Greater Hungary. The area of ​​Hungary, its geographical location and population. Official language of Hungary

Ministry of Education and Science of Ukraine

National Mining University of Ukraine

Department of Ukrainian Studies and Political Science

Comprehensive control work

on the course "Political Science"

POLITICAL LIFE AND POLITICAL ORGANIZATION

HUNGARY

Completed: stud. gr. MO-01-1

Mazina Maria

Lecturer: ass. Vergun A.V.

Dnepropetrovsk

1. Brief information about the state and its role in the modern world 2

2. State constitution 3

3. The highest authorities of the state: their formation, powers, structure, scheme 4

4. State Shape 5

4.1. Form of state-territorial structure 5

4.2 Form of government 5

4.3 Type of political regime 6

5. Shape of the electoral system 6

6. Model of presidential power 7

7. Type of parliamentarism 7

8. Basic political parties(ruling, opposition) 8

9. Type of party system 9

10. Major public organizations and movements 9

11. Legal status of the individual 10

12. State type 11

13. Type of political system and its characteristics 11

14. List of used literature 12

In Hungary, the Constitution of 1949 formally continues to operate, in which almost nothing remains not only of the original text, but also of the version democratized in 1972.

The main amendments, adopted on October 23, 1989, changed the official name of the country from the "People's Republic" to the "Republic" of Hungary, guaranteed a multi-party system and introduced the post of president of the country instead of the presidential council. The 386 members of parliament are elected every four years. In mid-1990, after more than four decades of dictatorship, free elections were held.

With amendments to the constitution in 1989 and in August 1990, Hungary became a parliamentary republic. According to the constitution, the Republic of Hungary is a sovereign and democratic constitutional state, all power belongs to the people, exercising sovereignty directly or through elected representatives.

The current version of the Hungarian Constitution reflects all liberal and democratic tendencies. At the same time, some socialist birthmarks still remain here. The Hungarian Constitution, as amended in 1972, belonged to the least totalitarian socialist constitutions, and the communist regime in Hungary was more liberal than in most socialist countries.

The constitutional regulation of the organization and functioning of public authority has also changed radically. The main tendency is to strive to ensure democratic government based on the law, which guarantees the observance by the authorities of the rights and freedoms proclaimed in the constitution. The principle of the unity of power, the formal sovereignty of the soviets, which covered the sovereignty of the communist parties, is replaced by the principle of separation of powers, which is often directly enshrined in constitutions.

The implementation of this principle in specific constitutional norms and institutions, and especially in the practice of their functioning, is sometimes not consistent. The necessary balance between the legislative and executive powers is not always observed. The judiciary is often too weak. Meanwhile, the mutual balancing of powers is the main meaning of the principle of separation of powers, which prevents the monopolization of power by any one body or person. These shortcomings are understandable: on the new democratic ideology of power, new generations of bearers of public authority should still grow up. In the meantime, one has to reckon with a certain social inertia. Real democracy cannot arise from today to tomorrow; democratic habits and traditions must develop.

Relations between the three institutions of government - parliament, head of state and head of government - are built on the basis of democratic principles of control and balance.

Parliament (for 4 years)

State Assembly (176+152+58 = 386 members)

Unicameral Parliament – State Assembly- is elected by a mixed system. 176 deputies are elected in single-member constituencies, 152 in multi-member constituencies on the basis of proportional representation, 58 - on the basis of general proportional representation throughout the country.

The Assembly elects the President, the Prime Minister, the members of the Constitutional Court, the Speaker of National and Ethnic Minorities, the President of the Supreme Court and Attorney General. The most important laws must be adopted by a two-thirds majority, which ensures the rights in lawmaking and opposition representatives. A two-thirds majority is required to amend the constitution. The Parliament exercises control over the activities of the executive power with the help of parliamentary inquiries and interpellations, as well as the work of parliamentary commissions.

The Assembly has a chairman, three deputies and eight secretaries. Sessions are usually held from 1 February to 15 June and from 1 September to 15 December. Sessions are open and broadcast on television.

head of state – President of the Republic with rather limited constitutional powers, who is also the supreme commander of the country's armed forces. He is elected by Parliament for a term of five years and may be re-elected for a second term.

Executive authority – government- is formed by the Prime Minister, elected at the proposal of the President by the National Assembly.

Supreme judiciary countries are Supreme Court which has competence in civil and criminal matters, and Constitutional Court, the prerogatives of which are supervision over the observance of the constitution, examination of normative acts for their compliance with the basic law, decision-making in case of disputes between state authorities.

HUNGARY (Magyarorszäg), Republic of Hungary (Magyar Kôztârsasâg).

General information

Hungary is a state in Central Europe, in the central part of the Danube river basin. It borders in the north with Slovakia, in the east - with Ukraine and Romania, in the south - with the State Community of Serbia and Montenegro, as well as with Croatia and Slovenia, in the west - with Austria. The area is 93.0 thousand km 2. Population 10.06 million (2006). The capital is Budapest. The official language is Hungarian. Monetary unit - forint. Administrative-territorial division - 19 regions (county) and 1 city of republican subordination - Budapest (table).

Hungary is a member of the UN (1955), NATO (1999), CE (1990), EU (2004), OSCE (1973), WTO (1995), IMF (1982), IBRD (1982).

A. V. Drynochkin.

Political system

Hungary is a unitary state. The Constitution was adopted on August 18, 1949 (valid as amended in 1989, as amended in 1989, 1997, 2003). The form of government is a parliamentary republic.

The head of state is the president, elected by the parliament on the proposal of at least 50 deputies by secret ballot for a term of 5 years (with the right of one re-election). A Hungarian citizen who is at least 35 years old and has the right to vote can be elected President.

The legislative (representative) body is a unicameral parliament - the State Assembly (Assembly of the country), elected for 4 years according to a mixed system: 176 deputies - in single-member constituencies in a majoritarian system in two rounds, 152 deputies - on party lists in multi-member territorial constituencies, 58 deputies - on party lists in the nationwide constituency. There is a 5% threshold for multi-member constituencies.

Executive power belongs to the government. The Prime Minister is elected by the National Assembly, and ministers are appointed by the President on the proposal of the Prime Minister.

Hungary has a multi-party system. Leading parties: Hungarian Socialist Party, Hungarian Civic Party (FIDES), Hungarian Democratic Forum, Alliance of Young Democrats, Union of Free Democrats.

B. A. Strashun.

Nature

Relief. Most of the territory of Hungary is occupied by the Middle Danube Plain: in the east - the vast flat low plain Alfeld; to the west of the Danube stretches the dissected hilly plain of Dunantul (up to 300 m high). In the north-west of the country - the Kishalföld lowland, limited along the western border of Hungary by the foothills of the Alps 500-800 m high. Between the Dunantul plain and the Kisalföld lowland, the Middle Hungarian mountains with plateau-like massifs (400-700 m high) stretch from southwest to northeast , Vertes, Gerece, Pilish, Visegradi-Hedsheg. In the southern part of Dunantul, blocky mountains of Mechek rise up to 681 m high (Zengyo mountain). The north of Hungary is occupied by the spurs of the Western Carpathians dissected by wide river valleys (height 800-1000 m), represented by isolated volcanic massifs and limestone plateaus - Böržen, Cerhat, Matra (the highest point of Hungary is Mount Kekes, 1015 m), Bukk, Zempleni-Hedsheg and others (see map). In the mountainous regions of Hungary, karst landforms are widespread - caves, including Agtelek (Baradla); funnels, underground rivers, etc.

Geological structure and minerals . Hungary is located within the Pannonian intermountain basin - the largest in the European part of the Alpine-Himalayan mobile belt. The depression has an anomalously thinned crust (up to 25 km; with a reduced granite-metamorphic layer) and lithosphere (less than 80 km); the heat flow is sharply (2-3 times) increased. The internal structure of the cavity is complex. The formation is associated with long-term extension (rift stage - middle Miocene). It is superimposed on the inner zones of the Alpine-Carpathian and Dinaric branches of the mobile belt and is framed by their central and outer zones. The heterogeneous Caledonian-Hercynian-Early Alpine mantle-folded basement is overlain by a thick Neogene-Quaternary mantle. In the structure of the basement, two blocks are distinguished - Alkapa (in the northwest) and Tissia (in the southeast), separated by a narrow Sava-Zadunay zone, located between the so-called Balaton Line (a continuation of the Periadriatic fault) and the Middle Hungarian lineament, which cross the depression in the north -east direction. Submerged continuations of the inner zones of the Central Alps and the Slovak Carpathians (weakly metamorphosed Paleozoic and Mesozoic folded complexes) participate in the structure of the first block. At the base of the Tissia block are Paleozoic, partly Precambrian, metamorphic rocks (gneisses, crystalline schists), intruded by Carboniferous granites and overlain by Permian continental, Middle and Upper Jurassic shallow and deep water deposits, Lower Cretaceous continental-riftogenic alkaline basalts deformed in the Late Cretaceous. The narrow Debrecen-Solenok trough is made by Upper Cretaceous - Oligocene flysch. The Sava-Zadunaiskaya cover-shear zone is composed of Triassic-Lower Cretaceous sedimentary and volcanic rocks, ophiolites; formed during the closure of a branch of the Mesozoic oceanic basin (Vardar-Meliat). In the Late Oligocene-Early Miocene, a shear movement of the Alkapa and Tissia blocks took place in this zone, which was replaced by extension by the end of the Early Miocene. The sedimentary cover of the basin reaches a thickness of 7 km; distributed unevenly. In the section of the cover, there are Neogene-Quaternary shallow-marine carbonate-argillaceous and freshwater (river, delta and lacustrine) sandy-argillaceous deposits, volcanic horizons. At the end of the Middle Miocene, a volcanic belt formed on the border of the depression with the Carpathians. Miocene volcanics are represented by rhyolite-andesitic lavas, tuffs, and ignimbrites. Pliocene volcanism had a predominantly basaltic composition.

The most important mineral is bauxite, whose deposits are concentrated in the Middle Hungarian mountains (Halimba, Nyirad, Iharkut, Iskaszentgyörgy, and others). The deposits of oil and natural combustible gas are located in the south, southeast (Kiskunhalas, Aldjo, Pustaföldvár, Battonya, and others), in the west (Lovasi, Budafa) of Hungary, and to the northeast of Budapest (the Demien group of oil fields). Brown coal basins are localized in the northwestern foothills of the Bakony (Ayka), Vertesh (Oroslan, Tatabanya) massifs, in the southern foothills of the Gerech (Dorog) massif, in the spurs of the Western Carpathians (Nograd and Borshod). A lignite deposit has been discovered along the western border of Hungary. Deposits of iron ores - in the north-east of the country (Rudabanya), manganese - in the massifs of Bakony (Urkut), lead-zinc - in the mountains of Matra (Gyongyoshorosi), copper - in the spurs of the Western Carpathians (Richk). Among non-metallic minerals, refractory clays, bentonite, kaolin, basalts, andesites, volcanic glass, perlite, sand, gravel, dolomite, limestones, etc. are known. Geothermal energy reserves are mainly in the central and southern regions of the country. Mineral water springs are available in the western, southern, eastern and central regions.

Climate. Hungary is located in the temperate climate zone. The position of the territory of Hungary between the mountain systems of the Alps and the Carpathians determined the continental character of the climate. Winter is relatively mild (average temperature in January is from -2 to -4°C), summer is long and hot (average temperature in July is 20-22°C). Precipitation per year is from 800-900 mm in the mountains and in the south-west of the country to 450-500 mm in the center and east of the Alföld lowland, where severe droughts often occur. Precipitation is most abundant in early summer and autumn.

Inland waters. The territory of Hungary belongs to the Danube river basin (the length within Hungary is 410 km). The main right tributaries of the Danube within Hungary are the Drava, Raba, Shio. The eastern part of Hungary belongs to the basin of the largest left tributary of the Danube - the Tisza River (length within Hungary is about 600 km, navigable for 444 km) with tributaries Körös, Shaio, Bodrog. Some areas (for example, between the Danube and the Tisza) are almost devoid of surface watercourses. The rivers of Hungary are characterized by significant interseasonal fluctuations in runoff, water level heights and associated floods, to protect against which many rivers, mainly in the Tisza basin, are regulated: they are straightened by canals (Keleti-Föchatorna, etc.) and surrounded by dams with a total length of about 4000 km. Numerous reservoirs have anti-flood and irrigation significance. There are over 1,000 lakes in the country, including Balaton, Neusiedlersee (about 80 km 2 within Hungary), and Velencei-To (26 km 2). Near the southwestern tip of Lake Balaton is the largest lake of thermal origin in Europe - Heviz (about 0.5 km 2), near which the Heviz balneo-mud resort is located. Within the Alföld lowland, small, often drying up salt lakes are common. The annual renewable water resources of Hungary amount to 104 km 3 , mainly due to the transit runoff; water supply - about 10.5 thousand m 3 of water per 1 person per year. For economic purposes, 7% of water resources are used (of which 59% is consumed by industrial enterprises, 32% goes to the needs of agriculture, 9% - to domestic water supply).

Soils, flora and fauna. On the plains of Hungary, chernozems predominate, on the Alföld lowland there are solonetsous chernozems, solonets and solonchaks; along the Tisza and Danube valleys - alluvial soils. Burozems and rendzins are common in mountainous and hilly regions. Over a large area, soils are subject to intense deflation, erosion, and secondary salinization.

The vegetation cover of Hungary has been significantly altered by man; cultivated vegetation (arable lands, orchards, vineyards, etc.) predominates over most of the territory. Forests occupy 19.9% ​​of the territory of Hungary. Broad-leaved (oak, hornbeam-beech and beech) forests are common in the Middle Hungarian mountains and in northern Hungary with a height of 300-400 m. In the mountains of Berzhon, Bukk, Matra, at an altitude of 800-1000 m, pine and spruce-fir forests are found. Artificial plantations (7.3% of the forested area), which have an important anti-erosion and water protection value, are represented mainly by plantings of poplars and white locust. Up to 1/4 of Hungary's forests are degraded by acid rain. In the eastern regions of Hungary (Hortobágy), fragments of indigenous vegetation have been preserved - Pushta, represented by cereals, mainly feather grass with an admixture of forbs, steppes in combination with groves of oaks, birches with patches of juniper and silver poplar. Within the Alföld lowland, there are patches of solonchak vegetation.

The fauna of Hungary has 83 species of mammals, including 9 endangered species. Hares, hedgehogs, field mice, ground squirrels, and foxes are common. The avifauna is dominated by steppe and forest birds (larks, thrushes, woodpeckers, owls, etc.); on the banks of lakes and reservoirs overgrown with reeds, waterfowl and wading birds, including egrets, nest. There are 35 species of amphibians and reptiles. Pike perch, bream, pike, etc. live in reservoirs; carp are bred everywhere.

There are 236 protected natural areas in the country with a total area of ​​8.3 thousand km 2, including the national parks Hortobagy and Agtelek, included in the list world heritage.

Lit .: Vlasova T.V. Hungary. M., 1948; Recsi M. Physical and economic geography of Hungary. Bdpst, 1977; Climate atlas of Hungary. Bdpst, 1993; Romanova E.P. Modern landscapes of Europe. M., 1997.

M. A. Arshinova; A. A. Zarshchikov (geological structure and minerals).

Population

The majority of the population are Hungarians - 92.3% (2001, census). Of the ethnic minorities in Hungary, the majority are Roma (1.9%), Germans (0.6%), Slovaks (0.2%), Croats (0.2%), Romanians (0.1%); there are Ukrainians, Serbs, Slovenes, Poles, Greeks, Bulgarians, Rusyns, Armenians.

After World War II, the country's population grew steadily (9.2 million people in 1949; 9.8 million people in 1960; 10.3 million people in 1970). Since 1980, the population of Hungary has been gradually declining. The main demographic problems are low birth rates (9.76 per 1,000 inhabitants in 2005) and relatively high mortality (13.19 per 1,000 inhabitants); the fertility rate is 1.32 children per woman. Infant mortality 8.57 per 1000 live births (2005). Negative natural population growth (-0.26%) is not compensated by migration inflow (migration balance 0.86 per 1000 inhabitants, 2005). The share of children under 15 years old is 15.8%, people of working age (15-64 years old) - 69.1%, elderly people (65 years old and older) - 15.1%. On average, there are 91 men for every 100 women. Average life expectancy is 72.4 years (men - 68.18, women - 76.89 years).

The average population density is 108.4 people/km2 (2005). The capital region is the most densely populated (more than 1/4 of the country's population lives in the urban agglomeration of Budapest). The share of the urban population is about 60%. Large cities (thousand people, 2006): Budapest (with suburbs 2578.5), Debrecen (204.4), Miskolc (178.7), Szeged (159.8), Pecs (155.9), Gyor (128, 9), Nyiregyhaza (116.8), Kecskemét (105.8), Szekesfehervar (103.7).

In total, 4.17 million people are employed in the economy (2004), in the service sector - 66.7% of the employed (2002), in industry and construction - 27.1%, in agriculture and forestry - 6.2%. The unemployment rate is 5.9% of the country's economically active population (2004).

A. V. Drynochkin.

Religion

More than half (about 51.9%) of the population of Hungary are Catholics, about 15.9% are Calvinists, about 3% are Lutherans, about 2.6% are Greek Catholics, about 1% are other Christian denominations, including various Protestant denominations; about 11.1% of the Hungarian population consider themselves generally believers (without a strictly defined confessional affiliation) or identify themselves as non-Christian or non-traditional denominations; about 14.5% consider themselves non-believers.

On the territory of Hungary there are: 4 metropolises (Eger, Esztergom-Budapest, Kalocsa-Kecskemet, Veszprem), 9 dioceses, 1 territorial abbey (Pannonhalma), 1 Exarchate of the Byzantine rite (Miskolc), more than 2220 parishes of the Roman Catholic Church; 1 diocese (Budapest and Hungarian; established in 2000), including 11 parishes of the Russian Orthodox Church Moscow Patriarchy; 1 diocese (Budimskaya), which has about 40 parishes of the Serbian Orthodox Church; there are 18 parishes of the Romanian Orthodox Church, 2 parishes of the Bulgarian Orthodox Church, 2 parishes of the Austrian Metropolis of the Patriarchate of Constantinople. On the territory of Hungary there are: 4 church districts of the Protestant Reformed Church (about 1200 parishes operate); 2 church districts of the Evangelical Lutheran Church (about 320 parishes); there are more than 70 parishes of the Hungarian Methodist Church; there are a few Pentecostal communities, communities of Seventh-day Adventists, Mormons, Jehovah's Witnesses, Bogomils, Unitarians, as well as parishes of the New Apostolic Church.

The beginning of the Christianization of Hungary dates back to the middle of the 10th century, when Christianity began to spread in Transylvania, mainly under the influence of Greek missionaries.

The Hungarian Constitution, adopted in 1989, as well as the Law on Freedom of Religion and Freedom of Conscience and the Law on the Church (both adopted in 1990) guarantee freedom of conscience and proclaim the separation of church and state, establish equal rights for representatives of all religious denominations.

Historical outline

The territory of Hungary from ancient times to the end of the 10th century. The oldest monuments in Hungary date back to the Lower Paleolithic (Vertesselles and others). In the Middle Paleolithic of Hungary, 4 stages are distinguished: typical Mousterian of the Vabonian culture, Mousterian Levallois, Charentien-Jankovichien, early Selet; in the upper - three: Gravette, developed Selet - Aurignac and Madeleine. In the Mesolithic of Hungary, the Jasberen and Jastelek phases are distinguished, the latter partly synchronous with the beginning of the Neolithic.

The productive economy on the territory of Hungary spread from the 7th millennium BC as a result of influences from the Balkans. In southern Hungary, the Early Neolithic is represented by the Körös culture (see Starčevo). Under its influence, in western Hungary, after the transitional period of Bicke, the Transdanubian group of linear-band ceramics of the culture was formed, and in eastern Hungary, after the transitional period of Satmar, the culture of the Alföld linear ceramics was formed. These traditions continued in the Middle Neolithic: in western Hungary - the Zeliz culture ("ceramics of musical notes"), in northeastern Hungary - the Tisadob culture, the cultures of Bükk and the painted ceramics of Satmar formed from it, in the Middle Potissia - the culture of the painted pottery Estar, in the southeast of Hungary - by the Sakalhat group; in the valley of the river Marosh, monuments of the Vinča A culture appeared. Their traditions can be traced even in the Late Neolithic. In western Hungary, after the transitional period of Sopot-Bichke, the Lendel culture spread, in eastern Hungary (from north to south) - the cultures of Cheshalom, Herpai, Tisza. The Tisapolgar (Early Chalcolithic) and Bodrogkerestur (Middle Chalcolithic) cultures are continuations of the Tisa and Cheshalom groups. In Western Hungary, under external influence, the Lasinya-Balaton cultures, Furchenstih I and II ceramics are formed. In the late Eneolithic, almost the entire Carpathian basin was occupied by the Baden culture, only to the east of the Tisza are known monuments of the Yamnaya culture.

The beginning of the Bronze Age in Hungary dates from about 2800, the end - 800 BC. The earliest culture of this era is Vucedol in southeastern Hungary, in other territories - the Mako culture.

Later, under influence from the south, the Somodyvar-Vinkovtsi culture developed in western Hungary, Nagyrev in central Hungary, Nirsheg in northeastern Hungary, and Mako continued to exist in the north. Then, in western Hungary, the cattle-breeding bell-shaped goblets culture spread, in the Maros valley - the Oba-Pitváros group, associated with southern cultures. At the next stage, a pastoral economy continued to exist in western Hungary - the Kishaposhtag culture, in the Danube Valley and to the east, an economy based on intensive agriculture of the Near East and Balkan circles spread, which is connected with the appearance of telly cultures of Nagyrev, Peryamosh, Hatvan, Ottoman and continuing their traditions (except Nagyrev) of the Vatya, Fuzeshabon, Gyulavarshad cultures. At the same time, a culture of ceramics with chalk inlay spread in western Hungary. From the end of the Middle Bronze Age, development in Hungary was determined mainly by migration from the west, which led to cultural unification. In the late Bronze Age of barrow burials, the culture occupied western Hungary and the western part of Alfeld; to the east, the Haidubagos group, the Edek and Pilin cultures formed. At the end of the Bronze Age, western Hungary was part of the burial urn area of ​​the field culture, the Kijatice culture spread in northern Hungary, and Gava in eastern Hungary.

The beginning of the Early Iron Age in western Hungary is represented by the Hallstatt culture, and in eastern Hungary by the monuments of the so-called pre-Scythian and Scythian periods (8th-4th centuries), reflecting several waves of influence of Eastern European cultures on local groups. In western Hungary, from the end of the 5th century, separate finds are known, then - burial grounds and settlements of the Laten culture, indicating the penetration of the Celts, who partially subjugated or forced out the local groups of Illyrian-Pannonians. By the end of the 1st millennium, west of the Danube, the tribes of Boii, Tevrisks, Azals, Araviscs, Hercuniates were known, and to the east - Ozovs, Kotins, Anartsii. In the middle of the 1st century BC, the Dacians Burebista occupied the territory of Alfeld.

By the middle of the 1st century AD, the lands up to the Middle Danube became part of the Roman Empire, and western Hungary became part of the province of Pannonia. Following the military occupation (camps of the legions in Brigetsio and Aquincas), colonies and municipalities were founded (Arabona, Aquincas, Intercisa, Gorsium, Savaria, Skarbantsia, Sopiana, etc.), the local Celtic and Illyrian population was organized into special districts (civitates peregrinae) . Imperial Trajan divided Pannonia into Lower (capital - Aquincas) and Upper (capital - Carnunte). Pannonia was under constant threat from its neighbors: the Germans from the north and the Sarmatians from the east; it suffered especially during the Marcomannic wars. 3rd century - the period of economic and cultural prosperity of the province. During the administrative reforms of the late 3rd century, the territory of Hungary became part of the provinces of Pannonia Prima (the capital is Savaria), Pannonia-Valeria (Sopiana), Pannonia Secunda (Syrmium), Pannonia-Savia (Sistsia). The traditions of the Romanized population continued to develop even after the real power of the Roman Empire in Hungary ended at the end of the 4th - beginning of the 5th century.

At the beginning of the 1st century, the Sarmatian tribes of the Yazygs settled east of the Danube, later - the Roxolans and Alans; at the end of the 2nd century, vandals appeared in northeastern Hungary, and quads appeared to the north of Budapest. From the last quarter of the 4th century, their separate groups settled in the provinces as federates. In this capacity, detachments of the Huns appeared on the territory of western Hungary in 409 (or 420s), as a result, by the middle of the 5th century, the entire territory of Hungary became part of their state (the capital of Attila was in Alföld). After the collapse of the Hunnic state, most of western Hungary was controlled by the Germanic tribes of the Skirs and Ostrogoths, after the migrations of 526/527 and 546, until 568 - by the Lombards. In Potissia, from the 2nd half of the 5th century, the state of the Gepids was formed. After its defeat in 567, Avars appeared on the territory of Hungary, and the Avar Khaganate was formed. Not later than the 2nd half of the 6th century, Slavic groups penetrated the territory of Hungary.

In 796, the Avar Khaganate was defeated by Charles I the Great, western Hungary was made dependent on the Frankish state. In the 9th - early 10th centuries, the lands in the middle Danube were part of the Great Moravian state, the Blaten principality. Since 896, tribes of nomadic Hungarians, led by the leader Arpad, began to invade them, the so-called Finding of the Motherland by the Hungarians takes place. In 906, having defeated the Great Moravian state, they settled between the Tisza and Danube rivers, as well as in Transdanubia and began to make predatory raids on Germany, Northern Italy, and Byzantium. The limit of Hungarian expansion was set in the middle of the 10th century. Completely defeated in the Battle of Lech in 955 (near Augsburg) by the German emperor Otto I the Great, the Hungarians abandoned further conquests and finally settled in the middle Danube.

In the 2nd half of the 10th century, several principalities arose in the territory inhabited by the Hungarians, headed by Geza (from the Arpad dynasty), Koppany, Gyula, Ayton. At the same time, the Christianization of the Hungarians by Byzantine and Western missionaries began, gradually the Western Church took the dominant position. Having converted to Christianity around 973 and made alliances with the German emperor and German princes, Géza achieved a leading position in Hungary and ensured the transfer of power in 997 to his son Istvan.

Kingdom of Hungary (1001-1526). In 1000 (1001) Istvan became the first Hungarian king (he ascended the throne under the name of Istvan I). By 1018 he had completed the unification of the Hungarian lands under his rule.

Political and administrative reform, the legislative activity of Stephen I marked the end of the process of feudalization. During the reign of Laszlo I (1077-95) and Kalman (1095-1116), the Kingdom of Hungary expanded significantly. It included (and remained until 1918) the Kingdom of Croatia, including Dalmatia, and Slovakia. Under their successors, power struggles and failures in foreign policy threatened the internal unity of the kingdom. King Bela III (1172-96), under whom Hungary experienced a new upsurge, broke the internal opposition and strengthened royal power.

At the beginning of the 13th century, Hungary entered a period of feudal fragmentation. The power of the magnates increased. The golden bull of 1222 of King Endre II (1205-35), regulating the privileges of the nobles, gave them the right to resist the king if he violated their rights. The weakening of Hungary made it easy prey for the Mongol-Tatars in 1241-42. Bela IV (1235-70), who restored the country, pursued a policy of colonization, inviting Germans, Slavs, Vlachs to the deserted lands, supported the cities, giving them the right to self-government. Under his successors, the struggle for power intensified, the kings could not put an end to the separatism of the barons, the state apparatus actually ceased to function.

After the suppression of the Arpad dynasty in 1301, the Hungarian magnates, in an effort to maintain their leading political position, elected foreigners as kings. In 1308, the throne was taken by a representative of the Angevin dynasty, Charles Robert. He stopped feudal civil strife, strengthened royal power, providing it with constant income and, returning the domain lands seized by magnates, promoted the development of cities, laid the foundation for mining, and patronized international trade. Under him, the legal foundations of serfdom were laid. His son Lajos I the Great (1342-82) pursued an active foreign policy, reorganized the judiciary and the royal office, settled land relations between the crown and the nobles, under him the process of enslaving the peasants was actually completed. In 1370-82 there was a Polish-Hungarian union. After the death of Lajos I, as a result of the struggle of groups of magnates (the so-called leagues of barons), the crown went to Zsigmond I of Luxembourg (1387-1437; Holy Roman Emperor Sigismund I). The king's loss of the status of the richest landowner and the concentration of land and wealth in the hands of the magnates changed the balance of political power in Hungary for a long time. Under Zsigmond there were uprisings of the magnates, and in 1401 he was arrested by the league. In an effort to strengthen his power with the support of the cities and the church, he reorganized the state apparatus, removing administrative and state affairs from the jurisdiction of the barons and transferring them to "special advisers" from the middle nobles devoted to him. The election of Zsigmond as Czech king dragged Hungary into the Hussite wars. The defense system created by Zsigmond against the Turks who appeared near the borders of Hungary made it possible to delay their offensive for a century. Under the successors of Zsigmond I, when the struggle of the baronial leagues continued (1437-57), Hungary became an estate monarchy. Legislative power belonged to the king, as well as to the magnates and nobles, who formalized (1440) the privilege of electing the king. The activities and composition of the State Assembly were regulated: from 1439, nobles also began to participate in it; Citizens had virtually no access to state power. Regent (1446-52) under the young Laszlo V, the Transylvanian magnate Janos Hunyadi, who advanced during the struggle of the leagues, conducted a number of successful campaigns against the Turks, including winning the Battle of Belgrade in 1456. The son of Janos, Matthias Hunyadi (1458-90), elected king with the support of the middle nobility, achieved the strengthening of personal power, centralized state administration, raised the income of the crown, and created a standing army of mercenaries. During his reign, successful wars were fought with the Turks and neighboring countries - the Czech Republic, Austria. After the death of Matthias, the magnates strengthened their economic and political power. Elected by them to the throne, Ulaslo II Jagiellon (the Czech king Vladislav II; until 1526 there was a personal Czech-Hungarian union) signed pre-election capitulations, which weakened his position in the confrontation with the magnates. The stable position of Hungary during the reign of Ulaslo II Jagiellon (1490-1516) was achieved after the magnates established their control over all state institutions: the royal council and the chancellor ruled the country without encountering opposition from the king. The process of stratification that took place among the nobles at the end of the 15th century was consolidated by the decisions of the State Assembly of 1498. The middle landed nobility, ruined by the transition of peasants to large landowners, lost the opportunity to participate in the work of higher authorities. The naturalization of rent and the increase in corvée, which were observed in the 2nd half of the 15th century, as well as the prohibition of the removal of peasants by new owners, caused the Doji György uprising of 1514. In 1514, the State Assembly legalized the "eternal dependence" of the peasants and forbade them to have weapons. Under Lajos II Jagiellon (1516-1526), ​​the impotence of royal power, the loss of combat effectiveness by the army in the absence of help from other European states led to a catastrophic defeat from the Turks in the Battle of Mohacs in 1526, where the king died. In 1541, Turkish troops captured the capital of Hungary - Buda.

Hungary under the rule of the Habsburgs. In 1526, two kings were elected at the same time - the Transylvanian governor J. Zapolyai, who was supported by the so-called national party, and the Austrian Archduke Ferdinand I of Habsburg, who also became the Czech king. Until 1541, against the backdrop of Turkish expansion in Hungary, there was a civil war. As a result, Western Hungary and Croatia as part of the Kingdom of Hungary came under the rule of Ferdinand I, Eastern Hungary with Buda fell under the rule of the Porte (Buda Pashalik), Transylvania and Partium (Zatysya) formed the Transylvanian Principality under the suzerainty of the Turkish Sultan.

The Kingdom of Hungary became part of the multinational state created by the Habsburgs, which also included Austria and the Czech Republic. Ferdinand I (1526-64), Maximilian II (1564-76) and Rudolf II of Habsburg (1576-1608) pursued a centralization and unification policy, sought, by breaking the power of the estates, to strengthen the power of the monarch at the expense of estate-representative institutions. From the end of the 16th century, the Habsburgs pursued the policy of the Counter-Reformation in the most severe form. In response, a series of anti-Habsburg actions of the estates swept through various parts of their possessions. As a result of the successes of the anti-Habsburg movement under the leadership of I. Bochkai (1604-06), the Peace of Vienna of 1606 was signed, which guaranteed the equality of Protestants with Catholics and provided for measures to strengthen class self-government. The 1608-1609 confederation of the Hungarian, Moravian, Austrian estates against Rudolf II forced King Matthias II (1608-18) to fulfill their basic demands. Large anti-Habsburg movements in the 1st half of the 17th century were led by the Transylvanian princes Gabor Bethlen, Rakoczi Gyorgy I.

The wars with Turkey, which continued until the end of the 17th century, left their mark on the internal development of Hungary and relations with the Habsburgs. The peace treaties of 1547 and 1568 completed the first stage of the wars in favor of the Porte and established a semblance of a frontier. The Hungarians lost Buda, Szekesfehervar, Esztergom and other major centers. The war of 1593-1606 as a whole also ended in favor of the Ottoman Empire, while the Peace of Zhitvatorok in 1606 created a system of some balance of power that lasted until the 1660s. The military clashes of the late 1640-50s escalated into the war of 1663-64. Despite the victories of the Austro-Hungarian troops, the Peace of Vasvar in 1664 secured the Sultan's acquisitions in Hungary and Transylvania. The Hungarians' dissatisfaction with the domestic policy of the Habsburgs, disappointment with the conditions of the Peace of Vasvara contributed to the emergence of the so-called conspiracy of F. Veshshelenya (1666-70). The conspirators from among the Hungarian and Croatian magnates wanted to overthrow the power of the Habsburgs and turn the Kingdom of Hungary into a kind of Transylvanian principality (led by the Hungarian magnate, who recognized the suzerainty of the Porte), counting on the help of foreign powers (France, Venice, Ports). After the liquidation of the conspiracy, King Leopold I (1657-1705) created (1673) a new authority - the province, which limited the Hungarian class administration, brought large German detachments into the country and removed a significant part of the Hungarians from the garrisons. Most of the dismissed, petty nobles, runaway peasants made up the army of "wanderers", based in Transylvania and in the border areas. I. Tekoy, who led the movement in 1678, with his supporters, the Kurucs, with the support of the Ottomans, captured 13 northeastern Hungarian counties and formed there (1682) a vassal principality from Turkey, which existed until 1685. The successes of the Kurucians and the aggravation of the international position of the Habsburgs forced them to make concessions to the estates and restore (1681) the functioning of the State Assembly. During the war with the Ottoman Empire in 1683-99, in which Poland, Venice, and from 1686 Russia, took the side of the Habsburgs, in 1686 Buda was liberated, and then the entire middle Danube. The Peace of Karlovytsy in 1699 secured most of the territory of Hungary, Transylvania, and Croatia for the Habsburgs. In 1687, the National Assembly recognized the hereditary power of the Habsburgs in the Kingdom of Hungary and renounced the "right of resistance" granted by the Golden Bull of 1222. Under the influence of the anti-Habsburg movement of 1703-1711, led by Rakoczy Ferenc II, in 1707 the State Assembly announced the deposition of the Habsburgs. The Peace of Satmar of 1711, concluded after a series of military failures of the rebels, obliged the Habsburgs to respect the rights and freedoms of Hungary, while strengthening the position of the king.

The pragmatic sanction of 1713 issued by Emperor Charles VI (King Charles III of Hungary, 1711-40) was recognized by Hungary at the State Assembly of 1722-23; at the same time, the autonomous status of Hungary was confirmed. Maria Theresa (1740-80), who became the Hungarian queen, with the active help of the Hungarians, asserted the rights to the possessions of the Habsburgs and returned the monarchy to the position of a great power. The reforms carried out by Maria Theresa and Joseph II (1780-1790) in the spirit of enlightened absolutism were aimed at centralizing administration, modernizing the economy and social relations. The peasant reform of 1767 settled feudal duties, the education reform of 1777 laid the foundations for secular education in Hungary, and censorship was weakened. Newspapers and magazines began to be published in the country in German, Hungarian, Slovak (Magyar Hirmondô, Pressburger Zeitung, Magyar Museum, Pressburské noviny). Under Maria Theresa, the first manufactories were founded in Hungary, in the 1780s there were already about a hundred of them. Joseph II patronized manufactories, issued (1781) a law on religious tolerance, which gave non-Catholics access to public office and stopped discrimination against Jews, abolished serfdom (1785; restored, however, after his death), abolished a large number of monasteries and orders. At the same time, pursuing a policy of absolutist centralization, Joseph II tried to destroy the Hungarian self-government. He refused to be crowned with the Hungarian crown of St. Stephen and moved it to Vienna, stopped convening the State Assembly, liquidated (1785) the committee system, pursued a policy of Germanization, including office work in German was introduced in all state institutions.

Under the influence of the French Revolution of the 18th century, the opposition nobility developed a plan to overthrow the Habsburgs and elect Duke Karl August of Weimar as king. In January 1790, Joseph II was forced to promise to restore the State Assembly in Hungary and self-government in individual provinces. In the early 1790s, secret societies of the so-called Hungarian Jacobins, headed by I. Martinovich, arose in Hungary, Croatia and Transylvania. The draft constitution of Hungary they drew up provided for the proclamation of a constitutional parliamentary monarchy, the solution of the national problem by transforming Hungary into a federation of three self-governing provinces - Slavonica, Illyricum and Wallachia. In 1795, the leaders of the Jacobins were executed. The Napoleonic Wars contributed to the flourishing of agriculture in Hungary and the strengthening of the national economy, the country became the main supplier of agricultural products for the army and industry of Austria. As a result, until 1812, the Hungarian landowners supported the Habsburgs, rejecting the proposal of Napoleon I (1809) to grant Hungary independence. The measures taken by the Austrian government to overcome the financial crisis that broke out in 1811 provoked its conflict with the Hungarian nobility, and in 1812 the State Assembly was dissolved (until 1825).

In 1825, the liberal opposition of the nobility spoke for the first time at the session of the National Assembly, which marked the beginning of the so-called era of reforms, which preceded the Revolution of 1848-49 in Hungary. Opposition leader I. Széchenyi put forward a program to transform absolutism into a limited monarchy. In the 1830s and 1840s, the opposition achieved the adoption of laws on the redemption of peasant duties, on the support of trade and industry (1839), the recognition of the Hungarian language as the state language (1843), and the right to hold public office for non-nobles. In the 1840s, representatives of the petty nobility and the bourgeoisie emerged among the opposition, whose leader L. Kossuth came up with a radical program for the democratic reorganization of Hungary. 3/3/1848 Kossuth addressed the State Assembly with a program of reforms. On March 3, the National Assembly demanded the appointment of a government responsible to it. The uprising that broke out on March 15 in Pest was the beginning of the Revolution of 1848-49 in Hungary. On March 17, Emperor Ferdinand I (Hungarian King Ferdinand V) was forced to agree to the formation of a responsible government headed by L. Batthyani. On March 18, he issued a law abolishing serfdom. However, the proclamation of Croatian autonomy (adopted by the Croatian Sabor on 5 June) was not recognized in Hungary. On April 11, the king authorized a new constitution, according to which the country was declared a constitutional monarchy with the hereditary power of the Habsburgs, while there was uncertainty in relations with the imperial government in the areas of finance, foreign affairs, the maintenance of the army and the status of national minorities. On September 11, 1848, the invasion of imperial troops led by the Croatian ban J. Jelacic began the liberation war of Hungary against Austria and its allies. Batthyani's government, which resigned (September 15), was replaced by the Committee for the Defense of the Motherland, headed by Kossuth. The National Army formed by him inflicted several defeats on the Habsburg troops. On October 3, the king introduced a state of siege in Hungary, and on October 8, the Committee for the Defense of the Motherland was proclaimed the highest executive body. The enthronement of Franz Joseph I (1848-1916) was regarded by the Hungarians as a violation of the order of succession to the throne. After the defeat suffered by the imperial troops on January 1, 1849, the revolutionary government was evacuated from the capital, which on January 5 was occupied by the imperial troops. On April 14, the National Assembly adopted the Declaration of Independence; The Habsburgs were declared deposed from the Hungarian throne. After the start of the intervention Russian troops in May 1849, the military situation in Hungary deteriorated sharply, and disagreements among its political leadership intensified. General A. Görgey, who received dictatorial powers on August 11, capitulated on August 13. In March 184, the Olomouc constitution came into force: Hungary was divided into 5 governorships under the direct control of Austria. All power was concentrated in the hands of the governor-general, the comitat nobility assemblies were dissolved, and the laws adopted in 1848-49 were repealed. German was declared the official language. In Hungary, a military-bureaucratic regime was established, which aimed at the complete dissolution of Hungary in the empire.

Hungary within Austria-Hungary (1867-1918). In the 1860s, Franz Joseph was forced to make some concessions to Hungary: the Hungarian language was again recognized as the state language, the former judicial system and committee meetings were restored. The result of the compromise of the parties was the Austro-Hungarian agreement of 1867, which created a dualistic state - Austria-Hungary. Hungary, recognized as its sovereign part, received its own government responsible to the State Assembly, three ministries were all-imperial: foreign affairs, finance and naval; they obeyed only the emperor. Croatia, Slavonia and Transylvania, separated from it in 1849, returned to Hungary. On June 8, 1867, Franz Joseph was crowned with the crown of Saint Stephen. The first government of Hungary was headed by Andrássy Gyula the Elder.

The political situation in Hungary at the end of the 19th century was determined by the ratio of three political parties: the ruling party of Deák, the moderate party Left Center led by K. Tisza (as a result of their merger in 1875, the Liberal Party of Hungary was formed) and the Party of the 48th year (later Independence Party), represented by supporters of Kossuth. Andrássy's cabinet carried out a number of reforms: justice, committee, electoral, school. The new government supported the national industry and promoted the development of capitalist relations. received mixed reviews national policy Andrássy and his successors. In 1868, a law on a single Hungarian nation was adopted, which deprived all non-Hungarian peoples of national equality. The only exception was made for the Croats - the Hungarian-Croatian Agreement of 1868 gave them limited autonomy. In foreign policy, Andrássy, who became the Minister of Foreign Affairs of Austria-Hungary in 1871, was guided by an alliance with Germany.

The creation of Austria-Hungary gave impetus to the development of the Hungarian economy. Economic growth was provided mainly by the development of agriculture, the credit and banking system and railway construction. Orientation agricultural sector to foreign markets contributed to a change in the structure of production and exports: from the sale of agricultural raw materials - to the supply of processed products (primarily flour). By the end of the 1870s, the Hungarian flour milling industry had become a world leader. In agriculture and the manufacturing industry, advanced technology for that time was used. The expansion of the domestic market led to the displacement of the previously dominant foreign capital by Hungarian capital. For 30 years, the number of Hungarian credit institutions has grown 15 times, their capital - 10 times, and foreign capital accounted for less than 50% of the total money supply in banks. Construction railways, which began actively in the late 1860s, and the needs of agriculture in technology contributed to the beginning of industrialization. By 1914, the national income had tripled, with an average annual growth rate of 2.5%. The government pursued a patronizing policy towards national industry. Hungarian engineers and inventors (O. Blaty, A. Mehvart, F. Deri, and others) made a number of discoveries in the field of electrical engineering, casting, and others, which have found application throughout the world. In 1872, Buda, Obuda and Pest were united into a single city - Budapest. In 1896, during the celebrations on the occasion of the 1000th anniversary of the Finding of the Motherland by the Hungarians, the first subway on the continent was opened in the capital.

In the second half of the 19th century, the working class entered the political scene in Hungary. In 1868, the first socialist organization in Hungary, the General Workers' Union, was created, and in 1890, the Social Democratic Party of Hungary (SDPV), which led the workers' movement until the end of World War I.

The crisis of the dualistic empire, which emerged at the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries, provoked the adoption of harsh measures: in Hungary, the government of I. Tisza (1903-05) cracked down on popular unrest and suppressed the parliamentary opposition.

During World War I, the Hungarian government supported the ruling dynasty. However, failures at the front and the outbreak of the economic crisis led to a political crisis in Hungary: the opposition parties began to demand the conclusion of a separate peace and the proclamation of an independent Hungarian state. In the context of the collapse of Austria-Hungary, on October 25, 1918, representatives of the Independence Party, the Radical Party and the SDPV created the Hungarian National Council under the leadership of M. Károlyi. The Council published an appeal demanding peace, democratic reforms, recognition of the right of nations to self-determination, etc. Károlyi's supporters seized all the key buildings and state institutions in Budapest. The October Revolution of 1918 was called the Aster Revolution. On 10/31/1918 Karolyi was appointed prime minister (since 11/1/1919 interim president). 11/16/1919 Hungary was proclaimed a republic.

Hungary in 1919-45. Negotiations between the government and the Entente did not bring the expected results. On March 20, 1919, the Entente, through French representatives, presented Hungary with an ultimatum, according to which the Hungarian army was to withdraw beyond the new demarcation line. M. Karoyi assessed this as a threat to the occupation of Hungary by the Entente and rejected the ultimatum. At the same time, the government was losing popularity among the working people, who did not get it to quickly implement their demands. Having lost support in society, on March 21, 1919, Károlyi resigned, and the Hungarian Soviet Republic of 1919 was proclaimed. After its fall in the conditions of the offensive of the Romanian troops on Budapest (1.8.1919), M. Horthy was the only political figure who controlled the army and enjoyed ever-increasing popularity in society. The Entente agreed to recognize the government, the composition of which was personally controlled by Horthy and his supporters. On March 1, 1920, Horthy was elected regent. On June 4, the Trianon Peace Treaty of 1920 was signed, under which Hungary lost two-thirds of its territory and about 60% of its population. In the 1920s, Horthy relied on the governments of P. Teleki (1920-21) and I. Bethlen (1921-31). In 1921, an agreement was concluded with the Social Democrats - the so-called Bethlen-Peyer Pact. On the right flank, along with legal political parties and organizations, there were secret unions and societies (see Union Etelköz). The government sought to suppress both the communists (see the article Hungarian Socialist Workers' Party) and right-wing extremists. The agrarian reform carried out by the government of Bethlen in 1921, which provided allotments to landless laborers, did not solve the land problem, since it affected only 8% of arable land. The restrictive qualifications introduced in 1922 led to a significant reduction (by 750,000) in the number of voters; open voting was held in rural constituencies. In the 1920s, in the difficult situation of breaking established economic ties after the collapse of the empire, there was a gradual recovery of the Hungarian economy.

The global economic crisis that broke out in 1929 and also affected Hungary led to political changes. In 1932, D. Gömbös, who represented right-wing circles and the fascist elements of the army, was placed at the head of the government (until 1936). Gömbös came up with a program for the revival of the Hungarian nation, which included a revision of the borders. Hungary's foreign policy allies were Italy and Germany. The government of K. Daranyi (1936-38) in foreign economic relations also staked on cooperation with Germany. In 1936-38, events in the international arena contributed to the strengthening of the positions of the Hungarian fascist organizations. The final turn of Hungary towards Nazi Germany took place during the premiership of B. Imredy (1938-39). In 1939, Hungary joined the Anti-Comintern Pact, and on November 20, 1940, the Three Powers Pact of 1940. In April 1941, Hungarian troops took part in the German attack on Yugoslavia. 27/6/1941 Hungary declared war on the USSR. Hungarian troops participated in hostilities on the territory of the USSR, and the country's resources served the economic and military needs of Germany. Since 1943, the Hungarian government has been trying to establish contacts with Britain and the United States. Horthy and Prime Minister M. Kallai (1942-1944) were ready for the immediate capitulation of Hungary and its transition to the side of the anti-Hitler coalition, provided that territorial integrity and the existing regime were preserved. In March 1944, the territory of Hungary was occupied by German troops; resistance movement began in the country. In April 1944, the Hungarian Council was formed in London from representatives of democratic emigration, headed by M. Károlyi, but it had practically no contacts with Hungary and had no influence on events. In October 1944, the Hungarian official delegation (the mission of G. Farago) negotiated an armistice in Moscow, on October 11 a secret agreement was signed, according to which Hungary renounced all territorial acquisitions after 1938 and declared war on Germany. On October 15, Horthy resigned as regent, appointing F. Salashi, head of the Nilashist party, as prime minister (on October 16), who established a dictatorial regime. Organizing the anti-fascist struggle of the Hungarian people, the communists initiated the creation of the Hungarian Front (May 1944) and the Hungarian National Independence Front (VNFN; December 1944) that replaced it. In September 1944, Soviet troops entered the territory of Hungary. On December 21, 1944, on the initiative of the Communist Party, which emerged from the underground, the Provisional National Assembly met in Debrecen; On December 22, a coalition Provisional National Government was formed. On January 20, 1945, an armistice agreement was signed in Moscow between Hungary and the powers of the anti-Hitler coalition. It obliged Hungary to take part in the war against Germany, establish borders in accordance with the situation on 12/31/1937, dissolve all pro-Hitler and fascist organizations, partially compensate for the losses caused by it during the war. On February 13, 1945, Budapest was liberated by the Red Army, and on April 4, 1945, the entire territory of the country.

Hungary in the 2nd half of the 20th - early 21st century. On November 4, 1945, democratic elections to the National Assembly were held, in which the Party of Small Farmers (PMSH) received 57% of the votes, and the Social Democrats and Communists received 17% each. The chairman of the IMAA, Z. Tildy, became the president of the country, and one of the leaders of the IMAA, F. Nagy, became the prime minister of the coalition governments. The agrarian reform of 1945 abolished large landlord and kulak landownership. On February 1, 1946, Hungary was proclaimed a republic. The Paris Peace Treaty of 1947 established the modern borders of Hungary. The vigorous activity of the communists, who organized the Left Bloc within the framework of the VNFN and achieved the adoption by the National Assembly of the 3-year economic plan developed by them, the split of the PMSH and the loss of the majority in the State Assembly on 31/8/1947 ensured the leading position of the Communist Party in power. In 1947-48, the communists ousted representatives of other parties from the government. Real power passed into the hands of the General Secretary of the Central Committee of the Communist Party M. Rakosi and other communist leaders. The policy of nationalization of banks and industry, collectivization of agriculture was pursued. 18.8.1949 was adopted new constitution, Hungary is proclaimed a people's republic. In 1949, Hungary became a member of the CMEA, in 1955 - the Warsaw Pact.

The construction of Soviet-style socialism in Hungary was accompanied by distortions in economic planning, forced collectivization, the persecution of ideological opponents, and the formation of the personality cult of M. Rakosi. General dissatisfaction with government policies and bureaucracy grew. The process of "de-Stalinization", which developed after 1953, took place in an environment of confrontation between Rakosi and I. Nagy, a supporter of economic and political reforms (head of government in 1953-55). The growth of internal contradictions in Hungary led to the Hungarian uprising of 1956, which was suppressed with the help of Soviet troops. The government came to power under the leadership of J. Kadar. In 1960-63, some democratization of society and power took place, the country embarked on the path of economic reforms. In 1977-78, the Kadar government carried out a number of reforms to introduce market principles in the economy, to stimulate industries that produce export products.

The political changes that have taken place since the mid-1980s in the USSR have influenced the development of Hungary. In 1988 J. Kadar was forced to retire. Many political parties resumed their activities or were founded: the Hungarian Democratic Forum (MDF), the Union of Free Democrats, the Union of Young Democrats, IMSH, SDPV, etc. In 1989, a multi-party system was legalized and democratic elections were held. On October 23, 1989, the Republic of Hungary was proclaimed. Its first prime minister was J. Antall (1990-93), and its president was A. Göntz (1990-2000). In 1991, Soviet troops were withdrawn from Hungary. In 1993-96, Hungary signed agreements with Romania, Slovakia and Ukraine on the inviolability of existing borders. In 1994, Hungary authorized the deployment of NATO troops on its territory, in 1999 it joined NATO, and in 2004 - the EU.

Lit.: Acsády I. Magyarorszag harom részre oszlanasak tôrténete. 1526-1608. Bdpst, 1897. Kot. 5; History of Hungary: In 3 vols. M., 1971-1972; Bak J. Konigtum und Stande in Ungarn im 14-16. Jahrhundert. Wiesbaden, 1973; Ma-gyarorszâg tortenete. Bdpst, 1976-1989. Kot. 1-10; Gonda 1., Niederhauser E. A Habsburgok. Egy europai jelenség. Bdpst, 1977; Kann R. A. Geschichte des Habsburgerreiches: 1526-1918. W.u.a., 1977; Ujvari Zs. Nagy ket csâszâr birodalmi közöt. Bdpst, 1984; Chizmadia A., Kovacs K., Astalos L. History of the Hungarian state and law. M., 1986; A Brief History of Hungary / Ed. T. M. Islamova. M., 1991; Hoensch J. K. A history of modern Hungary, 1867-1994. 2nd ed. L., 1996; Lendvai P. Die Ungarn. Munch., 1999; Kontler L. History of Hungary. Millennium in the center of Europe. M., 2002.

J. Makkai, K. Toth, E. Istvanovich, B. Kulchar (archaeology); K. T. Medvedev.

economy

Hungary is an industrial-agrarian country with an average level of economic development. The volume of GDP is 149.3 billion dollars (according to purchasing power parity, 2004), per capita is 14.9 thousand dollars (about 1/2 of the level of the 4 leading EU countries). Human Development Index 0.862 (2003; 35th out of 177 countries).

Among the former socialist countries of Europe, the economy of Hungary (along with the Czech Republic) is developing most successfully. In 2005, GDP growth amounted to 4.1%, the inflation rate - 3.6%. In 1999, the privatization of the branches of the economy was basically completed. In the private sector of the economy at the beginning of the 21st century, more than 80% of GDP is created (in 1990 - 10%). As part of the so-called residual privatization, the remaining state-owned enterprises are gradually transferred to private ownership. The share of foreign capital in the ownership structure in the country's economy reaches 30%. Of the 200 largest enterprises, about 160 are partially or wholly foreign-owned; every tenth Hungarian company has a foreign partner, co-founder or owner.

In the structure of GDP, the service sector accounts for 65.3%, industry and construction - 31.4%, agriculture and forestry - 3.3% (2004).

Industry. Since 2002, there has been a steady trend in industrial growth; in 2005 the volume of production increased by 7.3%. Hungarian industry is highly involved in the international division of labor: over 1/2 (53%, 2005) of production is exported. Large enterprises (with more than 300 employees) export 60-80% of their products. The concentration of production is increasing, especially in mechanical engineering, energy and petrochemistry; large enterprises account for about 2/3 of the volume of industrial production. About 2/3 of the products of the Hungarian industry (in terms of value) are produced at enterprises owned by foreigners.

During the years of reforms there have been noticeable changes in the sectoral structure of industry. The share of extractive industries in the gross value of industrial output in 1985-2005 decreased from 6.9% to 0.4%, oil chemical industry- from 19.2% to 18.9%, food industry - from 20.0% to 11.4%, leather, footwear and textile industry - from 8.0% to 2.1%; the share of the electrical and electronics industry increased (from 7.5% to 28.2%), transport engineering (from 5.2% to 14.3%). The most important industries (mid-2000s): mechanical engineering (including the electrical and electronic industries, transport engineering), chemical (including petrochemical and chemical-pharmaceutical), food.

In the structure of the fuel and energy balance of Hungary, oil and oil products account for 33.2%, natural gas - 37.1%, coal and lignite - 14.3%, atomic energy- 12.6%, hydropower and other sources - 2.8% (2003). Up to 70% of energy resources are imported, mainly from Russia (oil, gas, coal, nuclear fuel). Oil production (in Nagylengyel, Zala region, and in Alföld) decreased from 2 million tons in 1985 to 860 thousand tons in 2005, natural gas (Hajdúszoboszló and other areas of Alföld) - from 7.1 billion m 3 to 3.0 billion m 3, respectively. Oil refining is carried out at two refineries: Danube (Sazkhalombatta) and Tissky (Tisaujvaros) with a total capacity of 10 million tons per year. The largest company engaged in exploration, production, transportation, storage, distribution and marketing of oil and gas is MOL, which is the only company in Hungary that transports imported hydrocarbon raw materials (operates a network of main oil and gas pipelines).

MOL owns a number of oil refining and petrochemical enterprises (including those outside the country), has a network of modern gas stations (over 440 in Hungary, Slovakia and Romania). Coal mining (hard, brown and lignite) 13.2 million tons (2003).

Installed capacity of power plants 7530 MW (2003). Electricity generation 34.3 billion kWh; exports amounted to 8.3 billion kWh, imports - 12.6 billion kWh. The share of thermal power plants in electricity generation is 66.5% (the largest thermal power plants Matra, Dunamenti, Vertesh run on coal; Sazkhalombatta runs on fuel oil), nuclear power plants (the Paks NPP operates on the Danube, near the city of Paks, with a capacity 3.0 MW) - 32.1%, hydroelectric power plants - 0.6%, others - about 0.8%.

After the decline of the late 1990s, production in the ferrous metallurgy is gradually stabilizing (it works mainly on imported raw materials and ferrous scrap). Production of rolled steel 2.0 million tons (2004). The main metallurgical plants are in Dunaújváros ("Dunaferr"), in Diosgyor - Miskolc region ("DAM Stell") and Ozd. Aluminum production of 43 thousand tons (2005) is carried out at the plants of the MAL company in Ayk and Inot, the production of copper and copper alloys is carried out at the Ceppel plant (Budapest).

The most important and rapidly developing branch of mechanical engineering is the electrical and electronic industry. Most of the industry's enterprises belong to large foreign companies: Nokia, Siemens - production of mobile phones; "Philips" - sound reproducing equipment; "Electrolux", "Samsung", "Flectronics" - household electrical appliances; "General Electric" - light sources, etc. The main centers of production: the capital region of Budapest, as well as Gyor, Miskolc, Debrecen, Szekesfehervar.

The rapid development of transport engineering is associated with the creation in Hungary of a number of enterprises of large foreign automobile companies. The total amount of foreign investment in the development of the Hungarian automotive industry is over 2 billion dollars (2004). Cars are assembled by Suzuki (93,000 units in 2004, at the Esztergom plant) and Volkswagen (25,000 units, at the Gyor plant). Production of Opel cars was discontinued in 1999; the factory in Szentgotthard, which was engaged in their assembly, switched to the manufacture of gearboxes and engine blocks. The enterprises of the Ford company (in Szekesfehervar) were originally created as suppliers of components, assemblies and assemblies for cars. The Hungarian automobile company RABA operates in the industry - the production of diesel engines, trucks and chassis at factories in Gyor (in small quantities it also assembles Ikarus buses in Budapest). The Hungarian company "Ganz-MAVAG" is a traditional manufacturer of railway equipment (locomotives, wagons, etc.; factories - in Budapest).

The key branch of the chemical industry is the production of pharmaceuticals (40% of the sales value of the chemical industry); enterprises of the companies "EGIS", "Gedeon Richter", "Chinoin" - in Budapest, Debrecen, etc. The petrochemical industry is developed, primarily the production of plastics (35% of the industry's sales value); large chemical plants - in Kazintsbartsik ("BorsodChem") and in Tiszajvaros.

Enterprises in other industries (woodworking and pulp and paper, light and food) are experiencing significant difficulties caused by the loss of traditional markets, stringent EU environmental protection requirements, high electricity prices, rapidly rising wage costs, etc. With an overall significant growth of industrial production in the country in 2005, enterprises of the textile and clothing industry reduced their production volumes by 11.2%, woodworking - by 4.6%, food - by 4.4%. Since the beginning of the 1990s, the export of products from these industries, including food industry products (canned meat, vegetables and fruits, Hungarian salami, etc.), has significantly decreased.

Agriculture has been experiencing serious problems since the early 1990s. The hasty liquidation of agricultural cooperatives, omissions in the implementation of land reform, the insufficient level of financing of the industry, etc., led to a significant decrease in production volumes. Since the mid-1990s, the share of agricultural products in the country's GDP has declined significantly (from 17.7% in 1993 to 3.3% in 2004); the volume of exports of agricultural products, the area of ​​cultivated land, the number of livestock, etc., have decreased. The modern agrarian policy of the Hungarian government is aimed at strengthening the role of agriculture in the country's economy, especially in the traditional sectors - the production of grain, meat, vegetables, fruits and wines.

Agricultural land occupies over 6.4 million hectares (2002), or over 64% of the country's area, of which over 78% (or about 1/2 of the country's area) is arable land, over 5% - in orchards and vineyards, about 17 % - on natural fodder lands. The area of ​​irrigated land is over 210 thousand hectares.

The main crops of Hungarian agriculture are corn and wheat. The main corn growing areas are south and east of Alfeld and the Danube Valley, south of Budapest. Wheat is grown everywhere, the main areas of crops are on the chernozem soils of the Alföld. Grain harvest over 16.7 million tons in 2004 (including corn 8.5 million tons, wheat 6.0 million tons, barley 1.4 million tons, wheat-rye hybrid 0.6 million tons, oats 0.2 million tons) collection of corn of milky-wax ripeness 450 thousand tons of grain. Forage crops are grown, including alfalfa and corn for green mass. The main industrial crops (collection): sugar beet (2650 thousand tons), sunflower (1119 thousand tons of seeds), rapeseed (180 thousand tons of seeds). Collection of other agricultural crops (thousand tons, 2004): potatoes 650, watermelons 230, tomatoes 200, cabbage 160. Hungarian red pepper (paprika), onions grown in the vicinity of the city of Mako (in the south of Alföld), tomatoes, Erken asparagus, etc. Viticulture is developed (grape harvest 650 thousand tons in 2004). Hungary is known for the quality of its white (Tokay, Badacsony, etc.) and red (bull's blood, etc.) wines. Fruit growing (apples, apricots, peaches, plums, pears, cherries, etc.) is developed everywhere.

Livestock provides over 60% of agricultural income. The main branch of animal husbandry is pig breeding (it is developed everywhere). The main cattle breeding areas are the less arid regions of the Middle Hungarian Mountains and Dunantul, as well as the surroundings of Budapest. Poultry farming is developed, including the production of broilers. Livestock (million heads, 2004): pigs - over 4, large cattle- 0.7, poultry (hens, turkeys, ducks, geese) - 52. The needs of the domestic market are also satisfied by sheep breeding and fish farming in artificial reservoirs.

Services sector. The largest and most dynamic sector of the economy; the most important sectors: banking and credit system and insurance services (21.7% of GDP in 2003), trade and personal services (12.8%), transport and communications (9.1%), education, healthcare (5.4%) , administrative services, including defense (5.2%), etc. The banking and credit system and the sphere of insurance services, information infrastructure, telecommunications and communications are developing at a faster pace.

By the end of the 1990s, the modern financial system of the country was formed: state financial authorities (tax, supervision of financial organizations, the Hungarian State Treasury, etc.); set of banking and credit institutions; organizations providing services for non-state management of financial markets (stock and commodity exchanges, brokerage and dealer firms, and so on); insurance companies, pension funds, etc. By the beginning of 1998, the privatization of Hungarian banks was practically completed. The state remains under the control of the Hungarian National Bank (MNB; the country's central bank), which carries out emission and credit policy, general control over the financial market. The system of credit institutions in Hungary consists of 38 commercial banks (2003; 90.3% of the volume of all financial and credit operations), 193 savings cooperatives (5.6%), 9 specialized financial institutions(3.6%) and 4 housing savings banks (0.5%). The five leading commercial banks (OTR, K&H Bank, CIB, Raiffeisen, Erste) collectively own almost 60% of the assets of the country's banking system. Over 60% of banking assets are owned by foreign capital.

Since the late 1990s, retail turnover has been steadily expanding ($26.7 billion in 2004). This is facilitated by the growth of monetary incomes of the population, the emergence of new trade formats (hypermarkets, shopping centers) and improving the quality of service. Trade turnover structure (2004): food and beverages - 33.8%, vehicles, spare parts and fuel for them - 28.4%, furniture and household appliances - 16.0%, cultural and educational goods - 9.5%, other goods - 12.3%.

The tourism sector is one of the most dynamically growing sectors of the economy (about 10% of GDP; about 300 thousand employees, or about 7% of the economically active population of the country). Hungary has a developed tourist infrastructure (hotels, catering places, beach, health and entertainment complexes, swimming pools, hunting lodges, fishing spots, etc.); annually receives over 15 million foreign tourists (17.5 million people in 10 months of 2005).

Transport. Hungary has a convenient transport and geographical position in the center of Europe and a well-developed network of transport communications. Of the total volume of domestic freight traffic (36.4 billion t-km in 2004), road transport accounted for 56.6%, rail transport - 24.4%, pipeline transport - 14.9%, water transport - 3.9%, others - 0 .2%. International and transit (through the territory of Hungary) transportation accounted for 62.3% of all cargo transportation.

The total length of roads is 159.6 thousand km (2002), including 70.1 thousand km of paved roads (including 590 km of expressways). The length of the railways is 7937 thousand km (2004), of which 7682 km have a standard European gauge (2628 km are electrified); inland waterways 1622 km (2004), mainly along the Danube. The most important river ports on the Danube are: Budapest, Dunaujváros, Baia, Mohacs, etc. The length of main pipelines is 5722 km (2004), including gas pipelines 4397 km, oil pipelines 990 km, oil product pipelines 335 km. The main gas pipelines pass through the territory of Hungary: "Brotherhood" (from Russia through Ukraine) and "Baumgartner-Gyor" (from Austria); oil pipelines: "Druzhba-I" (from Russia through Ukraine), "Druzhba-II" (from Russia through Ukraine and Slovakia) and "Adria" (from Croatia). Ferihegy International Airport, near Budapest. The leading national airline is Malev.

Foreign economic relations. The Hungarian economy is characterized by a high degree of openness and participation in the international division of labor. The foreign trade balance is chronically passive (since 1992). The volume of foreign trade turnover is 127.3 billion dollars (2005), including exports of 61.9 billion dollars, imports of 65.4 billion dollars. Over 70% of foreign trade turnover falls on the EU countries. The structure of commodity exports is dominated by machinery and equipment, mainly products with a high degree of added value (61.0% of the value of exports in 2005; communications equipment, sound recording and reproducing equipment, automated data processing systems, household and industrial electrical appliances, etc. ), as well as other industrial products (28.0%); food and beverages accounted for 6.1% of the value of exports, various types of raw materials - 2.1%, electricity and fuel - 2.7%. The main importers of goods from Hungary (% value, 2005): Germany (29.1), Austria (6.0), Italy (5.4), France (4.8), Great Britain (4.7). The most important import items (% value, 2005): machinery and equipment (50.5), other industrial products (33.5), fuel and electricity (10.2); food products accounted for 4.0% of the value of imports, various types of raw materials - 1.8%. Top suppliers of goods in Hungary (% value): Germany (27.3), Russia (7.4, mainly energy), Austria (6.7), China (5.5), Italy (4.9), France (4.7).

A favorable business climate attracts foreign capital to Hungary. By the amount of accumulated foreign direct investment (53.0 billion dollars, end of 2004), Hungary ranks second after Poland among the countries of Eastern Europe.

Lit.: Back to a market economy. Bdpst, 1999; Tiusanen T. Hungary in the 1990’s: business opportunities in a successful transitional economy. Lappeenranta, 1999; Business Hungary: Economics and Relations with Russia. M., 2002-2005-. T. 1-7.

A. V. Drynochkin.

Armed forces

The Armed Forces (AF) of Hungary consist of Hungarian army(VA) - 32.3 thousand people and border troops - 14 thousand people (2004), which are part of the Ministry of Internal Affairs.

VA includes the Ground Forces (SV; 18 thousand people) and the Air Force (7.5 thousand people); it also includes separate commands, institutions and units of central subordination (about 6.8 thousand people). Military annual budget $1.7 billion (2004). The commander-in-chief of the Armed Forces is the president of the country. The general leadership of the Armed Forces is carried out by the Minister of Defense (civilian), operational control is carried out by the Chief of the General Staff of the Armed Forces. After Hungary joined NATO (1999) in 2003, the country's leadership developed a new program for reforming the Armed Forces to NATO standards, designed for the period up to 2013.

The main directions of the military reform are defined as: improving the command and control system of the Armed Forces, optimizing their structure, combat strength and strength, building up the combat capabilities of troops (forces), reforming the recruitment and training system for military personnel. SV - the main type of the Armed Forces, they include 3 separate brigades (2 infantry and 1 mechanized), 2 separate battalions (reconnaissance and special forces), a training center, other units and subunits of combat and logistic support. The SV is armed with: about 700 battle tanks (T-72, T-55); 745 field artillery pieces, mortars and MLRS (towed 122-mm howitzers and 152-mm D-20 howitzers-guns; 122-mm Gvozdika self-propelled howitzers; MLRS BM-21); 400 ATGM launchers; about 1,400 armored combat vehicles and armored personnel carriers; about 350 MANPADS (Strela, Igla, Mistral).

The Air Force structurally includes 3 air bases, an air defense brigade and 5 regiments. They include 3 squadrons of combat aircraft, 2 squadrons of auxiliary aircraft, 5 helicopter squadrons, 2 anti-aircraft missile battalions. Armament of the Air Force: 100 combat aircraft (MiG-29 and MiG-21), including 60 in reserve; 13 auxiliary aircraft; 110 helicopters (Mi-24, Mi-2, Mi-8, Mi-17), including 46 combat ones; 44 launchers for medium-range missiles. The recruitment of the Armed Forces is carried out according to a mixed principle: due to the conscription of persons liable for military service in accordance with the Law on General Conscription, as well as the recruitment of military personnel on a contract basis. Total duration military service on call is 9 months. The training of officers for the Armed Forces is carried out in secondary and higher schools and academies in Hungary and abroad, sergeants - in training units, non-commissioned officers and ensigns - in special schools.

V. V. Gorbachev.

healthcare

In Hungary, there are 316 doctors, 66 general practitioners, 873 nurses, 46 dentists, 50 pharmacists per 100,000 inhabitants; hospital beds - 710, of which 77% - in the public sector, 9.5% - in university clinics (2004). Health care spending is 7.8% of GDP (budget financing - 75%, private sector - 29.8%) (2002). The healthcare system is based on the district principle, on the basis of compulsory health insurance and contracts. Primary care is provided by general practitioners; secondary - district clinics, as well as municipal clinics, dispensaries and hospitals. The public hospital sector provides care for acute and chronic diseases, specialized care, and rehabilitation. The incidence per 100 thousand inhabitants is: tuberculosis - 24.7 cases, viral hepatitis - 7.6, cancer - 771.2 (including breast cancer - 153.6), mental illness - 391.1 cases (2003). The main causes of death in the adult population are cardiovascular diseases, malignant neoplasms, suicides, and injuries. Resorts: Bala tonfured, Budapest, Byuksek, Kekeshteto, Parade, Harkan, Heviz, Siofok, etc.

V. S. Nechaev.

Sport

The National Olympic Committee was established in 1895. On Olympic Games ah 1896-1912, Hungary (which was part of Austria-Hungary) acted as a separate team. A. Hayosh in 1896 (Athens) became the owner of the first Olympic gold medal in the history of swimming (100 m freestyle, he also won the 1200 m distance). Most of the other major international victories in 1896-1936 were won by Hungarian athletes in fencing, swimming and boxing.

In 1945, the National Sports Committee and the Sports Center of the Hungarian Democratic Youth Union (MADIS) were created. In 1951, the Committee for Physical Culture and Sports was formed. In the early 1950s, the number of sports facilities increased significantly (before the start of World War II - 3655, in 1954 - 9655). At the end of the 1970s, there were over 4 thousand sports societies and more than 12 thousand sports sections; they employ over 1 million people. The most popular sports are: basketball, boxing, wrestling, water polo, volleyball, handball, kayaking and canoeing, athletics, table tennis, gymnastics, weightlifting, fencing, football, chess. The Budapest Institute of Physical Education is engaged in the preparation of teachers and trainers (about 1 thousand people study). From 1945 to 2004, about 800 Hungarian athletes won the titles of world, European and Olympic champions. In total, at the Olympic Games (1896-2004), Hungarian athletes won 156 gold, 136 silver, 157 bronze medals, at the Olympic Winter Games (1924-2002): 2 silver, 4 bronze medals.

Among the most famous athletes: L. Papp (the first 3-time Olympic champion in boxing history), J. Varga (2-time world champion and Olympic champion in Greco-Roman wrestling), A. Balzo (3-time Olympic champion in modern pentathlon) , K. Takacs (2-time Olympic champion in shooting sports), V. Barna, F. Shido, G. Farkas (multiple world champions in table tennis), I. Feldi (Olympic, world and European champion in weightlifting) , I. Elek, A. Gerevich, R. Karpaty, P. Kovacs, D. Kulchar (multiple Olympic champions in fencing), 3. Magyar (Olympic champion in artistic gymnastics), K. Egershegi (multiple Olympic champion in swimming).

The Hungarian Football Union (founded in 1901) is one of the oldest national sports organizations in FIFA (since 1906). The Hungarian football team twice took 2nd place in the World Championships (1938 and 1954), 3 times became the champion of the Olympic Games (1952, 1964, 1968). The best players in the history of Hungarian football are F. Puskas (the legendary scorer of world football), F. Albert, D. Grosic, I. Bozhik, N. Hidegkuti, K. Mesey, K. Sandor, F. Bene and others.

In 1836 and 1856 the first chess clubs were founded in Buda. In the 2nd half of the 19th century, I. Löwental, I. Kolisch, R. Charusek, I. Gunsberg (played a world championship match with V. Steinitz in 1890/91) achieved the greatest success. Since 1896, major international chess tournaments have been held in Budapest. At the beginning of the 20th century, G. Maroczy was considered a contender for the world championship, in the mid-1930s A. Lilienthal successfully performed. The Hungarian national team is one of the main contenders for victory in the World Chess Olympiads (1927, 1928, 1936; 1978 - 1st place; 1970, 1972, 1980 - 2nd) among men's teams and the winner of these competitions (1988, 1990) among women's teams. The strongest grandmasters and contenders for the world championship: L. Portisch, A. Adoryan, 3. Ribli, D. Sachs, L. Szabo. The Polgar sisters achieved unique successes: Zhuzha - world chess champion (1995-99), Judit - participant in the tournament for the men's world championship (2005, Argentina), Sofia - winner of a number of men's competitions.

Education. Scientific and cultural institutions

Since the late 1990s, the general management of educational institutions has been entrusted to local governments. The Ministry of Education determines the general criteria for the implementation of the educational process and the requirements for the organization of final examinations. The main regulatory documents are the laws: “On Local Government” (1990, amended in 2001), “On Public Education” (1993, amended in 1996, 1999, 2003), “On Vocational Training” (1993), “On Higher Education” (amendments 1996, 1999, 2003), "On Education for Adults" (2001), as well as the National Education Program adopted in 1998. The education system includes state and non-state educational institutions: preschool - for children 3-6 years old, a basic 12-year school, general education (classical) gymnasiums (4 years of study), 3-4-year secondary vocational schools (on the basis of a basic school), vocational schools and universities. Education is compulsory and free for children aged 6 to 18. In the 2003/04 academic year, 80% of children attended pre-school institutions, 99% - primary schools, 92% - secondary schools. A special type of educational institutions are art schools (attendance is free), which prepare students for further vocational training. The literacy rate of the population over the age of 15 is 99.3% (2004). Adult education is carried out in evening classes or in correspondence courses established in basic secondary schools, vocational schools and universities. The number of schools providing adult education is insignificant. A new type of vocational education institution is the regional human resource development and training centers (established since the mid-1990s).

into the system higher education includes universities, academies, institutes and colleges with university status. In 2004, there were 18 state universities, 5 church-run universities, 1 private university, 12 state, 21 church and 9 private colleges. The largest universities: in Budapest - E. Loranda (since 1635), I.F. Semmelweis Medical University (1769), technology and economics (1782; modern name since 2000), economic sciences and public administration (2003), theater and cinema (since 1865), graphics and design (1880), applied sciences named after F. Szechenyi (1968); universities: in Pec (1367), Debrecen (since 1538), Miskolc (1735), Szeged (since 1872) and others; Hungarian Academy of Fine Arts in Budapest (1871) and others.

The leading scientific institutions are the Hungarian Academy of Sciences (1825) and the Academy of Literature and Arts named after F. Szechenyi (until 1992 as part of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences) (both in Budapest).

Libraries: in Budapest - the National Library named after F. Szechenyi (1802), the libraries of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences (1826), the Hungarian Parliament (1870), as well as the libraries of universities, museums, etc. The main museums: in Budapest - the Hungarian National Museum, the Museum of Natural history (1802), the Ethnographic Museum (1872), the Museum of Fine Arts (1896), the Hungarian National Gallery (1957); a museum in the city of Szekesfehervar (1873), has the richest collection of antique exhibits from the period of the Roman Empire; a museum in the city of Miskolc (1899), famous for one of the best collections of exhibits of Scythian culture and objects of the Bronze Age; museum in the city of Szolnok (1933), has a rich collection of archaeological exhibits.

Mass media

10 national and 24 local newspapers are published (2005). Foreign media holdings play a significant role. Foreign investors own 7 national and all local publications, of which 10 newspapers belong to the Axel Springer-Verlag concern. The largest daily newspaper "Népszabadsâg" (since 1942) is published by the German publishing concern "Bertelsman", the newspaper "Magyar Hirlap" (since 1968) - by the Swiss concern "Rengier". Other publications are the newspapers Magyar Nemzet (since 1945), Népszava (since 1877), Heti Vilâggazdasâg; weekly "168 ora". Broadcasting since 1925. The state radio stations are Magyar Radio and Radio Budapest. Private radio stations - "Danubius Radio", "Slager Radio", "Juventus Radiô". Regular TV broadcasts since 1958. The state television company Magyar TV broadcasts on 2 channels. State satellite channel - "Duna TV". Private TV channels "TV-2", "RTL Klub". Hungarian telegraph agency "Magyar Tâvirati Iroda - MTI" (1880).

Literature

The literature of Hungary in the Middle Ages was represented by handwritten Latin-language monuments: chronicles, including the anonymous Acts of the Hungarians (circa 1284); lives, legends; they contained fragments in Hungarian. In the form of such inserts, the “Tomb Speech” (end of the 12th century) and the “Old Hungarian Lament of Mary” (13th century) have been preserved, which are considered the first examples of national literature. In the 15th century, the ideas of the Renaissance penetrated into Hungary, and humanistic literature arose. J. Pannonius is considered the first national poet, although he still wrote in Latin. In the 16th century there was a rapid rise in vernacular literature; at the end of the century, G. Caroli completed a complete translation of the Bible, which became canonical. Most of the writers of this period were ministers of the church: the prose writer and publisher G. Heltai, the poet P. Bornemiss. The wandering singer Sh. Tinodi was the first to publish his works in the form of a book. In B. Balashshi's lyrics, the spirit of folklore is combined with the traditions of European Renaissance poetry.

The Hungarian literature of the 17th century was dominated by the Baroque style. A prominent religious polemicist of the era - the leader of the Hungarian Counter-Reformation, Archbishop of Esztergom P. Pazman; the most significant poet is M. Zrinyi, the author of the epic poem The Sziget Disaster (1651). In the poetry of I. Gyongyoshi, the influence of mannerism is tangible. At the beginning of the 18th century, at the height of the national liberation struggle against Austria, folk songs of patriotic content flourished (the so-called Kuruc songs). Of considerable interest are the "Memoirs" of Prince Ferenc II Rakoczi. In the work of the prose writer K. Mikesh, primarily in "Letters from Turkey" (published in 1794), the features of the Rococo style are implemented. An important contribution to the renewal of Hungarian prose (the rejection of baroque rhetoric) was made by F. Faludi.

In the second half of the 18th century, D. Beshsheniy and his associates established the style of classicism in literature, creatively rethinking the experience of the French enlighteners. The poet and publicist F. Kazintsi at the beginning of the 19th century led the movement for the creation of the Hungarian literary language. Within the framework of the classicist canon, the historical drama “Bank Ban” by J. Katona (created in 1815) is sustained; in folklore traditions - M. Fazekash's poem "Mati Ludash" (1804). Both tendencies were successfully combined in his poetry by M. Chokonai-Vitez, whose work was not limited to the framework of enlightenment aesthetics and anticipated the poetic innovations of the 20th century.

In the 1820s and 30s, Hungarian literature developed in line with romanticism. The poets D. Berzheny, S. and K. Kisfaludi, F. Kölchei still combine a romantic picture of the world with classic poetics. The work of the poet and playwright M. Vöröshmarty was entirely in line with romanticism. In an atmosphere of growing social activity, a socio-critical novel (J. Eötvös) appeared. The pinnacle of the development of literature of this period is the revolutionary lyrics of S. Petofi, who combined romantic poetics with democratic ideas and the spirit of the people. Literary criticism is taking shape; its leading representatives are Y. Bayza and J. Erdeyi, who substantiated the principle of nationality in literature. After the suppression of the Hungarian Revolution of 1848-49, when the hope of gaining national independence was lost, the so-called folk-national school appeared in literature with its apology for the unity of the nation and the rejection of social criticism. Writers often depicted social life in an idyllic spirit (the work of M. Jokai, a prolific novelist, widely known outside of Hungary). A more pessimistic image of the era is recreated in satirical social novels by K. Miksat. The motives of dissatisfaction and despair dominate in J. Wajda's lyrics. The harmonious combination of an optimistic attitude towards the world and the absence of illusions is characteristic of Y. Aran's poetry, which is deeply folk in spirit. A special place in the literature of this period is occupied by the playwright I. Madach, who comprehends the cardinal existential problems.

By the end of the 19th century, symbolism and naturalism penetrated into Hungary. An intensive renewal of literature, expressed in the rejection of the traditional canons of poetics and meaningful stereotypes, occurs at the beginning of the 20th century in the work of E. Adi and other writers who rallied around the journal "Nyugat" (1908-1941), - poets M. Babich, D. Costolagni , D. Juhas, prose writers J. Moritz, M. Kafka, D. Krudi. Many areas of the literary avant-garde - expressionism (in Hungary it was called "activism"), surrealism, constructivism - are represented in the work of L. Kasszak. In the 1920s and 30s, a movement of “folk writers” arose in Hungary, recreating the life of the Hungarian peasantry in the manner of the so-called sociography: the poet and prose writer D. Iyes, the prose writers L. Nemeth, P. Veres, P. Szabo, A. Tamashi, J. Darvas and others. "Nyugat" during this period remains a platform for supporters of novelty and democratic, leftist trends in literature; in its orbit were the poets L. Sabo, M. Fyusht, M. Radnoti, prose writers F. Karinti, S. Marai, J. E. Tershansky, Lajos Nagy, T. Deri. The well-known poet of this period, A. Jozsef, was also associated with Nyugat.

A number of writers who were forced to leave their homeland after the defeat of the Hungarian Soviet Republic in 1919 settled in the USSR: A. Gidash, B. Illes, J. Lengyel, and others. The Marxist philosopher, esthetician, and literary critic D. Lukacs worked here for a long time. After the establishment of the Hungarian People's Republic in the late 1940s, many major writers were prevented from publishing; at the same time, talented representatives of the working and peasant environment entered the literature, including the poets F. Juhas, Laszlo Nagy, L. Benjamin, M. Vaci, I. Shimon, prose writers T. Cheres, E. Feyes, F. Shanta, I. Erken, L. Meshterhazy, D. Fekete, playwright I. Sharkady. All of them began their journey under the sign of socialist realism, but gradually socially critical tendencies matured in their work. In the 1960s and 70s, many writers came or returned to literature who did not share socialist ideas and who had previously been on the periphery of the literary process: prose writers M. Szabo, J. Mandi, M. Mesey, I. Kertes, G. Ottlik, M. Sentkuti, poets J. Pilinsky, S. Veresh, A. Nemesh-Nagy. In the 1970s, young writers appeared who combined political opposition with aesthetic and embodied in their work various forms of modernism and neo-avant-garde: prose writers P. Esterhazy, P. Nadash, D. Spiro, L. Krasnahorkai, poet D. Tandori and others. The transformations of the 1980s and 1990s opened the way for a wide variety of literary trends, mainly in line with postmodernism. The work of a number of writers is dominated by sharp social criticism, directed primarily against the ugly forms of post-socialist reality (Sh. Tar and others). In the literature of the 1990s, an important place was occupied by writers who had previously been in external or internal emigration: prose writer D. Konrad, prose writer and essayist B. Khamvash, poet D. Petri.

Lit .: Klanicai T., Sauder J., Sabolchi M. A Brief History of Hungarian Literature. Budapest, 1962; A magyar irodalom tortenete. Bdpst, 1964-1966. Kot. 1-6; Rossianov O. K. Realism in the new Hungarian prose: 60-70s. 20th century M., 1979; A magyar irodalom tôrténete, 1945-1975. Bdpst, 1981-1990. Kot. 1-4; Gu-sev Yu. P. Modern Hungarian literature in the context of the literatures of the socialist countries of Europe. M., 1987; Kulcsàr Szabô E. A magyar irodalom tôrténete, 1945-1991. Bdpst, 1993; Ùj magyar irodalmi lexicon. Bdpst, 1994. Kot. 1-3; Russians O. K. Two centuries of Hungarian literature. M., 1997; History of the literature tour of Eastern Europe after the Second World War: In 2 vols. M., 1995-2001.

Yu. P. Gusev.

Architecture and fine arts

On the territory of Hungary, Neolithic ceramics and sculpture, monuments of art of the Scythians and Celts, the remains of Roman settlements (Aquinc, now within the boundaries of Budapest) with works of ancient Roman art, jewelry of the Huns and Avars, traces of the settlements of the ancient Slavs have been preserved. The Hungarians, who appeared here in the 9th century, brought with them the traditions of artistic metal processing. By the 10th-11th centuries, the “lower churches” in Feldebro and Tihany with low vaults on massive pillars belong, by the 11th - early 13th centuries - Romanesque basilicas with powerful western towers and promising portals, often with rich sculptural carvings (in Yak, Leben, Pec , Jambek). The palace chapel in Esztergom (12th century) is distinguished by refinement and grace, the influence of French Gothic. In a number of monuments of art of the 11th century, the influence of Byzantium is evident (fragments of frescoes in the "lower church" in Feldebre, etc.). By the 12th century, the flourishing of the sculptural workshop of the city of Pec (reliefs of the church in Pec) dates back. The decorative art of the 11th-12th centuries is represented by metal products, enamels, and fabrics. At the end of the 13th-15th centuries, Gothic churches were built (in Sopron, Pest, etc.) and castles with high walls and towers (Diosgyor, Visegrad). In sculpture, bronze statues of the brothers Martin and György Kolozsvari (2nd half of the 14th century) stand out.

The art of Hungary reached its peak in the second half of the 15th century. The attraction of Italian architects and artists to the country contributed to the spread of the Renaissance culture. In Buda and Visegrad, royal residences were built with galleries, loggias, courtyards, terraces, decorated with statues and fountains. A secular spirit was also characteristic of church buildings (the Bakots chapel with order decor at the cathedral in Esztergom, 1506-07; spacious churches with mesh vaults in Nyirbator and Szeged). In painting, links with late Gothic traditions were preserved; Renaissance tendencies manifested themselves more fully in sculpture (the so-called Bathory Madonna and others). The art of the book reached a high level (manuscripts with elegant Renaissance ornaments from the library of Matthias Korvin) and decorative art (jewelry, glass, majolica).

The Turkish invasion (since 1526) interrupted and delayed the development of Hungarian culture for a long time. Many cities and monuments were destroyed. Since the end of the 17th century, Austrian influence and the Baroque style have been established in the art of Hungary.

Palaces are being built (in Rackev, Fertod, and others) and churches (in Pest, Eger, and Esztergom). In the middle of the 18th century, Baroque architecture flourished, acquiring original, intimate and restrained forms; in the work of the architect J. Felner, a transition to classicism is planned. At the beginning of the 18th century, the painter A. Magnoki laid the foundation for the development of Hungarian portrait art.

Since the beginning of the 19th century, with the development of industry in cities, extensive construction has been unfolding. Classicism prevailed in architecture and sculpture in the first half of the 19th century (the building of the National Museum in Pest, 1837-47, architect M. Pollak; work of sculptor I. Ferenczi). Romantic style was implemented in the work of F. Fesl, who combined oriental and Byzantine motifs. In the 2nd half of the 19th century, characteristic features of the architectural appearance of Budapest took shape - wide highways and imposing buildings in various historical styles (neo-Gothic Parliament building, 1884-1904, architect I. Steindl; neo-Baroque building of the Hungarian State Opera, 1875-84, architect M. Ybl).

In the painting and sculpture of the 1st half of the 19th century, classicist features were combined with the tendencies of romanticism and Biedermeier (landscapes by K. Marco Sr., landscapes, genre scenes and portraits by M. Barabash, portraits by I. Borsos, sculpture by I. Ferenczi). After the revolution of 1848-49, historical painting appeared, permeated with heroic-romantic pathos (V. Madaras, B. Sekey, and others). The work of M. Zichy played an important role in the development of graphics. The paintings of M. Munkacsy, S. Bihari, I. Reves combine the features of romanticism and realism; subtle lyrical intonation distinguishes the landscapes of L. Paal, close to the painting of the Barbizon school, as well as the works of L. Mednyansky and P. Signei-Mersche.

At the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries, buildings in the Art Nouveau style appeared (Museum of Applied Arts in Budapest, 1891-96, architect E. Lechner), monuments were erected (a monument to the 1000th anniversary of Hungary in Budapest, 1894-1929). In the architecture of the 1st half of the 20th century, the ideas of functionalism, embodied in the work of F. Molnar, were important; the development of architectural rationalism was influenced by the buildings of B. Laita.

In the visual arts of the 1900s-10s, the democratic national traditions were continued by the artists of the so-called Nagybanyi group, who used plein-air painting techniques (Sh. I. Costa, I. Nagy and others), as well as A. Fenyesh and others. In the work of T. Chontvari, folk-national motifs were combined with visionaryism, a symbolist attraction to antiquity and exoticism; the creator of exquisite decorative portraits, J. Ripl-Ronay, was close to the French artists of the Nabis group. The masters of the avant-garde association "Eight" (K. Kernstock, B. Pohr, R. Beren) turned to the means of expressionism in search of emotional sharpness and effectiveness of art. In 1915-16, a group of anti-militarist artists close to Hungarian activism began its activities (B. Uitz, S. Bortnik, J. Nemes-Lampert, and others). Masters of both groups during the period of the Hungarian Soviet Republic (1919) participated in the design of folk festivals, created revolutionary posters.

After the Horthy dictatorship was established in Hungary, many artists worked in exile (Witz, Bortnik, L. Moholy-Nagy, and others). The traditions of socially pointed art were developed by the painters D. Derkovich (also a graphic artist), I. Dechy-Huber, the sculptor L. Meszáros, and others. .). The dominant trends in art were naturalism, academicism and neo-baroque. In sculpture, the works of F. Medgyessy and B. Ferenczi stood out, distinguished by their generalized forms and freedom of modeling, in painting - exquisitely colorful canvases on peasant themes by V. Aba-Novak, landscapes and genre scenes by A. Bernat, I. Sönyi, and others.

The architecture of Hungary after 1945 is characterized by the expediency of planning, a combination of simple, clear volumes, the use of frame-panel structures, the widespread use of frescoes, mosaics, murals, sgraffito, etc.; small-form sculpture is used in urban development. Modern buildings are successfully combined with historical ensembles. Cities were reconstructed, old districts were improved and new districts were built (in Budapest, etc.). Postmodernist tendencies initially manifested themselves in the reconstruction of the center of Pec (residential buildings designed by S. Deveni, 1979-85), later they developed in the works of G. Bachmann, A. Kovacs, L. Rajk, who ironically cited motifs of constructivist and post-war neoclassical architecture. High-tech style distinguishes the projects of J. Fint, C. Virak, L. Zalavary of the 1990s - early 2000s.

Masters of the older generation (a group of Alföld artists; sculptors P. Patsai, S. Mikush, and others) played an important role in the development of the fine arts of Hungary in the second half of the 20th century. Since the late 1940s, easel and monumental painting on historical themes has become widespread; significant works of monumental and decorative art were created (the Liberation Monument on Mount Gellert in Budapest, 1947, J. Kisfaludy-Strobl, and others). In the art of the late 1960s - early 1970s, interest in abstract and complicated expressive solutions increased (painting by F. Martin, T. Durai, F. Salai, Y. Barchai, sculpture by I. Somogyi, T. Wilt; painting and graphics B. Condor, A. Wurtz), sometimes marked by features of surrealism (painting by T. Chernush, sculpture by I. Varga, graphics by A. Grosh, D. Khints). The techniques of hyperrealism are used in their work by E. Benedek and I. Machai. In the 1960s and 1980s, great successes were achieved in easel and monumental sculpture, imbued with heroic and dramatic pathos (E. Kerenyi, M. Borshosh, I. Kishsh, J. Konerchik, and others). In the arts and crafts of the 2nd half of the 20th century, modern forms are tactfully combined with folk traditions(ceramics by M. Kovacs and I. Gador, tapestries by D. Hints, G. Solti, M. Selvitsky, E. Fota, L. Geycher and others; works by designer L. Finta and others). At the end of the 20th - beginning of the 21st century, pop art (sculptor J. Iovanovitch), conceptual art (T. Sentjobi, P. Türk), happening (G. Altoryai) developed.

Lit.: Hekler A. Ungarische Kunstgeschichte. V., 1937; Tikhomirov A. N. Art of Hungary IX-XX centuries. M., 1961; Kampis A. The his-tory of art in Hungary. bdpst, ; A magyarorszâgi müvészet tôrténete... / Ed. L. Fulep. Bdpst, 1970. Kot. 1-2; Rados J. Magyar épitészettôrténet. Bdpst, 1971; Svetlov I. E. Sculpture of People's Hungary. M., 1971; he is. From Romanticism to Symbolism: Essays on Polish and Hungarian Painting XIX - early. XX centuries SPb., 1997; Nemeth L. Modern Magyar müveszet. Bdpst, 1972; Feuerne T.R. Reneszansz epiteszet Magyarorszâgon. Bdpst, 1977; A Magyarorszâgi müvészet tôrténete. Bdpst, 1981. Kot. 1-2; Szilärdffy Z. Barokk szentkepek Magyarorszâgon. Bdpst, 1984; A historizmus müveszete Magyarorszâgon. Bdpst, 1993; Hungarian art and literature of the 20th century. SPb., 2005.

Music

The appearance of the musical culture of Hungary is largely determined by the specifics of Hungarian folklore (see the article Hungary). With the adoption of Catholicism, Gregorian chant entered Hungary. Court music developed from the 15th century: the royal chapel in Buda was one of the best in Europe. In the 16th century, the first secular musical works with Hungarian texts appeared, along with historical songs and legends, they were published in the collections of Ch. Tinodi (1554) and B. Backfark (1553, 1565). In the 17-18 centuries, chapels were created in the residences of the Austro-Hungarian aristocrats, I. Haydn (1761-1790) led the orchestra of the Esterhazy princes. The formation of professional music took place within the framework of the verbunkosh style (known since the end of the 18th century), which was developed in the work of virtuoso violinists and composers J. Bihari, J. Lavotta, A. Cermak, who led gypsy orchestras and theater troupes. The influence of the verbunkos style is already noticeable in the first Hungarian operas written in the first half of the 19th century (I. Ruzicka, A. Bartai, M. Rojaveldy). F. Erkel created operas based on subjects from national history, of which Laszlo Hunyadi (1844) and Bank Ban (1861; both staged in Pest) continue to be staged on the world opera stage. Romantic pianist and composer I. Székely created several piano cycles that laid the foundation for the so-called Hungarian Rhapsody. The pinnacle of Hungarian romantic music is the work of F. Liszt, one of the greatest European composers of the 19th century, the author of 19 "Hungarian Rhapsodies" and other compositions on a national theme. The operettas written in the 1st quarter of the 20th century by F. Lehar and I. Kalman (including The Queen of Czardas, staged in 1915 in Vienna), containing Hungarian song and dance elements, gained wide popularity. At the end of the 19th century, the National Performing School was glorified by the virtuoso violinists E. Remenyi and E. Hubai. World-famous violinists J. Joachim and L. Auer also began their career in Hungary. Famous musicians came from Hungary - conductor A. von Nikisch, violinist K. Flesh.

In the 1890s, interest in old peasant folklore arose in Hungary, and in 1896 B. Vikar made the first recordings of it on a phonograph. Systematic scientific research was initiated in the 1900s by 3. Kodai and B. Bartok. The "discovery" of the peasant Hungarian song contributed to the renewal of the composer's style and, on a pan-European scale, the emergence of neo-folklorism. In the work of Bartók, the greatest Hungarian composer of the 20th century and one of the brightest musicians in the history of European music, elements of peasant folklore were combined with the latest phenomena of modern professional music, often the most radical for that time. His ballet The Wonderful Mandarin (1926, Cologne), Music for Strings, Percussion and Celesta (1936), Concerto for Orchestra (1943) and others became world classics. opera Hari Janos (1926, Budapest).

Composers E. Adam, Sh. Balassha, L. Weiner, J. Durko, P. Kadosha, L. Light, E. Lendvai, D. Ranki, F. Szabo, I. Selenyi, E. Sekey, A Sölloshi, F. Farkas and others. The operas of S. Sokolai (“The Bloody Wedding” after F. Garcia Lorca, 1964, Budapest) and E. Petrovich (“С’est la guerre”, 1962, Budapest), the works of E. von Donany (also pianist and conductor). The largest Hungarian avant-garde composers of the 2nd half of the 20th century are D. Ligeti and D. Kurtag. Among the most significant Hungarian musicologists are L. Bardos (also a composer), D. Barta, D. Kerenyi, B. Sabolchi, J. Uyfalussy. Among the world-famous performers are the conductors A. Dorati, J. Ferenchik, F. Frychai, G. Solti, who worked in Hungary and abroad; pianists G. Anda, A. Fischer, T. Vashari, Z. Kochis; violinist J. Szigeti; singers M. Ifogyun, Sh. Konya, E. Marton, M. Sekey, S. Shashsh.

In Budapest there are: the Hungarian State Opera (1837), the Hungarian National Philharmonic Orchestra (founded in 1923, since 1952 - the Hungarian State Symphony Orchestra, since 1997 - the modern name). Hungarian Radio and Television Orchestra (1943), Budapest Festival Orchestra (1983), Hungarian Musical Association (founded in 1853 as the Philharmonic Society, from 1870 - modern name), F. Liszt Higher School of Music (founded in 1875 as the National Royal Hungarian Academy of Music, from 1925 - modern name), Institute of Musicology. Other musical centers in Hungary are Debrecen, Pecs, Szeged, Miskolc. International competitions for performing musicians and composers are held (since 1948, Budapest), choral competitions (Budapest, Debrecen, Pecs). International festivals: named after B. Bartok (since 1948), "Music of Our Time" (since 1974), etc.

Lit.: Kodäly Z., Bartha D. Die ungarische Musik. Bdpst, 1943; Kodály 3. Hungarian folk music. Budapest, 1961; Sabolchi B. History of Hungarian music. Budapest, 1964; Music of Hungary. Sat. articles. M., 1968; Vi gue J., Gergely J. La musique hongroise. 2 ed. R., 1976; Balazs I. Musikführer durch Ungarn. Bdpst, 1991; Dobszay L. A history of Hungarian music. Bdpst, 1993.

Ballet

Professional ballet art has been known in Hungary since the 2nd half of the 18th century, when foreign dancers performed in the palaces of the Austro-Hungarian aristocracy (in 1772 - J. J. Noverre with his troupe; in 1794 - S. Vigano). In the same period, itinerant troupes, amateur dancers, and students of drama schools performed national dances both in Hungary itself and abroad (L. Sölloshi-Sabo, J. Farkas, S. Vester, and others). In the middle of the 19th century, the interest in ballet art was increased by the performances of F. Elsler, F. Cerrito, A. Saint-Leon, M. Taglioni on the Budapest stage. For almost 40 years, the Italian choreographer F. Campilli staged ballets at the National Theater and then at the Hungarian Opera House, inviting mainly foreign artists, while the famous Hungarian dancer E. Aranvari was forced to emigrate. In the 1890s, the repertoire of the Hungarian Opera House included several national ballets to the music of Hungarian composers (Czardas by E. Stoyanovich, Viora by K. Sabados, and others). Tours of the Mariinsky Theater (1899, 1901), the Russian Ballet of Diaghilev (1912/13, 1926), the troupe of A. P. Pavlova (1927) served as an impetus for the spread of classical dance. In the years 1902-15, the Italian choreographer N. Guerra staged about 20 ballets and brought up a galaxy of subsequently famous artists and teachers: E. Nirshi, F. Nadashi, T. Shebeshi, A. Pallai and others. In 1917, the Hungarian stage was the first ballet by B. Bartok, The Wooden Prince, was staged.

At the beginning of the 20th century, free dance began to develop in Hungary. Its largest representatives were V. Dienesh, A. Madzhar and O. Szentpal, based on the ideas of A. Duncan, B. Menzendik and E. Jacques-Dalcroze. V. Dienes, a student of the French philosopher A. Bergson, from 1912 promoted the system of "natural movement", called orchestika; A. Madzhar from the same year taught the so-called characterology, giving paramount importance to the beauty and health of the body; since 1917 the school of O. Sentpal functioned.

In the late 1920s and early 1930s, choreographers E. Brada, A. Gobier, and R. Kölling worked at the Hungarian Opera House. Here the foundations of national choreography were formed. Among the first major choreographers in Hungary are R. Brada (The Holy Torch by E. von Donagny, 1934) and A. Millosh (The Tale of Kuruc to music by 3. Kodály, 1935). Of great importance for the Hungarian ballet art was the pedagogical activity of F. Nadassy, ​​who managed to instill in his students the style of the Italian and Russian classical dance schools. The performances of D. Harangozo (The Scene in the Inn by E. Hubai, 1936; The Wooden Prince, 1939, 1958; The Wonderful Mandarin by B. Bartok, 1945, etc.) brought the Hungarian ballet theater to the European level. In 1945, K. Zhedany created the first provincial ballet troupe in Hungary - in the city of Szeged; in the 1960s, the choreographer Z. Imre experimented here. From the beginning of the 1950s, Soviet ballet masters and teachers began to work in Hungary. V. I. Vainonen and K. Armashevskaya organized advanced training courses for teachers, introducing them to the methodology of the school of A. Ya. Vaganova. In 1950, the Ballet Institute was established. Since 1963, O. V. Lepeshinskaya has been a teacher and tutor of the ballet troupe of the Hungarian Opera House. Choreographers E. Vashhegyi, I. Ekk also worked here. The latter in 1960 founded and headed the troupe of the Pécs Ballet, the second largest ballet company in Hungary. This troupe sought to create a new choreographic language, using the achievements and experience of classical ballet and modern dance. Having staged about 100 ballets over the course of 3 decades, Eck at the same time provided the stage for young Hungarian as well as foreign choreographers.

Among the famous Hungarian dancers and choreographers of different generations: I. Dozsa, F. Havas, J. Kun, G. Lakatos, A. Oros, V. Rona, S. Barkoci, M. Bretouch, M. Kekeshi, J. Merenyi, E . En. Foreign choreographers also collaborated with the Hungarian Opera House, including F. Ashton, M. Bejart, N. D. Kasatkina and V. Yu. Vasilev.

In the 1980s, under the influence of foreign techniques (mainly American - M. Graham, H. Limon, etc.), as well as inheriting the ideas of the founders of Hungarian free dance or folklore traditions, new dance troupes began to appear: "Artus" under the direction of G .years; companies D. Berger, I. Bozhik; Dance Theater "Central Europe", Theater of the Hungarian Art of Movement, the company "Experidans", etc. In the Capital Operetta Theater there is a ballet troupe that shows performances consisting of one-act ballets. In 1979, a ballet troupe was organized in the city of Gyor under the direction of I. Marko. In 1993, Marco founded the Hungarian Festival Ballet. Since 1949, the State Folk Dance Ensemble has existed in Hungary. Since 1992, modern dance festivals have been held in the city of Győr. Among the outstanding dancers of the turn of the 20th-21st centuries: K. Hgay, J. Lachei, Z. Nagy, K. Wolf.

Lit.: Valyi R. A Magyar balett tortenenetebol. Bdpst, 1956; Dallos A. A Resci balett tortenete. Bdpst, 1969; Kortvélyes G., Löring G. Budapesti balett. Bdpst, 1971-1981. Cat. 1-2.

V. Dienes.

Theater

The bearers of the original forms of theatrical folk culture were storytellers (regyoshes) and buffoons (yokulators). The origin of the drama in the Hungarian language dates back to the era of the Reformation. P. Bornemissa, who in 1558 translated Sophocles' Elektra into Hungarian, was the greatest representative of the Protestant drama. In the 17th and 18th centuries, performances in the Hungarian language of both religious and secular content were staged in church schools of many Catholic orders (free translations by Molière, an interlude "The Marriage of Mihai Kochon" by an unknown author, etc.). At the beginning of the 18th century, court troupes appeared among the princes of Esterhazy, the counts of Palfi, and others, who played mainly in German and Italian. In 1790, the actor and theatrical figure L. Kelemen created in Pest the first professional theater in Hungary (which existed until 1796), where, along with petty-bourgeois drama (A. Kotzebue, F. Schröder), he staged works by G. E. Lessing, W. Shakespeare, Molière, as well as plays by Hungarian playwrights (The Philosopher by D. Beshshenyi and others). In 1792, the theater began its activities under the direction of the Feuer brothers in Cluj (Transylvania). The generation of Hungarian actors who laid the foundations of the national theater school includes J. Kochi-Patko, P. Jancso, A. Moor. The activities of the first Hungarian theaters are associated with the work of one of the earliest Hungarian comedians, the poet M. Chokonai-Vitez. In the late 18th - early 19th century, after the disbandment of the Kelemen troupe, the "wandering" theater became widespread (small troupes performed in villages and steppe cities). The most famous actors of this period: R. Derine-Seppataki, J. Sentpeteri, K. Medieri. In 1837, the permanent Pest Hungarian Theater (since 1840 - the Hungarian National Theater) was opened in Pest. Until 1884, not only drama, but also opera performances were staged here. Among the actors: G. Egreshshi, M. Lendvai, R. Laborfalvi. During the rise of the Hungarian National Theater (1878-94), associated with the activities of the director and director E. Paulai, playwright G. Chiki, actresses M. Jasai and E. Markus worked in the theater. In the 2nd half of the 19th century, the National Theater in Buda (1861-64, 1867-70), Nepsinhaz in Pest (1875), Vigsinhaz (1896) were opened in the capital. In 1904, a group of intellectuals organized the innovative public theater "Thalia" on the model of the "Free Theater" by A. Antoine and the "Free Stage" by O. Bram, but the troupe lasted only until 1908.

In the 1920s and 1930s, the Hungarian theater experienced an acute crisis. Many actors and directors (F. Hont, H. Gobbi, T. Major, A. Horvat) participated in the work of the Independent Stage (Szeged) and amateur groups. In 1949, all private theaters were nationalized, which, on the one hand, led to an improvement in their economic situation, and, on the other hand, to stylistic and genre uniformity and the supremacy of the socialist realism method on the stage. After 1956, young directors J. Rust, P. Halas, and I. Paal made attempts to oppose the state cultural policy. In the 1970s, a new generation of directors came to the theater: T. Asher, G. Sekey, G. Zhambeki. Since the beginning of the 1990s, in Budapest, along with the so-called art theaters (J. Katona National Theater, etc.), there have appeared theaters that focus on commercial performances or revues (A. Jozsef Theatre, Chamber Theater, Vidam, etc.). ), and also combine experimental and box office performances (Merlin, Studio K., Skene, Mu). Among the most significant theaters: in Budapest - the Barka Theater, which includes a repertory theater, an art center and a theater studio; in the provinces - theaters in the cities of Kaposvár, Nyiregyhaza and the 3rd theater in the city of Pécs. International theater festivals are held annually in Budapest and Szeged, the All-Hungarian Theater Festival (in different cities), the International Festival of Hungarian-language theaters in the city of Kisvárda.

Lit.: Magyar szinhaztortenet. Bdpst, 1962; Gershkovich A. A. Modern Hungarian theater. M., 1963; Ungarisches Theatre, Ungarisches Drama. Bdpst, 1980-1986. Bd 1-6.

Movie

The first Hungarian film was released in 1901 (Dance by cinematographer B. Zhitkovsky - several choreographic miniatures performed by a folklore ensemble). Mass film production was established by 1912. Among the directors of the 1910s: A. Korda, M. Kertits. One of the first sound films was the comedy The Footman Hippolyte (1931, director I. Sekey). In the 1930s and 1940s, against the backdrop of uncomplicated comedies and melodramas, decorated - as a national “specificity” - with operetta hits and chardas, rare films of a realistic direction with elements of social criticism stood out (“Spring Downpour” by P. Fejos, 1932; “People on the snowy mountains ”I. Secha, 1943, prize of the International Film Festival in Venice).

After World War II, directors V. Gertler, Z. Varkonyi, L. Ranodi, G. Radvanyi, F. Bahn, M. Keleti came to the cinema, as well as the writer, playwright, screenwriter, film theorist B. Balazs who returned from exile , co-author of the script for the film Somewhere in Europe (1948, directed by G. Radvanyi), which became a classic of Hungarian cinema. In 1948, the cinematography of Hungary was nationalized. In 1948-53, agitation and propaganda films dominated the repertoire, among the few exceptions was the film A Span of the Earth (1948, directed by Ban), dedicated to the fate of the Hungarian peasantry. In 1953-54, the films of Varkonya (“The Birth of Menkhert Szymon”, 1954), F. Mariashshi (“Budapest Spring”, 1955; “Mug of Beer”, 1955, prize of the International Film Festival in Karlovy Vary), became the symbols of the Hungarian “thaw”, K. Makka ("Ward No. 9", 1955). At the turn of the 1940s and 50s, 3. Fabry came into film directing, whose international fame was brought by the film Carousel (1955).

The renewal period that began after 1956 in the 1960s led to the flourishing of Hungarian cinema, which turned to complex issues of national history, including the events of World War II and the post-war period (“Dialogue” by J. Hershko, 1963; “Twenty hours "Z. Fabry, 1965, the main prize of the International Film Festival in Moscow, Venice, etc.; "Junior Sergeant and others" M. Keleti, 1965). New themes and a new film language were brought with them by the young directors M. Jancho, I. Szabo, as well as F. Kosha (“Ten Thousand Suns”, 1967, prize at the International Film Festival in Cannes), I. Gaal (“In the Rapids”, 1964, in the domestic box office "Who will judge them?", the main prize of the International Film Festival in Karlovy Vary). In the theme of the anti-fascist movement, one of the leading ones at that time, moral aspects were emphasized (national guilt, individual choice and responsibility). The analysis of human behavior in the tragic circumstances of modern Hungarian history was successfully continued in the 1970s (Love by K. Makka, 1971, the prize of the International Film Festival in Cannes; The Fifth Seal, Fabry, 1976, the main prize of the International Film Festival in Moscow). Films addressed to the social problems of our time, to the private life of people, reflected the growing public dissatisfaction (“Dead Land” by I. Gaal, 1972; “Adoption” by M. Meszaros, 1975, in the domestic box office “House on the Outskirts”, the main prize of the International Film Festival in West Berlin, etc.). The focus at this time was documentary film, which explored reality in the form of the so-called sociographic film. It influenced fiction cinema and gave rise to a special type of film - documentary-fiction ("Photography" by P. Zolnai, 1972, the prize of the International Film Festival in Moscow; "Cinema Novel - Three Sisters" by I. Dardai and D. Salai, 1977; "Little Valentino " A. Yelesha, 1979). In the 2nd half of the 1970s, Stalinism became the central theme of Hungarian cinema: P. Gabor's Vera Anga (1978, prize at the International Film Festival in Cannes, San Sebastian, etc.), A. Kovacs' The Owner of a Stud Farm (1978) , as well as released on the screens after a ten-year ban "Witness" P. Bacho (1969). The development of this theme was continued in the 1980s in the autobiographical cycle Meszaros ("Diary for my children", 1984, prize at the International Film Festival in Cannes; "Diary for my loved ones", 1987, prize at the International Film Festival in West Berlin). The theme of the Hungarian uprising of 1956 and its consequences is devoted to the films Lucky Daniel by P. Shandora, "Looking at each other" Macca (both 1982, prize at the International Film Festival in Cannes). National history and folk culture were the sources of M. Jancho's original works in film language ("The people still ask", 1972, the prize of the International Film Festival in Cannes; "Hungarian Rhapsody" and "Allegro Barbaro", both - 1979, the prize of the International Film Festival in Cannes) and Z. Khusarik, who created a cycle of philosophical and poetic short films ("Elegy", 1965) and two full-length films - "Sinbad" (1971) and "Chontvari" (1980).

In the second half of the 1970s and in the 1980s, a generation of directors came to cinema who developed new forms of cinematic expressiveness, combining the desire for an unpretentious texture of life with a sharpened genre theatrical conventionality and postmodern stylistic eclecticism: P. Gotard (“This the day is a gift", 1979, award of the International Film Festival in Venice; "Passport", 2000), A. Elesh ("Dream of the Brigade", 1983, was released in 1989; "Joseph and his brothers - excerpts from the peasant bible" , 2002-03), D. Somyash (“Light Bodily Injury”, 1983), I. Enedi (“My XX Century”, 1988, Prize of the International Film Festival in Cannes). In the 1980s, the films of I. Szabo - "Mephisto" (1981, Oscar), "Colonel Redl" (1984, prize at the International Film Festival in Cannes, etc.), "Hanussen" (1988) won wide international recognition. The political reforms of 1989-91 brought about a change of creative generations. The aesthetics of films by J. Sasz (Woyzeck, 1993), D. Palfi (Hiccup, 2002, the main prize of the International Film Festival in San Sebastian) and others has developed under the influence of modern video culture. The traditions of European auteur cinema are inherited by B. Tapp (The Curse, 1987; Satanic Tango, 1994, prize at the International Film Festival in Berlin; Werkmeister Harmonies, 2000). The Hungarian camera school has earned a high reputation in the world, its most famous representatives are D. Illes, S. Shara, T. Szomlo, J. Kende, J. Toth, L. Koltai, P. Yankura, E. Ragayi. The largest Hungarian actors: E. Rutkai, Z. Latinovich, A. Pager, M. Terochik, D. Garash, I. Darvas, D. Udvaros, I. Banshagi, D. Cerhalmi, K. Eperjes, P. Andorai. Hungarian animated films (D. and K. Mackassy, ​​J. Jankovic, A. Dargai, F. Rofus, F. Tsako, C. Vargi, and others) have received wide world recognition.

Since 1965, in Pecs, and since 1983 - in Budapest, a national review of documentary and feature films has been held annually. The Hungarian National Film Archive conducts scientific research and publishes film literature. The main film periodicals are Filmvilàg (since 1958), Filmkultûra (since 1960), Metropolis (since 1997). The film faculty of the Budapest Academy of Theater and Cinema conducts the training of creative personnel.

Lit .: Nemeshkyurti I. History of Hungarian cinema (1896-1966). M., 1969; Kelecsényi L. A magyar hangosfilm hét evtizede. 1931-2000: Hyppolitôl Werckmeisterig. Bdpst, 2003; Balogh G., Gyürey V., Honffy R. A magyar jâtekfilm tôrténete a kezdetektöl 1990-ig. bdpst, 2004.

A. S. Troshin.

Circus

Elements of circus art existed in folk games, rituals, equestrian competitions. So, for example, the equestrian competitions of shepherds eventually turned into the number "Hungarian Post". In the 19th century, foreign circus troupes toured Hungary. Since 1904, a circus troupe has periodically worked in Budapest under the leadership of the Russian clown and trainer M. I. Beketov (“Beketov's Russian Circus”); the Hungarian acrobats Faludi and Hortobadi, the couplet clown Yanchi, and others studied and gained fame from him. Since 1923, Beketov headed the Great Budapest Circus, which was nationalized in 1949. In 1950, tent circuses were also nationalized. In the same year, the State Circus School was opened. In 1954, the State Administration of Circuses was formed. In the 1960s and 70s, attractions of international class appeared in Hungary: acrobats on flip boards “10 Varadi”, aerial tightrope walker T. Shimon, musical eccentric G. Etvas, elephant trainer I. Krishtof, juggler G. Gazdag, etc. In 1971 The opening of the new building of the Great Budapest Circus took place. After the 1990s, tent circuses in Hungary became private enterprises. The Great Budapest Circus remained state-owned, and International Circus Art Competitions are held in its arena.

Lit .: Secret I., Siladi D. Past and present / / Parade-alle. M., 1989.

Goulash, Ikarus buses, the Omega group, Rubik's cube - approximately such associations arise when we mention Hungary. But this small European country has something else to brag about - the ballpoint pen was invented here, Imre Kalman and Franz Liszt worked here, the longest tram in the world (54 meters) runs here!

Well, and, of course, Hungary is famous for its capital - Budapest. That's what we'll talk about today - all the most interesting in our TOP-6!

Fact #1: The capital of Hungary consists of two parts

They are called so - Buda and Pest. The first part is more hilly, the second is conditionally “flat”. Once upon a time, these were two different towns located on opposite banks of the Danube - and only in 1873 the commercial Pest and the ancient Buda were united into the modern "pearl of the Danube".

Today, parts of the capital of Hungary are connected by numerous bridges - the oldest of them, the Chain Bridge, finally connected Pest and Buda. By the way, this is one of the symbols of Budapest and Hungary - every tourist who leaves the city has a photo of the Chain Bridge in the camera.

Fact number 2: The capital of Hungary - Budapest - is considered one of the best resorts

We are used to the fact that the capital is, first of all, government quarters and business centers. But in Budapest, among other things, it is customary to relax with health benefits! Under the city, at a depth of about 1 kilometer, thermal springs lie - they were first used by the ancient Romans. By the way, it was they who built the first baths on the site of the future capital of Hungary.

Today, most of the baths look like outdoor pools with warm water, as well as saunas. People from all over the world come here - saturated with magnesium and sulfur water helps to cope with cardiovascular, rheumatic and gynecological diseases.

Fact #3: The most beautiful view of the capital of Hungary, Budapest, opens from Mount Gellert

This place, I must say, is mystical - it was Mount Gellert that the Hungarian witches chose for their covens. They say that witches gathered here until 1848, until the authorities built the Citadel here - a large fortress to intimidate the rebellious city.

Today, photographers from all over the world climb the Citadel - from here you can see a stunning panorama of old Budapest, the Castle Hill, the Chain Bridge and other sights of Hungarian Budapest. By the way, UNESCO even included a view of the Fortress Hill in the World Heritage List.

Fact #4: If you want the Middle Ages, go to Buda

Even ancient travelers considered Buda one of the most beautiful places in old Europe. Today people come here for a unique sense of belonging to history. It is enough to walk along the streets of Fortuna or Tarnok, look at or into the Fortress Quarter to feel like you are on the set of a historical film.

And you can also drink coffee and eat apple strudel (which, by the way, is prepared in Hungary no worse than in Austria!) in the Miro restaurant - in its place in the 16th century the first city cafe was located.

Fact #5: The best shopping in Hungary and Budapest is at the Grand Ring

If you look at the Hungarian capital from the Buda mountains, you can clearly see the unusual layout of the city. The center of Budapest is surrounded by a small ring of highways, the huge Hungaria highway is visible in the distance, and between them is the middle circle - Nogy Kerut, or the Big Ring. This is one of the most famous and liveliest places in the capital - tourists like to walk here and local residents enjoy spending time.

In addition, this is the main shopping street of Budapest - it is simply impossible to count all the shops, boutiques, restaurants, hotels and pastry shops! At some point, it may seem to a tourist that he is walking along one endless shop window - it is better not to come here with an empty wallet.

The most popular, typically “Hungarian” goods among tourists are lace and hand-painted chinaware, paprika, cherry palinka (local vodka) and goose liver.

Fact #6: Vegetarians will be sad in Budapest

After a trip to the capital of Hungary, photos of local culinary masterpieces will take up most of the camera's memory! Hungarians, like no one else, know how to cook game and fish - in local restaurants you can find a record number of meat dishes.

Firstly, vegetable oil is not recognized here - only natural pork fat. Secondly, sour cream is clearly not spared here - this product is considered one of the traditional ones and is prepared according to old technologies. The main dish to try in Budapest is, of course, goulash. Here, either thick and rich meat soup or meat stew is called so. By the way, it is for this reason that connoisseurs advise going to the capital of Hungary in winter - on chilly January evenings, goulash goes with a bang!

If you want something more original, order paprikash, veal giblets, Buda carp or the legendary Esterhazy cake. In general, you will definitely not stay hungry in Budapest!

And finally, a few tips and helpful information for those who are already packing their bags to Hungary, more precisely, to its capital, Budapest:

• You can buy a Budapest Kartya card from local travel companies - it will give you the right to travel on public transport for free, buy tickets to museums at better prices and even dine in some restaurants with good discounts.

• There are only 3 metro lines in Budapest - and every time you change the line you will have to buy a new ticket (at newsstands or directly at the entrance to the metro). By the way, the same tickets are valid not only in the metro, but also in city buses, trams and trolleybuses. But tourists are not advised to take a taxi - it is very expensive, besides, there is no single fixed tariff in Budapest.

• The main attractions of Budapest and Hungary in general are museums. They usually work from 10.00 to 18.00, the day off is Monday.

• Grocery stores in Budapest are open on weekdays from 7.00 to 19.00, and on Saturdays - only until 14.00. So if you're craving fresh yogurt on a Saturday night, you'll most likely have to go to the supermarket - only they're open 24/7.

• If you are planning to travel to Budapest for treatment, it is worth taking with you an extract from your medical record translated into English. It would not be superfluous to take care of an interpreter in advance, who could help local doctors with diagnosis and treatment.

• According to Hungarian laws, you cannot appear on the street without documents - this rule also applies to tourists. It is not necessary to carry the original passport with you - leave the documents in the hotel safe, and take photocopies with you.