Xenophon of Athens on political government. Biography

Xenophon of Athens is a prominent ancient Greek political scientist, one of Socrates' students. Xenophon was of the opinion that a politician needs to be knowledgeable in the science of managing people in general, since political management is a type social management and obeys the general laws of the latter. Therefore, Xenophon formulated a number of rules for leading people, following which, in his opinion, will help a politician achieve success. Xenophon outlined the main ones in his work Cyropaedia:

1. The closest assistants to a political leader should be the most qualified people in specific areas public life, without paying attention to their other qualities, including ethnicity. However, it is necessary that these individuals, when tested, demonstrate themselves to satisfy three requirements. Firstly, they do not wait for a call to the leader, but appear, trying to ensure the realization of his interests, before they are called. Secondly, they do not limit themselves to carrying out orders, but also do what they find useful for the political leader to carry out. Thirdly, what they have is always enough for them, while they constantly try to provide a service to the manager with ever new acquisitions.

2. To attract these people, the political leader should give them material and spiritual benefits. In the absence of the latter, he needs to rejoice along with such subordinates “when they have some luck; show sympathy when trouble happens to them; ... be wary of them making mistakes, while at the same time trying to warn them.”

3. In any work, the political leader must be the first in labor and in enduring hardships.

4. The political leader needs to make his closest assistants “more friends to himself than to each other,” trying in every possible way to show them his friendliness and at the same time immediately reacting to the slightest case of any of them showing special zeal for doing the job with additional incentives and responding to the slightest relaxation in work by redistributing benefits to those who are better off at the moment.

5. To ensure the effective operation of his staff of assistants, it is advisable for the political leader to establish a procedure in which he listens to each of them who declares that he has seen or heard something worthy of the leader’s attention, and encourages the person who reported the information. Moreover, it should be ensured that all members of the apparatus know about the existence of such a procedure. In this case, the political leader will not only have information about all the intrigues being prepared against him, but the very possibilities for such intrigues will be narrowed, since all members of the apparatus will always and everywhere be afraid to make speeches that are displeasing to the leader.

6. To ensure the presence of all invitees at meetings, it is advisable to give the easiest and most profitable assignments to those present and “never grant anything to those who are absent.”

Bibliography

1. Aristotle. Politics / Aristotle. M., 1893.

2. Aristotle. Ethics / Aristotle. St. Petersburg, 1908.

3. Xenophon of Athens. Cyropaedia / Xenophon of Athens. M., 1977.

4. Xenophon of Athens. Socratic writings / Xenophon of Athens. M.-L., 1935.

5. Makovelsky A.O. Ancient Greek atomists / A.O. Makovelsky. Baku, 1946.

6. Makovelsky A.O. Sophists / A.O. Makovelsky. Vol. 1. Baku, 1940.

7. Makovelsky A.O. Sophists / A.O. Makovelsky. Vol. 2. Baku, 1941.

8. Plato. Op. T. 3. Part 1 / Plato. M., 1971.

9. Plato. Op. T. 3. Part 2 / Plato. M., 1972.

Greek historian, soldier, mercenary, philosopher; contemporary and admirer of Socrates. He is primarily known for his philosophical works - which quite accurately conveyed the life of ancient Greece and the Persian Empire and preserved for posterity many of the sayings of Socrates.

Xenophon's date of birth is officially unknown; most historians, however, agree that he was born around 431 BC, in the vicinity of Athens. His family belonged to the highest strata of Athenian society, which gave Xenophon access to a number of privileges usually reserved for aristocrats. As a young man, Xenophon took part in the military campaign undertaken by Cyrus the Younger against his brother Artaxerxes II. Even before joining the army, Xenophon asked Socrates for advice on whether he should contact Cyrus at all. Socrates sent Xenophon to the Delphic Oracle; To the oracle, however, Xenophon - to the great displeasure of his mentor - asked a completely different question - “which god should we pray to and sacrifice in order to in the best possible way finish the job you started and return home safe and with a good profit."

Cyrus actually used the army of mercenaries in the dark - the Greeks did not suspect for quite a long time that they would have to deal with such a large army. The deception at Tarsus was revealed; The mercenaries were thinking about leaving such a dishonest employer, but the Spartan general Clearchus was able to convince them.

In the Battle of Cunaxa, Cyrus's troops were defeated, and Cyrus himself died; Soon after this, Clearchus - along with four other generals and a number of officers - was treacherously captured and executed during peace negotiations. The mercenaries were left without command and were forced to choose new leaders; Xenophon became one of them. Xenophon handled the leadership just fine. Later, Xenophon described the Persian campaign and return home in his work "Anabasis" (literal translation - "Expedition"). It is known that in the future Alexander the Great himself (Alexander the Great) used this work as a guide during the invasion of Persia.

Xenophon’s military adventures were by no means limited to the Persian campaign alone; for some time he worked for the Spartans. There is reason to believe that it was for this that Xenophon was expelled from Athens; however, there were many reasons - Xenophon supported Socrates, who was not particularly popular among the Athenians, and working for the Persians also did not play in his favor.

The mercenary found a new home for himself in the same Sparta - he was given an estate in Scyllus, near Olympia. It was in this estate that Xenophon, by the way, completed Anabasis.

It is not known exactly where Xenophon died. His son, Gryllus, fought on the side of Athens at the Battle of Mantinea, so the historian seems to have returned from exile. Some data claim that Xenophon died in Athens, others talk about Corinth. It is also unknown when Xenophon died; we can only say for sure that he outlived his boss and patron Agesilaus II.

Throughout his life, Xenophon repeatedly expressed his love for Athens; The only thing that did not suit him in his native lands was the political structure - judging by indirect data, Xenophon was an oligarch. However, Xenophon also quite actively supported Sparta - it just so happened that he had to spend a considerable part of his life there.

Last weekend I set myself a combat mission - to study the work of the ancient thinker Xenophon “Anabasis”, which in our language means “Ascent”.
This representative of ancient thought is interesting because, in addition to being one of Socrates’ favorite students (which suggests a certain intelligence), he served in the army and over time became quite a talented commander. This, of course, is fundamentally different from the worldview of Soviet and post-Soviet intellectuals, who believe that sad-spirited and other untermenschs should serve in the army, and the destiny of a thinker is to lie on the sofa and think day after day. But the Greeks, as it becomes clear from this book, were of the completely opposite opinion. Even the aforementioned Socrates served in the army and achieved certain successes. So that...
The book describes a fairly well-known period of ancient history called the Greco-Persian Wars. In fact, there is a slight inaccuracy - not all Greeks fought. It was like this - 13,000 Spartans from among the “pariahs” (these, for those who don’t know, are comrades who various reasons there was no place in Sparta) they hired themselves into the service of the Persian prince Cyrus. This Cyrus was a noble reptile - not only did he take the Hellenes deep into the continent, which they categorically did not do, but he also forced them to participate in a scam to wrest the throne from the current king of Persia, Artaxerxes. When the Spartans realized that they were being dragged to the Maidan for some unknown reason, it was already too late.
It is worth noting that they did not stand on ceremony with the ancient revolutionaries for a long time - Cyrus was killed in the very first minutes of the battle, and his army surrounded him. The Spartans were asked to send their commanders for negotiations, which they did. Upon arrival at the site of the showdown, the Persians slaughtered the Spartan generals without any fuss, as an example and to intimidate others.
Not expecting such a turn, the Spartans were confused and after collective deliberation it was decided to appoint new generals, among whom was Xenophon. The generals immediately decided to break through home, but this could not be done from the south - there were Persians everywhere, so they had to go through the northern mountains. The Persians offered the Spartans to lay down their arms in exchange for pardon, but they perfectly understood, taught by bitter experience, that as soon as the last sword touched the ground, they would be slaughtered like pigs.
This campaign is widely known as the “campaign of ten thousand”, since exactly that many people reached home.
Of interest not only historical facts, but also small sketches of military life of that time.
Our publishers have tried to interpret the text as best as possible for understanding modern man. In my opinion, it turned out well.

In summary: A harsh description of the war with the participation of harsh Spartans. If you love proper military stuff, take it, study it, learn something new.

Xenophon (c. 428/427 - c. 354 BC). A historian and warrior who came from a wealthy Athenian family and studied with Socrates. In ancient times he was considered a philosopher. He served in the army of Cyrus the Younger and took part in a campaign across Asia Minor. OK. 399 BC was expelled from Athens, became a warrior in the army of the Spartan king Agesilaus II and even took part in the Battle of Coronea against the Athenians in 394 BC. His family was given an estate at Scylla near Olympia, and he himself was elected Spartan proxenus, responsible for entertaining the Spartans visiting Olympia. In 371 BC. Elide claimed her rights to Skill, and Xenophon went to live near Corinth. In 366/365 BC, after the decree of his exile was revoked, he returned to Athens.

Xenophon was a very prolific author, writing on a wide variety of topics. His Hellenica (Greek History) was the history of Greece from 411 to 362 BC. in seven books (mostly written in the 50s of the 4th century BC). The Anabasis told about the campaign of Greek mercenaries under the command of Cyrus the Younger (401-399 BC). Kinegetika was a treatise on hunting. "Spartan Polity" was written c. 388 BC and contained praises of Sparta. The Apology was created in defense of Socrates. The treatise “On Household Economy” (Oeconomicus) is written in the form of a dialogue with Socrates about agriculture and the right ways household organization. The Memorabilia were memoirs of Socrates in four books. The Symposium described a fictional dinner party with Socrates as a guest. The treatise On Income (Vectigalia) gave advice to the Athenians on how to increase their own income. The treatise “On Horseback Riding” is the oldest surviving work of its kind (written around 380 BC). Cyropaedia was a fictional account of Cyrus the Great in eight books. "Hieron" was written as a dialogue between Hieron I and Simonides about tyranny. The treatise “On the Commander of the Cavalry” (Hipparchicus) described the duties of the Athenian cavalry commander. Agesilaus was written in honor of the Spartan king. Ways and Means proposed a policy of peace through force. The Athenian Constitution was a pamphlet possibly written by Xenophon.

Adkins L., Adkins R. Ancient Greece. Encyclopedic reference book. M., 2008, p. 309-310.

Xenophon (Ξενοφῶν) of Athens (c. 445, Athens - c. 355 BC, Corinth) - student of Socrates, writer, historian and professional military man. Author of "Memoirs of Socrates" and other Socratic writings - along with Plato's dialogues, our main source on the life and teachings of Socrates.

The acquaintance of the young aristocrat Xenophon and the poor philosopher Socrates probably occurred on the battlefield: in 424, taking part in the Battle of Delium, Xenophon fell from his horse during the retreat and was saved by the foot warrior Socrates (Strab. Geogr. IX, 403, Diog L. II, 5, 22). In the summer of 401, Xenophon, as a mercenary, took part in the expedition of the Persian prince Cyrus the Younger (he would later describe the history of this campaign and the difficult return of the Greeks after defeat in Anabasis). Having left Athens, Xenophon never saw Socrates again, and could only judge the events surrounding his execution by stories. Between parting and writing the Socratic works, approx. 20 years filled with military service: winter 400/399 - with the Thracian king Seuthus, during the Corinthian War 394-387 - with the Spartan king Agesilaus, his friend and patron. For his military service with the Spartans, Xenophon was rewarded with a house and land in Scillunta (in Elis), where in his spare time he began to compose his famous literary works, which became classics Greek prose: “Anabasis”, “Memoirs of Socrates” and “Apology of Socrates”, “Feast” and “Economy” (“Domostroy”). In 371, the Eleans captured Skillunt and Xenophon fled to Corinth, where he completed the political utopia “Education of Cyrus” - a biography of the ideal monarch and the structure of the state he created, “Greek History”, “Eulogy to Agesilaus”, “Lacedaemonian Polity”, “Hieron, or Life tyrant" - a philosophical dialogue, the characters of which are the Sicilian tyrant Hieron and the poet Simonides of Keos; “On the duties of the hipparch”, “On the art of horsemanship”, “On income” (precisely dated 355). The relative chronology of Xenophon's writings is a subject of debate.

Researchers have always been faced with the question of the reliability of the depiction of the personality of Socrates by Xenophon and Plato. Xenophon portrayed Socrates primarily as a moral teacher, ignoring abstract philosophical reasoning (the main distinguishing feature two versions of Socrates). The usual argument against Xenophon in favor of Plato: being an amateur in philosophy, Xenophon could have missed the most important thing in the teachings of Socrates. In favor of Xenophon: not being an original thinker, he probably unvarnished everything he remembered, while the brilliant Plato put his own philosophical teaching into the mouth of Socrates. Meanwhile, the works of Xenophon are the same literary works, and not historical descriptions, like Plato's dialogues. Xenophon relied heavily on the literary tradition of “Socratic dialogues,” which had been developing for at least 15–20 years by the beginning of his literary work (“Apology of Socrates” and the Socratic dialogue “Economy” describe Socrates in 400 and 399, when Xenophon himself fought far from Athens and could not have witnessed these events). Highest value for him were the dialogues of Antisthenes, Aeschines and Plato. Antisthenes is especially important for Xenophon; the latter makes him a character in his works, uses a first-person narrative (as was the case in Antisthenes’ dialogues), and most importantly, follows the image of Socrates created by Antisthenes in his “Memoirs” - cf. Mem. I 2, 1, where Xenophon describes Socrates as having three characteristic antisthenic virtues - “temperance” (ἐγκράτεια), “endurance” (καρτερία) and “self-sufficiency” (αὐτάρκεια). Xenophon, of course, used Platonic dialogues (“Laches”, “Symposium”, “Phaedrus”, “Theaetetus”, etc.), and the changes he made to themes borrowed from Plato, for example, Plat. Symp. 210a – love for beautiful bodies (of young men) as the first stage of philosophical eros; Xen. Symp. VIII – unconditional condemnation of this type of bodily love; Xen. Mem. IV 5 – about dialectics as the ability of “temperate” (=happy) people to distinguish between good and bad and to be successful in politics, in contrast to Plato’s dialectic as the ability available to a true philosopher to “discriminate by genus and species” and “to determine the essence of each thing” (Resp. VII 534b). The Socratic dialectic of concepts is depicted by Xenophon only once (see Mem. IV 6, 1–11, on piety and justice) - this consensus of Xenophon and Plato was usually taken as a criterion of historical truth. However, it is more reasonable, given the comparison of texts, to assume that Xenophon is here completely dependent on Plato and cannot be considered as a reliable witness to the nature of the conversations of the historical Socrates (cf. Kahn, 1996, p. 79; Patzer, 1987, pp. 438–42 ).

M.A. Solopova

New philosophical encyclopedia. In four volumes. / Institute of Philosophy RAS. Scientific ed. advice: V.S. Stepin, A.A. Guseinov, G.Yu. Semigin. M., Mysl, 2010, vol. II, E – M, p. 336-337.

Read further:

Philosophers, lovers of wisdom (biographical index).

Historical figures of Greece (biographical reference book).

Greece, Hellas, southern part Balkan Peninsula, one of the most important historical countries antiquities.

Essays:

1. Xenophontis Opera, ed. E. S.Marchant. Oxf., 1900–1904;

2. Xenophon, greek and engl. by W. Miller et alii, vol. 1–7. Cambr. (Mass.), 1960–68;

3. in Russian transl.: Socratic works, intro. Art. and lane S.I. Sobolevsky. M., 1935;

4. 2nd ed. St. Petersburg, 1993;

5. Cyropedia, trans. and approx. V.G. Borukhovich and E.D. Frolov. M., 1977.

Literature:

1. Breitenbach H.R. Xenophon von Athen. Stuttg., 1966;

2. Strauss L. Xenophon’s Socrates. Ithaca, 1972;

3. Patzer A. (ed.) Der historische Socrates. Darmstadt, 1987;

4. Vander Waerdt P. (ed.) Socratic Justice and Self Sufficiency. – “Oxford Studies in Ancient Philosophy”, 1993, 11, p. 1–48;

5. Idem. The Socratic Movement. Ithaca, 1994;

6. Kahn Ch. Plato and the Socratic Dialogue: The Philosophical Use of A Literary Form. Cambr. (Mass.), 1996;

7. Bibliography of Editions, Translations and Commentary on Xenophon’s Socratic Writings, by D.R.Morrison, 1988;

8. Index Socraticorum Xenophontis operum, conscrip. A. R. Lopez et F. M. Garcia. Hildesheim, 1995.

4. XENOPHON

Biography of Xenophon 14

Xenophon was born around 430 into a wealthy family that apparently did not belong to the highest Athenian aristocracy. His parents made sure that he received aristocratic manners and an aristocratic Spartanophile way of thinking. One must think that Xenophon sympathized with or even contributed to the oligarchic coups15 in Athens, during which he was already an adult. Together with all the aristocratic youth, Xenophon was interested in the teachings of Socrates and became one of his students. Growing up in a mentally limited environment of the Laconophile aristocracy and its supporters, in which they were only interested in gymnastics, hunting, horse riding and amorous affairs(Greek history V, 3, 20), he could not and did not strive to understand the essence of the teachings of Socrates. Philosophical works Xenophon show that he only purely outwardly used certain provisions of Socratic ethics and the new dialectical form he introduced to promote boring philistine morality, taking the opportunity to show off his eloquence.
Before Xenophon became thoroughly acquainted with the teachings of Socrates, circumstances directed him towards

14 See the introduction to my translation of Xenophon’s “Greek History” (L., 1935).
15 It cannot even be stated with certainty that Xenophon sympathized in 411-404. namely the moderate, and not the extreme group of oligarchs: his “Greek History”, in which he takes the side of Theramenes against Critias, was written in the 50s of the 4th century. BC e., when the party struggle had largely subsided and speaking out in defense of the extreme oligarchs would not have met with sympathy from any group of the Athenian population.

632

seven in the other direction. His friend, the Boeotian Proxenus, suggested; In 401, he took part in the campaign of the Persian pretender Cyrus against his brother, King Artaxerxes II, and Xenophon had to give up philosophy, exchanging boring studies for the adventurous life of a mercenary. The fact is that the position of the aristocrats in Athens after the overthrow of the Thirty Tyrants, despite the oath of the demos “not to be vindictive,” became increasingly precarious; a direct transition to the Spartans would have turned Xenophon into a state traitor. Entering the service of Cyrus, who, although he was a friend and ally of Sparta, did not break with Athens, was comparatively the best way out of the situation. In addition, serving as a mercenary was very profitable; good physical and military training and aristocratic manners provided Xenophon brilliant career; in the event of the expected victory of Cyrus and his accession to the throne, Xenophon’s position could become completely enviable.
Contrary to expectations, this campaign, as we know, ended in failure. The Persians managed to lure and kill the Greek military leaders by cunning, and the Greeks had no choice but to choose new military leaders, including Xenophon, and begin, at their own risk and peril, a difficult retreat to the coast of Asia Minor. This retreat to unknown places amid enemy encirclement represents one of the most brilliant pages of Greek military history.
Upon returning from the campaign of Cyrus, where Xenophon acted in the interests of Sparta, he and his army had to face the opposition and hostility of the very Spartans whom he worshiped. Xenophon and his companions were not given the opportunity to return to mainland Greece; when he began to found a military colony for the settlement of his warriors, the Spartans imperiously demanded that preparations for its construction be stopped; From Byzantium, the former mercenaries of Cyrus, led by Xenophon, were asked to immediately leave under the threat of being sold into slavery. However, Xenophon continued to insist on obedience to the Spartans, saying that the Lacedaemonians ruled all of Hellas, “and every single Spartan can do whatever he pleases in any Greek city” (Anabasis VI, 6, 12).
After much ordeal and humiliation, Xenophon enlists in the Spartan army: he includes the surviving soldiers into the Spartan army. Following this, he was declared a traitor and state criminal in Athens and sentenced to lifelong exile. The expulsion finally predetermined future fate Xenophon, forever tying him to Sparta. When the Spartan king Agesilaus, who had shortly before taken the throne, arrived in Asia Minor and

633

took command of the army, he gave Xenophon a post at his headquarters: Xenophon was entrusted with diplomatic responsibilities.
From then on, Xenophon became a close friend and staunch admirer of Agesilaus. He was privy to all the secrets of the Jesuit policy of this sovereign, in which amazing willpower and lust for power were combined with a complete lack of moral principles, hiding behind moralizing and feigned religiosity. Xenophon could not help but see all the shortcomings of his patron; but, professing in the depths of his soul the same cult of strength and success as Agesilaus, and seeing that in this respect his patron had no equal, he was forced to deliberately turn a blind eye to the methods with which Agesilaus sought to strengthen Spartan power, and was so imbued with the ideas of this sovereign that, reading “Greek History,” it often seems that Agesilaus himself speaks through the mouth of Xenophon. Under the influence of the latter, Xenophon sent his sons to Sparta so that they could receive a real Spartan education, having gone through all the drill to which Spartan youth were subjected.16
As a result of all this, Xenophon could not feel remorse at the thought that he would have to take up arms against his fatherland. Indeed, when war broke out between Sparta and a coalition hostile to it, which included Athens, and Agesilaus and his army moved to mainland Greece, Xenophon went with him and participated in the Battle of Coronea (394), being among the enemies of his homeland . During the Corinthian War that followed, Xenophon remained in the camp of Agesilaus, probably until the Peace of Antialcides (386).
A short time later, Xenophon, for unknown reasons, had to give up his military and political career and take up agriculture. In return for the lands confiscated from him in Attica, he received an estate in Elis near the city of Scylunta, not far from Olympia, and devoted himself to rural pursuits and literature. This peace was interrupted in 370, when Skillunt found himself in a zone of hostilities between Sparta and Thebes. However, at this time the Athenians were already on the side of Sparta; Therefore, Xenophon managed to obtain an amnesty. He himself was already too old, but his sons fought in the Athenian army, and one of them - Gryll - even fell in the battle of Mantinea (in 362). The circumstances of Xenophon's death are unknown to us.

16 The Spartan state accepted the children of foreigners and gave them the same education as young Spartans. These young men formed a special group in Sparta, called “trophims,” i.e., pupils.

634

Xenophon's worldview

To understand Xenophon's worldview, it is necessary to recall the main features of political life at the end of the 5th century.
Let us remember that the struggle between aristocracy and democracy took place by the end of the 5th century. extremely violent forms. The struggle between Sparta and Athens gradually turned from a struggle between states into a struggle between classes, or rather, factions: aristocrats in democratic states were, as a rule, state traitors and not only sympathized, but also actively promoted Sparta; Democrats in aristocratic states did the same.
This struggle reached its culmination during the Peloponnesian Wars. Indeed, as soon as the Spartans approached any city, the local aristocracy began to assist them in every possible way, and where possible, they openly went over to their side. True, according to the teachings of these aristocrats, the highest virtue of a citizen was unconditional submission to state regulations; however, this meant only a state that corresponded to their aristocratic ideals; otherwise, a real reactionary not only had the right, but was also obliged to do everything possible to establish a “just” system and destroy the “evil democrats.” In Athens, the entire aristocratic society was not only laconophile, but suffered from real laconomania.
Big influence Xenophon's character was also influenced by his service as a mercenary. Greek mercenaries were recruited from men who were either exiled from their homeland or could not find a use for their strength at home. At the beginning of the 4th century. such exiles were mainly supporters of the aristocracy; in addition, the mercenary had to have good athletic and military training, and only the children of aristocrats systematically received such training in Greek cities. This explains the predominance of oligarchic tendencies among mercenaries. However, mercenaries did not have to be morally picky: in this profession at the beginning of the 4th century. the supply significantly exceeded the demand, and the mercenaries were glad if anyone invited them to serve. As soon as one side was offered a slightly larger salary, the mercenaries would flock to it in droves. There were often cases when the state or ruler who hired mercenaries found themselves unable to pay them or failed to pay them. They remained in a foreign land, but remained a united mass, and they had only one choice - to plunder the population of neighboring regions - barbarian or Greek - or engage in systematic extortion. This mercenary life was also supposed to “leave its sad mark on the character of Xenophon.

635

Xenophon should have been no less influenced by his prolonged proximity to the ruling circles of the Spartan aristocracy. Spartan discipline, military education, moderation and subordination were considered the ideal of the state structure not only in oligarchic, but partly also in moderate-democratic circles. But what was Sparta like, contemporary to Xenophon? She not only completely disregarded new trends and clung to the old outdated way of life; This very way of life was completely perverted at its core. The “good” and “best” citizens to whom she entrusts the reins of government everywhere are no longer representatives of ancient families, bound hand and foot in their actions by tradition and public opinion: Now it is the wealthier citizens who rule by openly and cynically pursuing the interests of their class and their loved ones. Not only Lysander, but also Xenophon’s idol Agesilaus and his “party” sought to limitlessly increase Spartan power, primarily because it contained the source of their own power, and to achieve this goal they did not disdain any means.
All these facts - origin from a wealthy family, secular aristocratic upbringing, service as a mercenary with Cyrus, service in the retinue of the Spartan king Agesilaus, accompanied by a military uprising against his democratic homeland, and exile from Athens - completely predetermine the appearance of Xenophon; as one historian rightly noted, he was “a typical and convinced representative of the reaction in the literature of that time.” However, this reactionary behavior is accompanied by a kind of demagoguery (the policy of the “good master”) and sanctimonious moral and religious reasoning. Most sincere feeling This man has a hatred of democracy.

Anabasis

Xenophon’s work “Cyrus’s March into the depths of (Asia)” (“Anabasis”) bears a title that does not correspond to the content of the book: Cyrus’s campaign into the depths of Asia is spoken of only in the first two books, and the other books (III-VII) tell exactly about the return 10,000 Greeks. The hike is described in the form of a travel journal; the route into the depths of Asia is outlined on individual days. The book contains a number of excursions of geographical, ethnographic and diplomatic content, is written vividly and is read with great interest. The characteristics of the Greek strategists taking part in the campaign of Cyrus given at the end of Book II are very good from a literary point of view and are of great historical interest. This hike was also described by someone else; so, from the dictionary of Stefan Byzantium -

636

We know that the author of such a work was Sophenet from Stymphala, mentioned in Anabasis. Xenophon published Anabasis 17 under the pseudonym of Themistogenes of Syracuse. Indeed, at the beginning of Book III of Xenophon’s “Greek History” we read: “How Cyrus gathered an army, how he and this army went into the interior of the country against his brother, under what circumstances the battle took place, how Cyrus died and how after that the Greeks managed to safely get to the seashore - all this has already been written in the book of Themistogenes of Syracuse.” Here we have an accurate statement of the contents of Anabasis; in addition, it is absolutely incredible that Xenophon omitted such important historical facts in his history just because another author wrote about it. Therefore, the ancients had no doubt that “Themistogen” was only a pseudonym for Xenophon. Diodorus's description of the campaign of the ten thousand differs significantly from the story of Xenophon; in addition, Xenophon does not play any role here, whereas in Anabasis he leads the retreat. Therefore, it seems very likely that Diodorus (or rather Ephorus) had Sophanet as his source and that Xenophon did not play any role in Sophanet’s work. It is quite understandable that, wanting to emphasize this role, Xenophon published his book - for greater credibility - under a pseudonym.

"History of Greece"

If the History of Greece (Hellenika), written after 356, is significantly inferior in its literary merits to Anabasis, then the significance of this book for stories V-IV centuries huge. Neither Diodorus nor Plutarch's biographies contain such a systematic and detailed account of the events of 411-362 as we find in Xenophon. True, in 1906, an excerpt from history (the so-called Oxyrhynchus fragment) was found on papyrus in Egypt, setting out the events of 394 in much more detail than Xenophon. But even in this case, a comparison of the new monument with Xenophon shows that the evidence of the new author does not have the same historical value as the evidence of Xenophon.
Lacedaemonian polity
Big historical meaning also has Xenophon's treatise "On state structure Sparta" (Lakedaimo-

17 According to the plausible assumption of E.I. Solomonik, the first two books of “Anabasis” were written shortly after the campaign without any special tendency (Xenophon is not mentioned here; the title “Anabasis”, “Campaign into the interior of the country”, fits only to them). Subsequently, books III-VII, glorifying the merits of Xenophon, were added to them for apologetic purposes.

637

nion politeia); however, the historical significance of this work is due to the fact that, except for the biographies of Plutarch written half a millennium later, not a single work on the state structure of Sparta has reached us. The treatise provides an idealized restoration of the ancient Spartan constitution as imagined by Spartan conservatives. It was written with a clearly apologetic purpose of glorifying the Spartan state, since at this time a number of works appeared both outside of Sparta and in Sparta, with attacks against the existing order in Sparta and with projects for a radical reorganization of the Spartan political system(Thibron, Pausanias, Lysander). The ideal Lycurgus Sparta painted by Xenophon bears very little resemblance to the Sparta of his time, and Xenophon had to conclude by pointing out that in his time Sparta ceased to observe the laws of Lycurgus, and this led it to a difficult situation.

Cyropedia

One of the most interesting works of Xenophon is the Education of Cyrus, or Cyropaedia. Xenophon pretends to be writing history, but in reality here only the general situation is taken from history; everything else is the free creativity of Xenophon, so essentially in this book we have the oldest in the world historical novel. At the same time, this is the oldest Greek political utopia, which then opens a whole series of similar works, starting with Theopompus (IV century BC) and ending with Yam-bul (III century BC). The main purpose of this book is to preach the ideas of the monarchical reorganization of Greece; In the image of Cyrus the Elder, undoubtedly, along with Agesilaus, first of all, Xenophon’s favorite hero, Cyrus the Younger, was drawn. The few historical facts reported in this book are often distorted beyond recognition for moralizing reasons.
Cyropaedia was written long after the death of Cyrus the Younger. Therefore, the question remains open whether Xenophon was waiting for the appearance of some unifier of Hellas like Cyrus the Younger from among the Persians, preparing the ground for such a unification, or preached the unification of Greece under the rule of any monarch, and the dramatization of his novel in Persia was only intended to make the book more entertaining due to its exotic nature. 18

18 For the same purpose of entertainment, a love episode is inserted into the Cyropedia - a story about Panthea, who remained faithful to her husband Abradat in captivity and shared death with him. Thus, in Cyropaedia we find the germ of the future Greek novel. This boring moralizing book was more in keeping with the character of the Romans than the Greeks; It is not surprising, therefore, that it became popular in the 1st century. BC e. (she was loving

638

In addition to these works, Xenophon wrote a number of moral and philosophical, so-called “Socratic” works. They have already been mentioned above.

Xenophon as historian

The above information from the biography of Xenophon is enough to understand why Xenophon’s narrative in his main work, “Greek History,” and partly in other historical works, sometimes gives the impression of a Spartan official version of Greek history. As we have seen, Xenophon accepted without any reservations and considered the system and order that reigned in Sparta to be the height of perfection. Further, as we have seen, Agesilaus was a personal friend of the writer, and Xenophon was in awe of the policies of this king. Therefore, Xenophon made the same demands for his historical work: influencing the reader’s spirit by depicting Spartan power and discipline, instilling love for Sparta by emphasizing the good aspects in his opinion and silencing the bad ones. Just as Agesilaus set as his goal the strengthening of the power of Sparta, not stopping at any measures to achieve this goal, so Xenophon set as his goal the apology and praise of this powerful Sparta at all costs. That is why his story is definitely one-sided and tendentious.
Xenophon has an exceptional mind and rare diplomatic talent and speaks about something only when it is necessary and beneficial for his cause; silence about some facts and incorrect coverage of others never stops him. In most cases, Xenophon does not resort to simple distortion of facts: his favorite methods are silence and distraction of the reader’s attention with inserted minor episodes in order to weaken the unfavorable impression caused by certain actions or failures of the Spartans. It goes without saying that he constantly underestimates the fortunes of Sparta's enemies and exaggerates the importance and significance of Spartan successes; Despite the fact that he usually reports only the truth, the impression is often exactly the opposite of reality, due to the fact that he dwells for a long time on secondary events that are unimportant for the general course of affairs, and mentions the most important facts only in passing.
my book by Scipio the Younger and Cicero). In imitation of the Cyropaedia, a number of Greek books were written: Onesicritus and Marsyas wrote “On the Education of Alexander”, Nicholas of Damascus - “On the Education of Caesar”.

639

The history of Xenophon is not distinguished by the same merits as the works of his predecessors Herodotus and Thucydides: there is no breadth of outlook, no objectivity, no desire for truth. We have seen that Xenophon does not stop at systematic omissions and distortions of historical perspective, and sometimes even facts, in order to achieve the impression he needs. However, the historical works of Xenophon also have a number of merits. His “Greek History” is essentially not history, but historical memoirs written by one of the most active figures of the era. In addition, this is essentially the only history of this era that has come down to us, written by a contemporary: only pitiful fragments have reached us from Theopompus, Cratippus and Ephorus, and Diodorus, Trogus Pompey and Plutarch, who wrote several centuries after these events, although they go back in part to these lost sources, but in a number of cases they do not deserve trust, since they borrow material from third hands and, moreover, do not at all have the qualities necessary for a historian.
But, in addition, Xenophon as a historical writer has a number of advantages. This is an excellent expert in military affairs; on the other hand, he is a very intelligent person, who also had close personal relationships with the arbiters of the destinies of Greece at that time. Absurdities or absurdities, similar topics, which we find in the stories of later historians about the classical era, he will not write. He has very few fabrications or outright incorrect facts. True, as we have already said, Xenophon achieves the impression he needs by other, not entirely conscientious methods: by keeping silent or very briefly mentioning events that are unpleasant to him, by inflating the facts he needs, by giving them a meaning that they did not have, by diverting the reader’s attention in dangerous situations. his ideological constructions in places with all sorts of moral reasoning, dialogues, peculiar lighting, etc. However, all these shortcomings are to a certain extent balanced by the fact that Xenophon is a well-informed witness, accurately and with understanding of the matter informing the reader of the facts that he had to witness.