28.08.2020
Examples of forms of knowledge about the world. Features of humanitarian knowledge. What is knowledge
Read the text and complete tasks 21-24.
The sphere of material production is the most important (first) general sphere of life of society as a system. But as the embodiment of the sensory-practical activity of people, it is closely connected with the sphere of theoretical activity (the second universal sphere), which supplies society with knowledge about how the world works, subject to practical transformation. This knowledge, of course, can acquire the most different shapes- exist in the form of science, magic, tradition, astrology. In any case, society constantly collects information about the environment external to it, making this a profession for a certain circle of people - priests, church leaders, scientists.
The third general sphere of social life is the activity of people in the value development of reality. This is primarily done by philosophy, art, and religion. Values connect the spheres of material production and theoretical activity. Any conscious, purposeful human activity can achieve positive result for the life of society, individual life, if a person has value ideas that will be involved in his purposeful activities.
In addition to the three identified general spheres of life of people in society, which correspond to the three spheres of their mastery of external reality, it is necessary to point out the existence of another universal sphere - the management of social processes, that is, the management of society as an integral self-developing system. From the moment of the emergence of classes and the state as an apparatus of power, the sphere of management takes on the character political management society. (...) And finally, the last general sphere of human activity is the social sphere itself. To a certain extent, it opposes the first three spheres and the sphere of social management. IN social sphere consumption occurs public person what is created in production sector- in material production, in science, in the sphere of values. This consumption is at the same time production, the reproduction of man as a natural, social and spiritual being.
If all people occupied exactly the same position in terms of their access to social wealth, then human reproduction would be largely a managerial, technological, but not a political problem. In real life, the position of people in society in terms of the methods of appropriating (or mastering) the wealth accumulated by society varies greatly among themselves. The existence of rich and poor, old people and children, gifted by nature and neglected by it, makes the picture social status people and social relations extremely confusing. But the correct and timely solution of social problems is the key to the normal functioning and development of society as a system.
Understanding the specifics of universal spheres, and especially their number, may be different. But the main thing here is different. The exchange of activities between people is the essence of social interaction between them. The assessment of society as fairly or unfairly structured and the understanding of what needs to be done to eliminate existing injustice depend on how the mechanism of exchange of activities is structured.
(I.T. Frolov)
Explanation.
The correct answer must contain the following elements:
2) type (form) of knowledge known from the course (for example, myths, folk wisdom, everyday experience);
example (for example: knowledge of signs foreshadowing rainy weather, or knowledge of the cardinal directions, based on everyday observations of plants).
Other examples may be given.
Cognition is the process of a person’s comprehension of new, previously unknown knowledge.
Structure process of cognition:
- The subject of cognition is an actively acting individual, social group or society as a whole, endowed with consciousness and goal-setting.
- The object of cognition is what the subject’s cognitive activity is directed towards. Can be animate (a person himself, an animal) and inanimate (natural phenomena); material (a really existing object) or ideal (hypothesis, theory).
- The result of cognition - knowledge - is a product of the relationship of thought to reality, existing in a logical linguistic form, in the form of concepts, judgments, symbols, signs.
Characteristics of the main types of cognition
The question of the relationship between the sensory and the rational gave rise to two philosophical directions.
Empiricism- the only source of all our knowledge is sensory experience.
Rationalism- our knowledge can be obtained only with the help of the mind, without relying on feelings.
But it is impossible to contrast the sensory and rational in cognition, since the two stages of cognition manifest themselves as a single process. The difference between them is not temporary, but qualitative: the first stage is lower, the second is higher. Knowledge is the unity of sensory and rational knowledge of reality.
Knowledge- the result of knowledge of reality, the content of consciousness.
Types of knowledge:
Misconception- knowledge that does not correspond to a real object, but is accepted as truth. A lie is a deliberate distortion of the image of an object.
Everyday- based on common sense, is formed as a result Everyday life people, comes down to stating facts and describing them.
Practical- the basis is the activities of people to realize their needs.
Artistic- built on an image, characterized by emotionality and subjectivity.
Scientific- characterized by a desire for objectivity, consistency, logic, exists in the form of concepts and categories, general principles, laws, theories.
Rational- reflects reality in terms, based on rational thinking.
Irrational- reflects reality in emotions, often based on intuition, does not obey the laws of logic.
Forms of knowledge
| Scientific- objective, systematically organized and substantiated knowledge | |
| empirical level methods: – observation; – experiment; - description. |
theoretical level methods: – induction (from particular to general); – deduction (from general to specific); – analysis (decomposition of the whole into parts) – synthesis (combining individual knowledge into a single whole) |
| Unscientific- scattered, unsystematized knowledge that is not formalized and not described by laws | |
| pre-scientific – prerequisites of scientific knowledge parascientific – incompatible with existing scientific knowledge pseudoscientific – deliberately using conjectures and prejudices anti-scientific – utopian and deliberately distorting the idea of reality |
|
Features of social cognition:
- the subject and object of knowledge coincide (society studies itself, the sociologist sees the process from the inside, since he himself is a participant in social relations. Therefore, a personal assessment of social phenomena plays an important role);
- the researcher’s capabilities are limited (it is not always possible to conduct an experiment);
- the complexity and variability of the object of study gives rise to a pluralism of points of view on society.
When studying society, one should use concrete historical approach:
- establish a relationship between the past and the future;
- identifying general patterns, it is necessary to remember the originality and uniqueness of the historical path of peoples, countries, regions;
- study social phenomena in their diversity and interdependence;
- consider current activities as the result of previous ones.
Features of cognition through art:
- emotional coloring;
- carried out using images.
Image- this is a reflection of reality, possessing certain properties of a really existing object, refracted through inner world creator (artist, director, writer).
Canon– a set of applied rules for creating an image. Characterized by the peculiarities of the worldview of the era. (For example, in the period of antiquity, the beauty of the human body and proportionality are glorified; in the Middle Ages, the body is perceived as something sinful, therefore it is depicted flat, covered with clothes).
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Lesson plan.
- The term "knowledge"
- Types of knowledge.
- Scientific knowledge
- Social cognition.
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The term “knowledge” is used in different senses:
- As abilities, abilities, skills that are based on awareness
- How educationally significant the information is
- As a special cognitive unit that expresses the form of a person’s relationship to reality and exists alongside and in conjunction with its opposite - the practical relationship.
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Types of knowledge.
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Scientific knowledge
Only fools and charlatans know everything and understand everything.
Anton Chekhov.
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Scientific knowledge - special kind cognitive activity, aimed at developing objective, systemically organized and substantiated knowledge about nature, man and society.
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Let's check your homework:
What are the features scientific knowledge?
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The features of scientific knowledge are as follows:
Objectivity of the acquired knowledge;
Development of the conceptual apparatus (categoriality);
Rationality associated with consistency, evidence and consistency;
Verifiability;
High level of generalization of knowledge;
Versatility;
The use of special methods and methods of cognitive activity.
Slide 11
Scientific knowledge is universal in the sense that it can make any phenomenon a subject of study and can study everything in the human world.
However, everything that science makes its subject matter, it examines from the point of view of patterns and causes.
Scientific knowledge has its own levels, forms and methods.
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Let's check your homework.
Name the main levels and forms of scientific knowledge.
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Scientific knowledge – levels:
- Empirical
- Identification of objective facts, as a rule, from their obvious connections.
- Theoretical
- Identification of fundamental patterns, detection of hidden, internal connections and relationships behind the visible manifestations.
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Forms of scientific knowledge
- Empirical level:
- Scientific fact (event, physical process)
- Empirical law
- Theoretical level:
- Problem
- Hypothesis
- Theory
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Methods of scientific knowledge
Empirical methods:
- observation, experiment,
- measurement, description,
- comparison.
Theoretical methods:
- Analogy (similarity in qualities),
- Modeling (reproduction of similar characteristics on another object - “model”),
- Idealization - mental objects that do not really exist in experience and reality (“straight line”, “point”, “ideal gas”, “absolutely solid body”)
- Abstraction (mental distraction from a number of properties of an object and highlighting any property)
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Let's draw conclusions:
- Empirical knowledge- fragmentary (provide knowledge only about individual aspects of the object being studied)
- Theoretical knowledge is systemic and reveals the essence of the object being studied.
- Only the unity of all methods of scientific knowledge ensures their truth.
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Social cognition.
People exist for each other.
Marcus Aurelius.
It is impossible to live in society and be free from society.
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Let's check your homework.
What is the difference between social and humanitarian knowledge?
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Social knowledge - analysis social processes and identifying regular, repeating phenomena in them
Humanitarian knowledge - analysis of goals, motives, orientation of a person and understanding of his thoughts, motives, intentions
Social and humanitarian knowledge are interpenetrated.
Without a person there is no society. But a person cannot exist without society.
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Features of social cognition
1. The subject and object of cognition coincide.
2. The resulting social knowledge is always associated with the interests of individual subjects of knowledge.
3. Social knowledge is always loaded with evaluation; it is value knowledge.
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4. The complexity of the object of knowledge - society, which has a variety of different structures and is in constant development.
5. Because public life changes very quickly, then in the process of social cognition we can talk about establishing only relative truths.
6. The possibility of using such a method of scientific knowledge as experiment is limited.
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Features of humanitarian knowledge
Understanding - (p. 62 M.M. Bakhtin)
Appeal to texts of letters and public speaking, diaries and policy statements, works of fiction and critical reviews, etc., in order to understand their meaning.
The impossibility of reducing knowledge to unambiguous, universally accepted definitions.
Humanitarian knowledge is designed to influence a person, spiritualize, transform his moral, ideological, ideological guidelines, and contribute to the development of his human qualities.
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Social fact
- Objective Scientific
- An event that took place at a certain time, under certain conditions.
- Does not depend on the researcher.
- May not be recorded.
- Knowledge about an event that is described taking into account the specifics of the social situation in which it took place.
- Recorded in books, documents or otherwise.
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Types of social facts.
- Actions, actions of people, individuals or large social groups
- Products of human activity (material and spiritual)
- Verbal (verbal) actions: opinions, judgments, assessments
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Why interpret a social fact?
For a fact to become scientific, it must be interpreted (Latin interpretatio - interpretation, explanation).
First of all, the fact is subsumed under some scientific concept.
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Let's draw conclusions:
Thus, the interpretation of a social fact is a complex multi-stage procedure for its interpretation, generalization, and explanation.
Only an interpreted fact is a truly scientific fact.
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Let's repeat what we learned earlier.
1.The statement “A product has value” is an example
A) representations
B) concepts
B) judgments
D) inferences
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2. The criterion(s) of truth is(are):
A) compliance with the prevailing teaching in society
B) practice
B) management's opinion
D) all of the above
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3. Both sensory and rational knowledge.
Topic 1. Cognition and its forms
It is human nature to want to understand the world around us. Cognition is the process of a person gaining knowledge about the world, society and himself.
The result of cognition is knowledge.
Subject of knowledge - this is the one who is engaged in cognition as a type of activity, that is, a person, groups of people or the entire society as a whole.
Object of knowledge - this is what or who the process of cognition is aimed at. This may be material or spiritual world, society, people, the person himself, knowing himself.
is a science that studies the features of the cognitive process.
Cognition has two forms (or levels).
Cognition, its levels and steps
There are two levels of knowledge: sensory and rational.
Sensory cognition - This is cognition through the senses: (smell, touch, hearing, sight, taste).
steps sensory knowledge
- Feeling - knowledge of the world through the direct influence of its objects on the human senses. For example, the apple is sweet, the music is gentle, the picture is beautiful.
- Perception – based on sensations, creating a holistic image of an object, for example, an apple is sweet, red, hard, and has a pleasant smell.
- Performance – creating images of objects that appear in a person’s memory, that is, they are remembered based on the impact on the senses that occurred earlier. For example, a person can easily imagine an apple, even “remember” its taste. Moreover, he had once seen this apple, tasted it, and smelled it.
The role of sensory cognition
- With the help of the senses, a person directly communicates with the outside world.
- Without sense organs, a person is not capable of knowledge at all.
- The loss of some sense organs makes the process of cognition more difficult. Although this process continues. Compensation sense organs is the ability of some sense organs to increase their capabilities in understanding the world. So, a blind person has more developed hearing, etc.
- With the help of feelings, you can obtain superficial information about the subject of knowledge. Feelings do not provide a comprehensive picture of the subject being studied.
Rational cognition – (from lat. ratio- mind) is the process of obtaining knowledge using the mind, without the influence of the senses.
Stages of rational knowledge
- Concept - this is a thought expressed in words and representing information about the properties of the subject being studied - general and specific. For example, tree— common feature, birch- specific.
- Judgment – it is a thought that contains either an affirmation or a denial of something about a concept.
Example.
Birch - beautiful tree. His snow-white trunk black speck, delicate foliage are associated with home.
Inference is a thought containing a new judgment that arises as a result of generalizing information obtained from judgments about a concept. This is a kind of conclusion from previous judgments.
So, in our example, a new judgment can become a conclusion:
I really like this beautiful tree - birch.
For rational cognition it is characteristic abstract thinking, that is, theoretical, not related to feelings. Abstract thinking is associated with language and speech. A person thinks, reasons, studies with the help of words.
Verbal language - this is human speech, words, language means with the help of which a person thinks.
Nonverbal language - this is the language of gestures, facial expressions, glances. However, even such a language is based on speech, because a person conveys thoughts with gestures.
Which of the two levels of cognition is the main one in human cognitive activity? Different views on this problem led to the emergence of several philosophical views and theories on the essence of knowledge.
Sensationalism - this is a direction in philosophy, according to which the main way of cognition is the sensory perception of the world. According to their theory, a person will not believe in the truth until he sees, hears, or tries (Epicurus, J. Locke, T. Hobbes).
Rationalism - this is a direction in philosophy, according to which the source of knowledge is reason, since feelings do not always provide correct information about the subject or only superficial information (Socrates, Aristotle, Plato, Kant, Hegel)
There is also an intuitive way of understanding the world. Intuition - this is insight, instinct, the ability to predict events and phenomena without explanation or understanding the source of knowledge.
The modern point of view is that both sensory and rational cognition play important role In human life. We experience the world with both feelings and reason.
Material prepared by: Melnikova Vera Aleksandrovna
Types of knowledge are one of the central concepts in the social studies course. When considering the issue, it is important to understand the variety of classifications and levels.
Knowledge is a combination of sensory and rational knowledge. IN Unified State Exam questions are associated not only with definition, but also with classification.
Let's take a look at this topic in order.
What is knowledge
The main meanings of the concept “knowledge” include:
- Reflection in human thinking of the result of cognitive activity.
- Correct, time-tested experience that is both personalized and demonstrable.
- The subject of organizational activities of people existing at different everyday levels.
The first concept of classification of knowledge was formulated by O. Comte. He indicated gradually changing sequences: religious, philosophical and positive (science). Levels of knowledge had a strong influence on visions of knowledge.
Classification of knowledge
Let's look at the main classifications:
- by source of information– when communicating with people, on paper, on electronic resources, on the Internet and at cultural sites;
- by method of obtaining information– text format, image in the form of a picture, oral speech;
- by degree of organization– strict, structured and informal;
- by area of activity– biological, legal and so on.
Methods of obtaining information also divide knowledge into those related to the supernatural, everyday, and everyday. The latter are built on specific actions related to the development and transformation of the world.
Types of human knowledge
The main types of knowledge in the modern classification:
- Ordinary or everyday– is associated with a person’s daily experience, that is, in essence, it is a statement of the facts of everyday life. It is this that largely determines the behavioral habits of people, the principles of their interaction with others and nature.
- Mythological– connects emotions and rational inquiry. Characteristic of the early stage of the formation of society, where a person formulated reality by observing phenomena.
- Religious- based on faith in higher power. It is important that the results of cognitive activity are recorded in the form of obvious images. Religion gives people values.
- Artistic– does not strive to reflect reality clearly and reasonably. Artistic image allows for fiction.
- Philosophical– based on a vision of the world, which is explained by rational connections.
- Rational– is based on the concepts of logic and thinking.
- Irrational– does not obey logical laws, is usually based on emotions, anomalous phenomena and experiences.
- Personal or implicit– associated with individual perception of the world specific person, it bears a superficial representation of reality.
- Quasi-scientific– combines certain types of knowledge and is presented in the form of mystical images and magic. The quasi-scientific type includes such sciences as alchemy, astrology, esotericism, and so on. They can be useful, but are difficult to prove.
Forms of knowledge
As for the forms of knowledge, they are divided into scientific and a variety of non-scientific ones. The peculiarity of the scientific is that it is objective and systematized.
The main features include:
- rationality - obtained as a result of the intellect and mental activity of the individual;
- formulated briefly in the form of principles, laws, norms;
- systematized - repetitive;
- obtained as a result of empirical research;
- strives for accuracy and specificity;
- provable and has scientific language;
- does not imply the author's interpretation.
Non-scientific knowledge is divided into the following types:
- Pre-scientific– information comprehended before the emergence of modern scientific ideas.
- Parascientific– the opposite or change of current types of knowledge. Examples: astrology, ufology or extrasensory perception.
- Extra-scientific– distortion of ideas about reality is associated with a lack of tolerance.
- Anti-scientific- characteristically false, utopian, in particular faith in a stable belief.
- Pseudoscientific– ignores experimental experience, contradicts accepted principles in the direction of faith rather than logic.
- Pseudoscience– there is no evidence or refutation, passive representations and assumptions are used.
It is worth noting: true knowledge is the correspondence of facts and statements about them. A vision of the world that distorts reality cannot be the absolute truth.
Not only theoretical, but also practical knowledge is required for a person to navigate the world, as well as explain the logic of certain events. They allow you to plan and anticipate events. As a result, the processing and use of knowledge gives rise to new types and forms.
The key processes include: learning, accumulation, storage and processing of knowledge, and in addition, their transfer to other individuals. The necessary encyclopedic information in modern world available via the Internet.
