic zones in the country.

The Soviet Union had the longest border in the world (over 60,000 km). The Soviet Union also bordered the United States, Afghanistan, China, Czechoslovakia, Finland, Hungary, Iran, Mongolia, North Korea, Norway, Poland, Romania and Turkey (from 1945 to 1991).

The longest river in the Soviet Union was the Irtysh. Highest mountain: Communism Peak (7495 m, now Ismail Samani Peak) in Tajikistan. Also within the USSR was the world's largest lake - the Caspian and the world's largest and deepest freshwater lake - Baikal.

History of the USSR

Formation of the USSR (1922-1923)

On December 29, 1922, at a conference of delegations from the congresses of Soviets of the RSFSR, the Ukrainian SSR, the BSSR and the ZSFSR, the Treaty on the Formation of the USSR was signed. This document was approved on December 30, 1922 by the First All-Union Congress of Soviets and signed by the heads of delegations. This date is considered the date of the formation of the USSR, although the Council of People's Commissars of the USSR (Government) and People's Commissariats (Ministries) were created only on July 6, 1923.

Pre-war period (1923-1941)

Since the autumn of 1923, and especially after the death of V. I. Lenin, a sharp political struggle for power unfolded in the country's leadership. The authoritarian methods of leadership used by I. V. Stalin to establish the regime of one-man power were established.

From the mid-1920s, the New Economic Policy (NEP) began to be curtailed, and then the forced industrialization and collectivization began; in 1932-1933 there was also a massive famine.

After a fierce factional struggle, by the end of the 1930s, Stalin's supporters completely subjugated the structures of the ruling party. A totalitarian, strictly centralized social system was created in the country.

In 1939, the Soviet-German treaties of 1939 (including the so-called Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact) were concluded, dividing the spheres of influence in Europe, according to which a number of territories in Eastern Europe were defined as the sphere of the USSR. The territories designated in the agreements (with the exception of Finland) were changed in the autumn of that year and the following year. At the beginning of the Second World War in 1939, the USSR joined the Western Republic of Poland at that time.

Ukraine and Western Belarus; this territorial change is regarded in different ways: both as a “return” and as an “annexation”. Already in October 1939, the city of Vilna of the Byelorussian SSR was transferred to Lithuania, and part of Polissya to Ukraine.

In 1940, the USSR included Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Bessarabia (annexed by Romania in 1918 . Bessarabia within Romania) and Northern Bukovina, the Moldavian, Latvian, Lithuanian (including 3 regions of the BSSR, which became part of the Lithuanian SSR in 1940) and the Estonian SSR were created. The accession of the Baltic states to the USSR is regarded different sources as "voluntary annexation" and as "annexation".

In 1939, the USSR offered Finland a non-aggression pact, but Finland refused. Launched by the USSR after the presentation of an ultimatum Soviet-Finnish war(November 30, 1939 - March 12, 1940) dealt a blow to the international authority of the country (the USSR was expelled from the League of Nations). Due to the relatively large losses and the unpreparedness of the Red Army, the protracted war was over before the defeat of Finland; following its results, the Karelian Isthmus, Ladoga, Salla with Kuolajärvi and the western part of the Rybachy Peninsula departed from Finland to the USSR. On March 31, 1940, the Karelian-Finnish SSR (with its capital in Petrozavodsk) was formed from the Karelian ASSR and territories transferred from Finland (except for the Rybachy Peninsula, which became part of the Murmansk region).

USSR in World War II (1941-1945)

On June 22, 1941, Germany attacked the Soviet Union, violating the Non-Aggression Pact between Germany and the Soviet Union. The Soviet troops managed to stop his invasion by the end of the autumn of 1941 and go on a counteroffensive from December 1941, the Battle of Moscow became the decisive event. However, during the summer-autumn of 1942, the enemy managed to advance to the Volga, capturing a huge part of the country's territory. From December 1942 to 1943 there was a radical turning point in the war, the battles of Stalingrad and Kursk became decisive. In the period from 1944 to May 1945, Soviet troops liberated the entire territory of the USSR occupied by Germany, as well as the countries of Eastern Europe, victoriously ending the war by signing the Act of Germany's unconditional surrender.

The war brought great damage to the entire population of the Soviet Union, led to the death of 26.6 million people, the liquidation of a huge number of the population in the territories occupied by Germany, the destruction of part of the industry - on the one hand; the creation of a significant military-industrial potential in the eastern regions of the country, the revival of church and religious life in the country, the acquisition of significant territories, the victory over fascism - on the other hand.

In 1941-1945 a number of peoples were deported from their places of traditional residence. In 1944-1947. The USSR included:

• Tuva People's Republic, which received the status of an autonomous region within the RSFSR;
• The northern part of East Prussia, which became part of the RSFSR as the Kaliningrad region;
• Transcarpathia (Transcarpathian region of the Ukrainian SSR);
• Pechenga, which became part of the Murmansk region;
• South Sakhalin and the Kuril Islands, which formed the Yuzhno-Sakhalinsk region as part of the Khabarovsk Territory of the RSFSR.

At the same time, the Belostok region, parts of the Grodno and Brest regions of the BSSR, as well as parts of the Lvov and Drogobych regions of the Ukrainian SSR became part of Poland.

Post-war period (1945-1953)

After the victory in the war, the demilitarization of the USSR economy was carried out, its restoration in the areas affected by the occupation. By 1950 industrial production increased by 73% compared to pre-war. Agriculture recovered at a slower pace, with enormous difficulties, mistakes and miscalculations. Nevertheless, already in 1947 the food situation stabilized, cards for food and industrial goods were abolished, and a monetary reform was carried out, which made it possible to stabilize the financial situation.

In accordance with the decisions of the Yalta and Potsdam conferences, the USSR established control over the respective occupation zones in Germany and Austria in 1945-1949. In a number of Eastern European countries, the establishment of communist regimes began, as a result of which a military-political bloc of states allied to the USSR (the socialist camp, the Warsaw Pact) was created. Immediately after the end of the World War, a period of global political and ideological confrontation began between the USSR and other socialist countries, on the one hand, and Western countries, on the other, which in 1947 was called cold war accompanied by an arms race.

"Khrushchev thaw" (1953-1964)

At the 20th Congress of the CPSU (1956), N. S. Khrushchev criticized the personality cult of I. V. Stalin. The rehabilitation of victims of repression began, more attention was paid to raising the standard of living of the people, developing agriculture, housing construction, and light industry.

The political situation inside the country has become softer. Many members of the intelligentsia took Khrushchev's report as a call for publicity; samizdat appeared, which was only allowed to expose the "cult of personality", criticism of the CPSU and the existing system was still prohibited.

The concentration of scientific and production forces, material resources in certain areas of science and technology made it possible to achieve significant achievements: the world's first nuclear power plant was created (1954), the first artificial Earth satellite was launched (1957), the first manned spaceship with a pilot-cosmonaut (1961), etc.

In the foreign policy of this period, the USSR supported political regimes that were beneficial from the point of view of the country's interests in different countries. In 1956, Soviet troops participated in the suppression of the uprising in Hungary. In 1962, disagreements between the USSR and the USA almost led to a nuclear war.

In 1960, a diplomatic conflict with China began, which split the world communist movement.

"Stagnation" (1964-1985)

In 1964 Khrushchev was removed from power. Leonid Ilyich Brezhnev became the new first secretary of the Central Committee of the CPSU, in fact the head of state. The period of the 1970s-1980s was called in the sources of that time era of developed socialism.

During Brezhnev's rule, new cities and towns, plants and factories, palaces of culture and stadiums were built in the country; universities were created, new schools and hospitals were opened. The USSR came to the forefront in space exploration, the development of aviation, nuclear energy, fundamental and applied sciences. Certain achievements were observed in education, medicine, social security system. World-wide fame and recognition was given to the work of famous cultural figures. Soviet athletes achieved high results in the international arena. In 1980, the XXII Summer Olympiad was held in Moscow.

At the same time, there was a decisive turn towards curtailing the remnants of the thaw. With the advent of Brezhnev to power, the state security agencies intensified the fight against dissent - the first sign of this was the process of Sinyavsky - Daniel. In 1968, the USSR army entered Czechoslovakia in order to suppress the trend political reforms. As a sign of the final liquidation of the “thaw”, the resignation of A. T. Tvardovsky from the post of editor of the journal “ New world» at the beginning of 1970.

In 1975, an uprising took place on the Watchtower - an armed manifestation of disobedience by a group of Soviet military sailors on a large anti-submarine ship (BPK) of the USSR Navy Watchtower. The leader of the uprising was the political officer of the ship, captain of the 3rd rank Valery Sablin.

Since the beginning of the 1970s, Jewish emigration has been coming from the USSR. Many famous writers, actors, musicians, athletes, and scientists emigrated.

In the field of foreign policy, Brezhnev did much to achieve political detente in the 1970s. American-Soviet treaties on the limitation of strategic offensive arms were concluded (although, since 1967, an accelerated installation of intercontinental missiles into underground mines), which, however, were not supported by adequate confidence and control measures.

Thanks to some liberalization, dissident movement, such names as Andrei Sakharov and Alexander Solzhenitsyn became famous. The ideas of the dissidents did not find the support of the majority of the population of the USSR. Since 1965, the USSR has provided military aid North Vietnam in the fight against the United States and South Vietnam, which lasted until 1973 and ended with the withdrawal of American troops and the unification of Vietnam. In 1968, the USSR army entered Czechoslovakia in order to suppress the trend of political reforms. In 1979, the USSR introduced a limited military contingent into the DRA at the request of the Afghan government (see below). Afghan war(1979-1989)), which led to the end of détente and the resumption of the Cold War. From 1989 to 1994, Soviet troops were withdrawn from all controlled territories.

Perestroika (1985-1991)

In 1985, after the death of K. U. Chernenko, M. S. Gorbachev came to power in the country. In 1985-1986, Gorbachev pursued the so-called policy of accelerating socio-economic development, which consisted in recognizing certain shortcomings of the existing system and trying to correct them with several large administrative campaigns (the so-called "Acceleration") - an anti-alcohol campaign, "the fight against non-working income”, the introduction of state acceptance. After the January 1987 plenum, the country's leadership launched cardinal reforms. In fact, the new state ideology was declared "perestroika" - a set of economic and political reforms. During perestroika (since the second half of 1989, after the first Congress people's deputies USSR), the political confrontation between the forces advocating the socialist path of development and the parties, movements that link the future of the country with the organization of life on the principles of capitalism, as well as the confrontation over the future image of the Soviet Union, the relationship between federal and republican bodies of state power and administration, sharply escalated. By the early 1990s, perestroika reached a dead end. The authorities could no longer stop the approaching collapse of the USSR.

The USSR officially ceased to exist on December 26, 1991. In its place, a number of independent states have formed (currently 19, 15 of which are UN members, 2 are partially recognized by UN member countries, and 2 are not recognized by any of the UN member countries). As a result of the collapse of the USSR, the territory of Russia (the successor country of the USSR in terms of external assets and liabilities, and in the UN) decreased compared to the territory of the USSR by 24% (from 22.4 to 17 million km²), and the population decreased by 49% (from 290 to 148 million people) (at the same time, the territory of Russia has practically not changed compared to the territory of the RSFSR). The unified armed forces and the ruble zone disintegrated. A number of interethnic conflicts flare up on the territory of the USSR, the most acute of which is the Karabakh conflict, since 1988 there have been mass pogroms of both Armenians and Azerbaijanis. In 1989, the Supreme Council of the Armenian SSR announces the annexation of Nagorno-Karabakh, the Azerbaijan SSR begins a blockade. In April 1991, a war actually begins between the two Soviet republics.

Political system and ideology

Article 2 of the USSR Constitution of 1977 proclaimed: “ All power in the USSR belongs to the people. The people exercise state power through the Soviets of People's Deputies, which constitute the political foundation of the USSR. All other state bodies are controlled and accountable to the Councils of People's Deputies.» Candidates from labor collectives, trade unions, youth organizations (VLKSM), amateur creative organizations and from the party (CPSU) were nominated in the elections.

Before the proclamation of socialism in the USSR by the Constitution of 1936, the dictatorship of the proletariat and peasantry was officially proclaimed in the USSR. Article 3 of the Constitution of 1936 stated: "All power in the USSR belongs to the working people of town and countryside represented by the Soviets of Working People's Deputies."

The Soviet political system rejected the principle of separation and independence of powers, putting the legislative power above the executive and judicial. Formally, only the decrees of the legislator, that is, the Supreme Soviet of the USSR (V.S. USSR), were formally the source of law, although the actual practice was significantly at odds with the constitutional provisions. Day-to-day lawmaking in practice was carried out by the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR, which consisted of the Chairman, 15 Vice-Chairmen, Secretary and 20 other members. The Supreme Soviet of the USSR, elected for 4 years, elected the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR, formed the Council of Ministers of the USSR, elected judges of the Supreme Court of the USSR and appointed Attorney General THE USSR.

Collective head of state in 1922-1937. there was the All-Union Congress of Soviets, in the intervals between congresses - its Presidium. In 1937-1989. the collective head of state was the Supreme Soviet of the USSR, in the intervals between sessions - the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR. In 1989-1990 the sole head of state was the Chairman of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR, in 1990-1991. - President of the USSR.

The actual power in the USSR belonged to the leadership of the CPSU [VKP (b)], which functioned in accordance with its internal charter. Unlike earlier constitutions, the 1977 Constitution for the first time reflected the actual role of the CPSU in government: "The guiding and guiding force Soviet society, the core of its political system, state and public organizations is the Communist Party of the Soviet Union. (Article 6th)

In the USSR, no ideology was legally proclaimed state or dominant; but, in view of the political monopoly of the Communist Party, such was the de facto ideology of the CPSU - Marxism-Leninism, which in the late USSR was called "socialist Marxist-Leninist ideology." The political system of the USSR was considered as a "socialist state", that is, as "the political part of the superstructure over the economic basis of socialism, new type state that will replace the bourgeois state as a result of the socialist revolution. However, as Western researchers of Soviet society noted, in the late USSR Marxism in reality transformed into a nationalist and etatic ideology, while classical Marxism proclaimed the withering away of the state under socialism.

The only institutions that legally remained (but were often subjected to persecution) as organized carriers of a fundamentally different ideology hostile to Marxism-Leninism were registered religious associations (religious societies and groups) ( see the Religion in the USSR section below for more details.).

Legal and judicial systems

The Marxist-Leninist ideology in the USSR considered the state and law in general as a political part of the superstructure over the economic basis of society and emphasized the class nature of law, which was defined as "the will of the ruling class elevated to law." A later modification of this interpretation of law read: “Law is the state will erected into law.”

The “socialist law” (“the highest historical type of law”) that existed in the late (nationwide) USSR was considered the will of the people elevated to law: it “for the first time in history establishes and really guarantees truly democratic freedoms”

Soviet socialist law was considered by some researchers in the West as a kind of Roman law, but Soviet jurists insisted on its independent status, which was recognized by the world community in practice after the Second World War by the election of judges representing it in International Court UN - in accordance with Article 9 of the Charter of the Court, which provides for the representation of the main forms of civilization and legal systems.

The foundations of the judicial system of the USSR were laid before its establishment - in the RSFSR - by a number of decrees, the first of which was the Decree of the Council of People's Commissars "On the Court" of November 22, 1917 ( see article Decrees on Judgment). The main element of the judicial system was proclaimed the "people's court" of the city or district (court of general jurisdiction), which was elected directly by citizens. The Constitution of 1977 set out the basic principles of the organization of the judicial system of the USSR in Chapter 20. The higher courts were elected by the respective Councils. The people's courts included a judge and people's assessors who took part in the consideration of civil and criminal cases (Article 154 of the 1977 Constitution).

The function of supreme supervision "over the exact and uniform execution of laws by all ministries, state committees and departments, enterprises, institutions and organizations, executive and administrative bodies of local Soviets of People's Deputies, collective farms, cooperative and other public organizations, officials, as well as citizens" was assigned to General Prosecutor's Office (Chapter 21st). The Constitution (Article 168) declared the independence of the prosecutor's office from any local authorities, although there is evidence that the prosecutors were under the direct operational control of the NKVD.

Leaders of the USSR and their contribution to the development of the USSR

Legally, the head of state was considered: since 1922 - Chairman of the Presidium of the Central Executive Committee of the USSR, since 1938 - Chairman of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR, since 1989 - Chairman of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR, since 1990 - President of the USSR. The head of government was the Chairman of the Council of People's Commissars, since 1946 - the Chairman of the Council of Ministers of the USSR, who was usually a member of the Politburo of the CPSU Central Committee.

There were eight actual leaders of the USSR in the entire history of its existence (including Georgy Malenkov): 4 chairmen of the Council of People's Commissars / Council of Ministers (Lenin, Stalin, Malenkov, Khrushchev) and 4 chairmen of the Presidium of the Supreme Council (Brezhnev, Andropov, Chernenko, Gorbachev). Gorbachev was also sole president THE USSR.

Beginning with N. S. Khrushchev, the General (First) Secretary of the Central Committee of the CPSU (VKP (b)) was the actual head of state, usually also the chairman of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR.

Under Lenin, the treaty on the formation of the USSR laid the foundations for the state structure, enshrined in the first Constitution of the USSR. The founder of the USSR ruled the Soviet Union for a little over a year - from December 1922 to January 1924, during a period of sharp deterioration in health.

During the reign of I.V. Stalin, collectivization and industrialization were carried out, the Stakhanov movement began, and the result of intra-factional struggle in the CPSU (b) in the 1930s was Stalin's repressions (their peak came in 1937-1938). In 1936, a new Constitution of the USSR was adopted, which increased the number of union republics. The Great Patriotic War was won, new territories were annexed, and the world socialist system was formed. After the joint defeat of Japan by the allies, a sharp aggravation of relations began between the USSR and its allies in anti-Hitler coalition- the Cold War, the formal beginning of which is often associated with the Fulton speech of former British Prime Minister Winston Churchill on March 5, 1946. At the same time, a treaty of eternal friendship was signed with Finland. In 1949, the USSR became a nuclear power. H-bomb he experienced the first in the world.

Under G. M. Malenkov, who after Stalin's death took over his post as Chairman of the Council of Ministers of the USSR, an amnesty was held for prisoners for minor violations, the Doctors' Case was closed, and the first rehabilitations of victims of political repressions were carried out. In the field of agriculture: increasing purchase prices, reducing the tax burden. Under the personal supervision of Malenkov, the first industrial nuclear power plant in the world was launched in the USSR. In the field of economics, he proposed to remove the emphasis on heavy industry and move on to the production of consumer goods, but after his resignation, this idea was rejected.

N. S. Khrushchev condemned the personality cult of Stalin and carried out some democratization, which was called the Khrushchev thaw. The slogan "catch up and overtake" was put forward, calling for the shortest possible time to get ahead of the capitalist countries (in particular the United States) in terms of economic development. The development of virgin lands was continued. The USSR launched the first artificial satellite and launched a man into space, was the first to launch spacecraft towards the Moon, Venus and Mars, built nuclear power plant and a peaceful ship with a nuclear reactor - the Lenin icebreaker. During the reign of Khrushchev, the peak of the Cold War came - the Cuban Missile Crisis. In 1961, the building of communism until 1980 was announced. IN agriculture Khrushchev's policy (sowing corn, division of regional committees, fight against farms) gave negative results. In 1964, Khrushchev was removed from office and retired.

The time of L. I. Brezhnev's leadership in the USSR was generally peaceful and, according to the conclusion of Soviet theorists, culminated in the construction of developed socialism, the formation of a nationwide state and the formation of a new historical community - the Soviet people. These provisions were enshrined in the Constitution of the USSR in 1977. In 1979, Soviet troops entered Afghanistan. In 1980, the Moscow Olympics took place. The second half of the reign of L. I. Brezhnev is called a period of stagnation.

Yu. V. Andropov during his short leadership of the party and the state was remembered, first of all, as a fighter for labor discipline; K. U. Chernenko, who replaced him, was seriously ill, and the leadership of the country under him was actually concentrated in the hands of his entourage, who sought to return to the "Brezhnev" order. A significant drop in world oil prices in 1986 caused a deterioration in the economic situation of the USSR. The leadership of the CPSU (Gorbachev, Yakovlev and others) decided to start reforming the Soviet system, which went down in history as "Perestroika". In 1989, Soviet troops were withdrawn from Afghanistan. The reforms of MS Gorbachev were an attempt to change the political system of the USSR within the framework of the economic theory of Marxism. Gorbachev somewhat eased the oppression of censorship (the policy of glasnost), allowed alternative elections, introduced a permanent Supreme Soviet, and took the first steps towards a market economy. In 1990 he became the first president of the Soviet Union. In 1991 he retired.

Economy of the USSR

By the early 1930s, most of the economy, the entire industry and 99.9% of agriculture was state-owned or cooperative, which made it possible to use resources more rationally, distribute them fairly and significantly improve working conditions compared to pre-Soviet ones. The development of the economy required a transition to a five-year form of economic planning. The industrialization of the USSR was carried out over several years. Turksib, the Novokuznetsk Iron and Steel Works, and new machine-building enterprises in the Urals were built.

By the beginning of the war, a significant part of the production was in Siberia, Central Asia, this made it possible to effectively switch to the wartime mobilization regime. After the Great Patriotic War, the restoration of the USSR began, new sectors of the economy appeared: the rocket industry, electrical engineering, and new power plants appeared. A significant volume of the economy of the USSR was military production.

The industry was dominated by heavy industry. In 1986, in the total volume of industrial output, group "A" (production of means of production) accounted for 75.3%, for group "B" (production of consumer goods) - 24.7%. Industries that ensure scientific and technological progress developed at an accelerated pace. During the years 1940-1986, the output of the electric power industry increased 41 times, mechanical engineering and metalworking - 105 times, chemical and petrochemical industry - 79 times.

About 64% of the foreign trade turnover was accounted for by the socialist countries, including 60% by the CMEA member countries; over 22% - to the developed capitalist countries (Germany, Finland, France, Italy, Japan, etc.); over 14% - to developing countries.

Compound economic regions The USSR was changing in accordance with the tasks of improving management and planning National economy in order to accelerate the pace and increase the efficiency of social production. Plans for the 1st five-year plan (1929-1932) were drawn up for 24 districts, the 2nd five-year plan (1933-1937) for 32 districts and the zone of the North, the 3rd (1938-1942) for 9 districts and 10 union republics, at the same time, the regions and territories were grouped into 13 main economic regions, according to which the planning of the development of the national economy in the territorial context was carried out. In 1963, a taxonomic grid was approved, refined in 1966, including 19 large economic regions and the Moldavian SSR.

Armed Forces of the USSR

Until February 1946, the USSR Armed Forces consisted of the Red Army (RKKA) and the Workers 'and Peasants' Red Fleet. By May 1945, the number was 11,300,000 people. From February 25, 1946 until the beginning of 1992, the USSR Armed Forces were called the Soviet Army. The Soviet army included the Strategic Missile Forces, SV, Air Defense Forces, Air Force and other formations, except for the Navy, the Border Troops of the KGB of the USSR, and the Internal Troops of the USSR Ministry of Internal Affairs. Throughout the history of the USSR Armed Forces, the post of Supreme Commander-in-Chief was introduced twice. The first time Joseph Stalin was appointed to it, the second time - Mikhail Gorbachev. The USSR Armed Forces consisted of five types: Rocket troops strategic purpose (1960), Ground Waxes (1946), Air Defense Forces (1948), Navy and the Air Force (1946), and also included the rear of the USSR Armed Forces, the headquarters and troops of the Civil Defense (GO) of the USSR, the internal troops of the Ministry of Internal Affairs (MVD) of the USSR, the border troops of the State Security Committee (KGB) of the USSR.

The highest state leadership in the field of defense of the country, on the basis of laws, was carried out by the highest bodies of state power and administration of the USSR, guided by the policy of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (CPSU), directing the work of the entire state apparatus in such a way that, when solving any issues of governing the country, the interests of strengthening its defense capability must be taken into account : - Council of Defense of the USSR (Council of Workers 'and Peasants' Defense of the RSFSR), Supreme Soviet of the USSR (Article (Art.) 73 and 108, Constitution of the USSR), Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR (Article 121, Constitution of the USSR), Council of Ministers of the USSR (Council of People's Commissars of the RSFSR) (Article 131, Constitution of the USSR).

The USSR Defense Council coordinated the activities of the bodies Soviet state in the field of defense strengthening, approval of the main directions of development of the USSR Armed Forces. The USSR Defense Council was headed by the General Secretary of the Central Committee of the CPSU, Chairman of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR.

The penitentiary system and special services

1917—1954

In 1917, in connection with the threat of an anti-Bolshevik strike, the All-Russian Extraordinary Commission (VChK) was formed, headed by F. E. Dzerzhinsky. On February 6, 1922, the All-Russian Central Executive Committee of the RSFSR adopted a resolution on the abolition of the Cheka and the formation of the State political management(GPU) under the People's Commissariat for Internal Affairs (NKVD) of the RSFSR. The troops of the Cheka were transformed into GPU troops. Thus, the management of the police and state security was in front of one department. After the formation of the USSR, the Presidium of the Central Executive Committee of the USSR on November 15, 1923 adopted a resolution on the creation of the United State Political Administration (OGPU) under the Council of People's Commissars of the USSR and approves the "Regulations on the OGPU of the USSR and its bodies." Prior to this, the GPU of the union republics (where they were created) existed as independent structures, with a single union executive power. People's Commissariats of Internal Affairs of the Union republics were exempted from the functions of ensuring state security.

On May 9, 1924, the Presidium of the Central Executive Committee of the USSR adopts a resolution on the expansion of the rights of the OGPU in order to combat banditry, which provided for the operational subordination of the OGPU of the USSR and its local subdivisions of the police and criminal investigation departments. On July 10, 1934, the Central Executive Committee of the USSR adopted a resolution "On the Formation of the All-Union People's Commissariat of Internal Affairs of the USSR", which included the OGPU of the USSR, renamed the Main Directorate of State Security (GUGB). The organs of the NKVD of the USSR carried out the Great Terror, the victims of which were hundreds of thousands of people. From 1934 to 1936 The NKVD was led by G. G. Yagoda. From 1936 to 1938, the NKVD was headed by N.I. Yezhov, from November 1938 to December 1945, L.P. Beria was the head of the NKVD.

On February 3, 1941, the NKVD of the USSR was divided into two independent bodies: the NKVD of the USSR and the People's Commissariat for State Security (NKGB) of the USSR. In July 1941, the NKGB of the USSR and the NKVD of the USSR were again merged into a single people's commissariat - the NKVD of the USSR. The People's Commissar for State Security was V. N. Merkulov. In April 1943, the NKGB of the USSR was again separated from the NKVD. Most likely, the SMERSH GUKR was created on April 19, 1943. On March 15, 1946, the NKGB of the USSR was renamed the Ministry of State Security (MGB) of the USSR. In 1947, the Committee of Information (CI) was established under the Council of Ministers of the USSR, in February 1949 it was transformed into the CI under the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the USSR. Then intelligence was again returned to the system of state security organs - in January 1952, the First Main Directorate (PGU) of the USSR Ministry of State Security was organized. On March 7, 1953, a decision was made to merge the Ministry of Internal Affairs (MVD) of the USSR and the Ministry of State Security of the USSR into a single Ministry of Internal Affairs of the USSR.

Heads of the Cheka-GPU-OGPU-NKVD-NKGB-MGB

• F. E. Dzerzhinsky
• V. R. Menzhinsky
• G. G. Yagoda
• N. I. Ezhov
• L. P. Beria
• V. N. Merkulov
• V. S. Abakumov
• S. D. Ignatiev
• S. N. Kruglov

1954—1992

On March 13, 1954, the State Security Committee (KGB) was established under the Council of Ministers of the USSR (since July 5, 1978 - the KGB of the USSR). The KGB system included state security agencies, border troops and government communications troops, military counterintelligence agencies, educational institutions and research institutions. In 1978, Yu. V. Andropov, as Chairman, achieved an increase in the status of the State Security bodies and the withdrawal from the direct subordination of the Council of Ministers of the USSR. March 20, 1991 received the status of the central body government controlled USSR, headed by the Minister of the USSR. Abolished December 3, 1991.

Territorial division of the USSR

The total area of ​​the territory of the Soviet Union as of August 1991 was 22.4 million km².
Initially, according to the Treaty on the Formation of the USSR (December 30, 1922), the USSR included:

• Russian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic,
• Ukrainian Socialist Soviet Republic,
• Belarusian Socialist Soviet Republic(until 1922 - the Socialist Soviet Republic of Belarus, SSRB),
• Transcaucasian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic.

On May 13, 1925, the Uzbek SSR, separated on October 27, 1924 from the RSFSR, the Bukhara SSR, and the Khorezm NSR, entered the USSR.

On December 5, 1929, the Tajik SSR, separated on October 16, 1929 from the Uzbek SSR, entered the USSR.

On December 5, 1936, the Azerbaijan, Armenian and Georgian SSR, which left the Transcaucasian SFSR, entered the USSR. At the same time, the Kazakh and Kirghiz SSR, which left the RSFSR, entered the USSR.

In 1940, the Karelian-Finnish, Moldavian, Lithuanian, Latvian and Estonian SSRs entered the USSR.

In 1956, the Karelian-Finnish Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic was transformed into the Karelian Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic within the RSFSR.

On September 6, 1991, the State Council of the USSR recognized the withdrawal from the USSR of Lithuania, Latvia and Estonia.

On December 25, 1991, the President of the USSR M. S. Gorbachev resigned. State structures of the USSR self-liquidated.

Large republics, in turn, were divided into regions, ASSR and AO. Latvian, Lithuanian, Estonian SSR (before 1952 and after 1953); Turkmen SSR (from 1963 to 1970) The Moldavian and Armenian SSRs were divided only into districts.

The RSFSR also included krais, and the krais included autonomous regions (there were exceptions, for example, the Tuva Autonomous Okrug until 1961). The regions and krais of the RSFSR also included national okrugs (later called autonomous okrugs). There were also cities of republican subordination, the status of which was not specified in the constitutions (until 1977): in fact, they were separate entities, since their Councils had the appropriate powers.

Some union republics (RSFSR, Ukrainian SSR, Georgian SSR, Azerbaijan SSR, Uzbek SSR, Tajik SSR) included Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republics (ASSR) and autonomous regions.

All the above administrative-territorial units were divided into districts and cities of regional, regional and republican subordination.

The USSR was formed on the fragments of the former Russian Empire. It was one of the two centers of power and influence throughout the 20th century. It was the Union that inflicted a decisive defeat Nazi Germany, and its collapse was the most significant event of the second half of the last century. Which republics were part of the USSR, we will understand in the following article.

Problems of the national-state structure on the eve of the emergence of the USSR

How many there were Different answers can be given to this question, because at the initial stage of the formation of the state, their number did not remain unchanged. To understand this in more detail, let's turn to history. By the end of the Civil War, the territory of our state was a rather motley complex of various national and state formations. Their legal status often depended on the military-political situation, the strength of local government institutions, and other factors. However, as the influence and power of the Bolsheviks increased, this issue became one of the main ones for the state and authorities. The leadership of the CPSU (b) did not have a consolidated opinion about the future structure of the country. Most of the party members believed that the state should be built on the basis of unitary principles, without taking into account the national component, its other members cautiously spoke out for the self-determination of nations within the country. But the decisive word was for V.I. Lenin.

Difficult dilemma in the depths of the CPSU(b)

The republics that were part of the USSR, according to Lenin, should have had a certain independence, but recognizing this issue as rather complicated, he saw the need for a special analysis of it. This question was entrusted to a well-known specialist in the Central Committee on the national question, I.V. Stalin. He was a consistent supporter of the autonomy of all the republics included in the new state formation. During the Civil War on the territory of the RSFSR, however, the relations between the independent republics were regulated on the basis of special agreements. Another serious problem was the rather strong nationalist sentiment among the communists on the ground. All this complex of disagreements had to be taken into account when forming a new state.

The beginning of work on the creation of a unified state

By the beginning of 1922, about 185 peoples lived on the territory subject to the Soviets. To unite them, it was necessary to take into account everything, even the smallest nuances, but the process was not only a decision from above, it was also supported by the vast majority of the masses. The formation of the USSR also had a foreign policy reason - the need to unite in the face of clearly hostile states. To develop the principles for organizing the future country, a special commission of the All-Russian Central Executive Committee was created. In the depths of this structure, it was decided that the example of the existence of the RSFSR is the most acceptable option for the formation of a new state. However, this idea ran into strong opposition from members of the Commission of National Regions. Stalin was little inclined to criticize his position. It was decided to test the method in Transcaucasia. This area required special attention. A lot of national contradictions were concentrated here. In particular, Georgia has been able to effectively build its economy and foreign policy ties in the short period of its independence. Armenia and Azerbaijan treated each other with mutual suspicion.

Disagreements between Stalin and Lenin on the formation of the USSR

The experiment ended with the creation of Armenia, Georgia and Azerbaijan. This is how they were to enter the new state. At the end of August 1922, a commission was formed in Moscow to implement the unification. According to the plan of "autonomization" I.V. Stalin, all constituent parts of the Union will have limited independence. At this point, Lenin intervened, he rejected Stalin's plan. According to his idea, the republics that were part of the USSR should be united on the basis of union treaties. In this edition, the draft was supported by the majority of the members of the plenum of the Central Committee of the All-Union Communist Party of Bolsheviks. However, Georgia did not want to be part of a new state formation as part of the Transcaucasian Federation. She insisted on concluding a separate agreement with the Union, outside the TSFSR. But under pressure from the center, the Georgian communists were forced to agree to the original plan.

In December 1922, at the Congress of Soviets, the creation of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics was announced as part of the RSFSR, Ukraine, Belarus and the Transcaucasian Federation. That's how many republics there were in the USSR at the time of its appearance. On the basis of the Treaty, the creation of a new state association was declared as a federation of full-fledged and independent countries with the right to exit and freely enter its composition. However, in fact, the exit procedure was not legally prescribed in any way, which, accordingly, made it very difficult. This time bomb, laid at the foundation of the state, showed itself with all its might at the moment, because in the 90s the countries that were part of the Union could not, on legal and civilized grounds, withdraw from its composition, which led to bloody events. Foreign policy, trade, finance, defense, means of communication and communications were delegated in favor of the central bodies of the USSR.

The next stage in the formation of the state was the national-administrative division in Central Asia. On its territory there was a huge Turkestan Republic, as well as two tiny territories - the Bukhara and Khorezm Republics. As a result of long discussions in the Central Committee, the Uzbek and Turkmen union republics were formed. The USSR subsequently separated the Tajik Republic from the former, part of the territory was transferred under the jurisdiction of Kazakhstan, which also became a union republic. The Kirghiz founded an autonomous republic within the RSFSR, but at the end of the twenties of the last century it was transformed into a union republic. And on the territory of the Ukrainian SSR, it was allocated to the Union Republic of Moldova. Thus, at the end of the second decade of the last century, the data on how many republics there were in the USSR changed significantly.

The thirties also saw a structural change in the composition of the Union. Since the Transcaucasian Federation was originally an unviable entity, in new constitution The USSR took this into account. In 1936, it was disbanded, and Georgia, Armenia and Azerbaijan, having concluded agreements with the center, received the status of union republics of the USSR.

Baltics within the USSR

The next stage in the formation of the Union dates back to the end of the thirties of the last century. Then, due to the difficult foreign policy situation, our country had to agree with Germany, which pursued an aggressive policy in Europe. Western Ukraine and Belarus were then part of Poland, in order to reunite historically one people and secure their western borders, the Molotov-Ribbentrop pact was concluded between the USSR and Germany with a secret protocol. According to him, the territory of Eastern Europe departed into the sphere of influence of our country. In view of the extremely hostile position of the Baltic states, by decision of the leadership, units of the Red Army were introduced there, and legitimate governments were liquidated in the territories of Latvia, Lithuania and Estonia. Instead, construction began political system following the example of the USSR. These republics were given the status of Union. And it was possible to recalculate how many republics there were in the USSR immediately before the start of the war with Germany.

The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR or Soviet Union) is a state that existed from December 1922 to December 1991 on the territory of the former Russian Empire. It was the largest state in the world. Its area was equal to 1/6 of the land. Now in the territory former USSR 15 countries are located: Russia, Ukraine, Belarus, Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, Armenia, Georgia, Azerbaijan, Kyrgyzstan, Lithuania, Latvia, Estonia, Moldova and Turkmenistan.

The area of ​​the country was 22.4 million square kilometers. The Soviet Union occupied vast territories in Eastern Europe, North and Central Asia, stretching from west to east for almost 10 thousand km and from north to south for almost 5 thousand km. The USSR had land borders with Afghanistan, Hungary, Iran, China, North Korea, Mongolia, Norway, Poland, Romania, Turkey, Finland, Czechoslovakia and only sea borders with the USA, Sweden and Japan. The land border of the Soviet Union was the longest in the world, at over 60,000 km.

There were five climatic zones on the territory of the Soviet Union, and it was divided into 11 time zones. Within the limits of the USSR there was the largest lake in the world - the Caspian and the deepest lake in the world - Baikal.

Natural resources The USSR were the richest in the world (their list included all the elements of the periodic table).

Administrative divisions of the USSR

The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics positioned itself as a single union multinational state. This provision was enshrined in the Constitution of 1977. The USSR included 15 union - Soviet socialist - republics (RSFSR, Ukrainian SSR, BSSR, Uzbek SSR, Kazakh SSR, Georgian SSR, Azerbaijan SSR, Lithuanian SSR, Moldavian SSR, Latvian SSR, Kirghiz SSR, Tajik SSR, Armenian SSR, Turkmen SSR , Estonian SSR), 20 autonomous republics, 8 autonomous regions, 10 autonomous regions, 129 territories and regions. All the above administrative-territorial units were divided into districts and cities of regional, regional and republican subordination.

The population of the USSR was (million people):
in 1940 - 194.1,
in 1959 - 208.8,
in 1970 - 241.7,
in 1979 - 262.4,
in 1987 -281.7.

The urban population (1987) was 66% (for comparison: in 1940 - 32.5%); agriculture - 34% (in 1940 - 67.5%).

More than 100 nations and nationalities lived in the USSR. According to the 1979 census, the most numerous of them were (in thousands of people): Russians - 137,397; Ukrainians - 42,347; Uzbeks - 12,456; Belarusians - 9463; Kazakhs - 6556; Tatars - 6317; - 4151, Georgians - 3571, Moldovans - 2968, Tajiks - 2898, Lithuanians - 2851, Turkmens - 2028, Germans - 1936, Kirghiz - 1906, Jews - 1811, Chuvashs - 1751, nationalities of the Republic of Dagestan - 1657, Latvians - 143 9, Bashkirs - 1371, Mordvinians - 1192, Poles - 1151, Estonians - 1020.

The USSR Constitution of 1977 proclaimed the formation of "a new historical community - the Soviet people."

The average population density (as of January 1987) was 12.6 people. per 1 square km.; in the European part, the density was much higher - 35 people. per 1 square km., in the Asian part - only 4.2 people. per 1 square km. The most densely populated regions of the USSR were:
- Center. regions of the European part of the RSFSR, especially the interfluve of the Oka and Volga.
- Donbass and Right-Bank Ukraine.
- Moldavian SSR.
- Separate regions of Transcaucasia and Central Asia.

The largest cities of the USSR

The largest cities of the USSR, the number of inhabitants in which exceeded one million people (as of January 1987): Moscow - 8815 thousand, Leningrad (St. Petersburg) - 4948 thousand, Kiev - 2544 thousand, Tashkent - 2124 thousand, Baku - 1741 thousand, Kharkov - 1587 thousand, Minsk - 1543 thousand, Gorky (Nizhny Novgorod) - 1425 thousand, Novosibirsk - 1423 thousand, Sverdlovsk - 1331 thousand, Kuibyshev (Samara) - 1280 thousand, Tbilisi - 1194 thousand, Dnepropetrovsk - 1182 thousand, Yerevan - 1168 thousand, Odessa - 1141 thousand, Omsk - 1134 thousand, Chelyabinsk - 1119 thousand, Alma-Ata - 1108 thousand, Ufa - 1092 thousand, Donetsk - 1090 thousand, Perm - 1075 thousand, Kazan - 1068 thousand, Rostov-on-Don - 1004 thousand.

The capital of the USSR throughout its history was the city of Moscow.

Social system in the USSR

The USSR declared itself as a socialist state, expressing the will and protecting the interests of the working people of all the nations and nationalities inhabiting it. Democracy was officially declared in the Soviet Union. Article 2 of the USSR Constitution of 1977 proclaimed: “All power in the USSR belongs to the people. The people exercise state power through the Soviets of People's Deputies, which constitute the political foundation of the USSR. All other state bodies are controlled and accountable to the Councils of People's Deputies.

From 1922 to 1937, the All-Union Congress of Soviets was considered the collective governing body of the state. From 1937 to 1989 formally, the USSR had a collective head of state - the Supreme Soviet of the USSR. Between its sessions, power was exercised by the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR. In 1989-1990. the head of state was considered the Chairman of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR, in 1990-1991. — President of the USSR.

Ideology of the USSR

The official ideology was formed by the only party allowed in the country - Communist Party Soviet Union (CPSU), which, according to the Constitution of 1977, was recognized as "The leading and guiding force of Soviet society, the core of its political system, state and public organizations." The head - the general secretary - of the CPSU actually owned all the power in the Soviet Union.

USSR leaders

The actual leaders of the USSR were:
- Chairmen of the Council of People's Commissars: V.I. Lenin (1922 - 1924), I.V. Stalin (1924 - 1953), G.M. Malenkov (1953 - 1954), N.S. Khrushchev (1954-1962).
- Chairmen of the Presidium of the Supreme Council: L.I. Brezhnev (1962 - 1982), Yu.V. Andropov (1982-1983), K.U. Chernenko (1983 - 1985), M.S. Gorbachev (1985-1990).
- President of the USSR: M.S. Gorbachev (1990 - 1991).

According to the Treaty on the Formation of the USSR, signed on December 30, 1922, the new state included four formally independent republics - the RSFSR, the Ukrainian SSR, the Byelorussian SSR, the Transcaucasian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic (Georgia, Armenia, Azerbaijan);

In 1925, the Turkestan ASSR was separated from the RSFSR. On its territories and on the lands of the Bukhara and Khiva People's Soviet Republics, the Uzbek SSR, the Turkmen SSR were formed;

In 1929, the Tajik SSR was separated from the Uzbek SSR as part of the USSR, which had previously been an autonomous republic;

In 1936, the Transcaucasian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic was abolished. The Georgian SSR, the Azerbaijan SSR, and the Armenian SSR were formed on its territory.

In the same year, two more autonomies were separated from the RSFSR - the Kazak ASSR and the Kirghiz ASSR. They were transformed, respectively, into the Kazakh SSR and the Kirghiz SSR;

In 1939, Western Ukrainian lands (Lvov, Ternopil, Stanislav, Dragobych regions) were annexed to the Ukrainian SSR, and Western Belarusian lands (Grodno and Brest regions) received as a result of the partition of Poland were annexed to the BSSR.

In 1940 the territory of the USSR expanded considerably. New union republics were formed:
- Moldavian SSR (created from part of the Moldavian ASSR, which was part of the Ukrainian SSR, and part of the territory transferred to the USSR by Romania),
- Latvian SSR (former independent Latvia),
- Lithuanian SSR (former independent Lithuania),
- Estonian SSR (former independent Estonia).
- Karelian-Finnish SSR (formed from the Autonomous Karelian ASSR, which was part of the RSFSR, and part of the territory annexed after the Soviet-Finnish War);
- The territory of the Ukrainian SSR increased due to the inclusion of the Chernivtsi region, formed from the territory of Northern Bukovina transferred by Romania.

In 1944, the Tuva Autonomous Region (the former independent Tuva People's Republic) became part of the RSFSR.

In 1945, the Kaliningrad region (East Prussia torn away from Germany) was annexed to the RSFSR, and the Transcarpathian region, voluntarily transferred by socialist Czechoslovakia, became part of the Ukrainian SSR.

In 1946, new territories became part of the RSFSR - the southern part of Sakhalin Island and the Kuril Islands, conquered from Japan.

In 1956, the Karelian-Finnish SSR was abolished, and its territory was re-incorporated into the RSFSR as the Karelian ASSR.

The main stages of the history of the USSR

1. New economic policy (1921 - 1928). The reform of state policy was caused by a deep socio-political crisis that swept the country as a result of miscalculations in the policy of "war communism". Tenth Congress of the RCP(b) in March 1921 on the initiative of V.I. Lenin decided to replace the surplus with a tax in kind. This marked the beginning of the New Economic Policy (NEP). Other reforms include:
- partially de-nationalized small industry;
- private trade is allowed;
- Free employment of labor in the USSR. In industry, labor service will be abolished;
- reform of economic management - weakening of centralization;
- transition of enterprises to self-financing;
- introduction of the banking system;
- Monetary reform is carried out. The goal is to stabilize the Soviet currency against the dollar and the pound sterling at the level of gold parity;
- encouragement of cooperation and joint ventures on the basis of concessions;
- In the agricultural sector, the lease of land with the use of hired labor is allowed.
The state left in its hands only heavy industry and foreign trade.

2. "Policy of the Great Leap Forward" by I. Stalin in the USSR. Late 1920s-1930s Includes the modernization of industry (industrialization) and the collectivization of agriculture. The main goal is the rearmament of the armed forces and the creation of a modern, technically equipped army.

3. Industrialization of the USSR. In December 1925, the 14th Congress of the All-Union Communist Party of Bolsheviks proclaimed a course towards industrialization. It provided for the start of large-scale industrial construction (power plants, DneproGES, reconstruction of old enterprises, construction of giant factories).

In 1926-27. - gross output exceeded the pre-war level. Growth of the working class by 30% compared with 1925

In 1928, a course towards accelerated industrialization was proclaimed. The plan of the 1st 5-year plan was approved in the maximum version, but the planned increase in production of 36.6% was fulfilled only by 17.7%. In January 1933, the completion of the first 5-year plan was solemnly announced. It was reported about the commissioning of 1,500 new enterprises, the elimination of unemployment. The industrialization of industry continued throughout the history of the existence of the USSR, but it was forced only during the 1930s. It was as a result of the success of this period that it was possible to create a heavy industry, which, in terms of its indicators, surpassed that of the most developed countries of the West - Great Britain, France and the USA.

4. Collectivization of agriculture in the USSR. Agriculture lagged behind the rapid development of industry. It was the export of agricultural products that was considered by the government as the main source of attracting foreign exchange funds for industrialization. have been undertaken the following measures:
1) On March 16, 1927, a resolution "On Collective Farms" was issued. The need was declared to strengthen the technical base in the collective farms, to eliminate the equalization of wages.
2) Exemption of the poor from agricultural tax.
3) Increasing the tax rate for kulaks.
4) The policy of limiting the kulaks as a class, and then its complete destruction, the course towards complete collectivization.

As a result of collectivization in the USSR, a failure was recorded in the agro-industrial complex: the gross grain harvest was planned in the amount of 105.8 million poods, but in 1928 only 73.3 million were collected, and in 1932 - 69.9 million.

Great Patriotic War 1941-1945

On June 22, 1941, fascist Germany attacked the Soviet Union without declaring war. On June 23, 1941, the Headquarters of the Supreme High Command was formed by the Soviet leadership. On June 30, the State Defense Committee was created, headed by Stalin. During the first month of the war, 5.3 million people were drafted into the Soviet army. In July, they began to create parts of the people's militia. A partisan movement began behind enemy lines.

At the initial stage of the war, the Soviet army suffered defeat after defeat. The Baltic States, Belarus, Ukraine were abandoned, the enemy approached Leningrad and Moscow. On November 15, a new offensive began. In some areas, the Nazis approached the capital at 25-30 km, but could not advance further. On December 5-6, 1941, Soviet troops launched a counteroffensive near Moscow. At the same time, offensive operations began on the Western, Kalinin and Southwestern fronts. During the offensive in the winter of 1941/1942. the Nazis were thrown back in a number of places at a distance of up to 300 km. from the capital. The first stage of the Patriotic War (June 22, 1941 - December 5-6, 1941) is over. The lightning war plan was thwarted.

After an unsuccessful offensive near Kharkov at the end of May 1942, Soviet troops soon left the Crimea, retreated to North Caucasus and Volga. . On November 19-20, 1942, the counter-offensive of the Soviet troops near Stalingrad began. By November 23, 22 fascist divisions numbering 330 thousand people were surrounded near Stalingrad. On January 31, the main forces of the encircled German troops, led by Field Marshal Paulus, surrendered. On February 2, 1943, the operation for the final destruction of the encircled group was completed. After the victory of the Soviet troops near Stalingrad, a great turning point in the Great Patriotic War began.

In the summer of 1943, the Battle of Kursk took place. On August 5, Soviet troops liberated Orel and Belgorod, Kharkov was liberated on August 23, and Taganrog on August 30. At the end of September, the crossing of the Dnieper began. On November 6, 1943, Soviet units liberated Kyiv.

In 1944, the Soviet Army launched an offensive in all sectors of the front. On January 27, 1944, Soviet troops lifted the blockade of Leningrad. In the summer of 1944, the Red Army liberated Belarus and most of Ukraine. The victory in Belarus opened the way for an offensive into Poland, the Baltic states and East Prussia. On August 17, Soviet troops reached the border with Germany.
In the autumn of 1944, Soviet troops liberated the Baltic States, Romania, Bulgaria, Yugoslavia, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, and Poland. On September 4, Finland, Germany's ally, withdrew from the war. The result of the offensive of the Soviet Army in 1944 was the complete liberation of the USSR.

On April 16, 1945, the Berlin operation began. May 8, Germany capitulated.. Hostilities in Europe ended.
The main result of the war was the complete defeat of Nazi Germany. Mankind was delivered from slavery, world culture and civilization were saved. As a result of the war, the USSR lost a third of its national wealth. Nearly 30 million people died. 1700 cities and 70 thousand villages were destroyed. 35 million people were left homeless.

The restoration of Soviet industry (1945 - 1953) and the national economy took place in the USSR under difficult conditions:
1) Lack of food, the most difficult working and living conditions, high level morbidity and mortality. But an 8-hour working day, annual holidays were introduced, and forced overtime work was abolished.
2) Conversion, fully completed only by 1947.
3) Lack of labor force in the USSR.
4) Strengthening the migration of the population of the USSR.
5) Increasing the transfer of funds from the village to the city.
6) Redistribution of funds from easy and Food Industry, agriculture and social sphere in favor of heavy industry.
7) The desire to introduce scientific and technical developments in production.

There was a drought in the countryside in 1946, which led to a large-scale famine. Private trade in agricultural products was allowed only to those peasants whose collective farms fulfilled state orders.
A new wave of political repressions began. They affected party leaders, the military, and the intelligentsia.

Ideological thaw in the USSR (1956 - 1962). Under this name, the reign of the new leader of the USSR, Nikita Khrushchev, went down in history.

On February 14, 1956, the XX Congress of the CPSU took place, at which the personality cult of I. Stalin was condemned. As a result, a partial rehabilitation of the enemies of the people was carried out, some repressed peoples were allowed to return to their homeland.

Investments in agriculture increased by 2.5 times.

All debts from collective farms were written off.

MTS - material and technical stations - were transferred to collective farms

Increasing land taxes

The course for the development of virgin lands - 1956, it is planned to develop and sow with grain 37 million hectares of land in southern Siberia and northern Kazakhstan.

The slogan appeared - "Catch up and overtake America in the production of meat and milk." This led to excesses in animal husbandry and agriculture (sowing large areas with corn).

1963 - The Soviet Union for the first time after the revolutionary period buys grain for gold.
Almost all ministries were abolished. The territorial principle of leadership was introduced - the management of enterprises and organizations was transferred to economic councils formed in economic administrative regions.

The period of stagnation in the USSR (1962 - 1984)

Followed Khrushchev's thaw. Characterized by stagnation in social and political life and lack of reforms
1) A steady decline in the rate of economic and social development of the country (industrial growth decreased from 50% to 20%, in agriculture - from 21% to 6%).
2) Stage lag.
3) A slight increase in production is achieved by increasing the production of raw materials and fuel.
In the 70s, there was a sharp lag in agriculture, a crisis is looming in social sphere. The housing problem has become extremely acute. There is an increase in the bureaucracy. The number of all-union ministries increased from 29 to 160 in 2 decades. In 1985 they employed 18 million officials.

Perestroika in the USSR (1985 - 1991)

A set of measures to solve the accumulated problems in the Soviet economy, as well as the political and social system. The initiator of its holding was the new General Secretary of the CPSU, MS Gorbachev.
1.Democratization public life and political system. In 1989, elections of people's deputies of the USSR took place, in 1990 - elections of people's deputies of the RSFSR.
2. The transition of the economy to self-financing. Introduction of free market elements in the country. Private business license.
3. Glasnost. Pluralism of opinions. Condemnation of the policy of repression. Criticism of communist ideology.

1) A deep socio-economic crisis that has engulfed the entire country. Gradually weakened economic ties between the republics and regions within the USSR.
2) The gradual destruction of the Soviet system on the ground. Significant weakening of the allied center.
3) The weakening of the influence of the CPSU on all aspects of life in the USSR and its subsequent ban.
4) Aggravation interethnic relations. National conflicts undermined state unity, becoming one of the reasons for the destruction of the union statehood.

The events of August 19-21, 1991 - an attempted coup d'etat (GKChP) and its failure - made the collapse of the USSR inevitable.
The 5th Congress of People's Deputies (held on September 5, 1991) handed over its powers to the State Council of the USSR, which included the highest officials of the republics, and the Supreme Soviet of the USSR.
September 9 - The State Council officially recognized the independence of the Baltic states.
On December 1, the vast majority of the population of Ukraine at a national referendum approved the declaration of independence of Ukraine (August 24, 1991).

On December 8, the Belovezhskaya agreement was signed. Presidents of Russia, Ukraine and Belarus B. Yeltsin, L. Kravchuk and S. Shushkevich announced the unification of their republics in the CIS - the Commonwealth of Independent States.

Until the end of 1991, 12 former republics of the Soviet Union joined the CIS.

On December 25, 1991, M. Gorbachev resigned, and on December 26, the Council of the Republics and the Supreme Council officially recognized the dissolution of the USSR.

The initial composition of the USSR was determined based on the fact that by the end of the Civil War, the power of the Bolsheviks had been established in a number of regions of the former Russian Empire. This created certain prerequisites for combining several areas into single state. took place on December 30, 1922, when the All-Union Congress approved the treaty on the formation of this state, signed on December 29, 1922.

The first part of the USSR included the RSFSR, Belarus, Ukraine and the republics of Transcaucasia (Armenia, Azerbaijan, Georgia). All of them were considered independent and could theoretically leave the union at any time. In 1924, Uzbekistan and Turkmenistan joined the above republics, in 1929 - Tajikistan.

From the 18th century, the territories of present-day Kazakhstan were part of the Russian Empire on an unofficial basis. However, there was no state as such. The social system was represented by individual tribes (hordes). In 1936, the territories of Kazakhstan became part of the USSR in the format of the Kazakh ASSR. At the same time, the lands of Kyrgyzstan joined the union.

The path of the other republics to the USSR was longer and less simple. In 1940, Moldova (Bessarabia), which was part of Romania, was transferred to the USSR after the Molotov-Ribentrop Pact was signed. In the same year, the Lithuanian Seimas decided to join the USSR, and the Estonian parliament adopted a declaration of accession. Latvia was joined to the union at the same time.

Thus, we can say which republics were part of the USSR at the beginning of the Great Patriotic War - Ukrainian, Uzbek, Turkmen, Tajik, Russian, Moldavian, Lithuanian, Latvian, Kyrgyz, Kazakh, Estonian, Belarusian, Armenian and Azerbaijan.

All of them made up the most powerful state that won the Second World War, occupying one sixth of the land, on the territory of which almost all natural resources and a wide variety of cultures were represented. The USSR actively promoted communist ideas in all parts of the world, and many nations remember the cooperation of that period as a time without internecine wars, but with active construction, the flourishing of education, construction and culture.

The countries that were part of the USSR exercised the right to withdraw from the association in 1990-1991 with the formation of 15 states. As time has shown, this decision, partly due to the economic decline caused by the artificial fall in oil prices, was most likely the wrong one. As the state of the USSR was a well-functioning economic system, which collapsed in the first place, causing even greater poverty in the territory of disparate states and a number of wars in which many people died.

Today, attempts are being made to close cooperation between the former republics of the collapsed empire - such a structure as the commonwealth of independent states and the customs union, which includes Belarus and the Republic of Kazakhstan, has been created.