World science does not stand still. Penetration into the secrets of the structure of the atomic nucleus has given mankind effective and cheap energy, new diagnostic technologies. However, research in this area led to the creation of nuclear weapons and terrible disasters, which entailed a huge number of deaths, the destruction of cities and the contamination of many kilometers of the earth's surface.

Arguments about pros and cons scientific discoveries in this area are still ongoing.

History of creation

Prerequisites

The military-political situation and the powerful development of scientific theories in the 20th century created real prerequisites for the emergence of weapons of mass destruction.

However, the discovery (in 1896) of uranium radioactivity by Antoine Henri Becquerel can be considered the first brick in the construction of the atomic bomb. In the same vein, Maria Sklodowska-Curie and Pierre Curie conducted their research. Already in 1913, for the study of radioactivity, they created their own scientific institution (the Radium Institute).

Two more important discoveries in this area: the planetary model of the atom and successful experiments on nuclear fission, significantly accelerated the emergence of new weapons.

In 1934, the first patent was filed, which was a description of an atomic energy reactor (Leo Szilard), and in 1939, Frederic Joliot-Curie patented a uranium bomb.

Three countries of the world began their struggle for the palm in the production of nuclear weapons.

German program

Start

In 1939 - 1945 scientists of Nazi Germany were engaged in the creation of the atomic bomb. This program was called the "Uranium Project" and was strictly classified. Her plans included the creation of weapons within nine to twelve months. The project brought together about 22 scientific organizations, which included the most famous institutions in the country.

Albert Speer and Erich Schumann were appointed to head the secret company.

To create a superweapon, the production of uranium fluoride was launched, from which uranium-235 could be obtained, and a special device was developed for isotope separation using the Clusius-Dickel method. This installation consisted of two pipes, one of which was supposed to be heated, and the second to be cooled. Between them, uranium hexafluoride in a gaseous state was supposed to move, which would make it possible to separate lighter uranium -235 and heavy uranium -238.

On the basis of theoretical calculations for the design of a nuclear reactor, which were provided by Werner Heisenberg, the Auerge company received an order to produce a certain amount of uranium. Norwegian Norsk Hydro provided deuterium oxide (heavy hydrogen water).

In 1940 Physics Institute, which dealt with issues of atomic energy, passed into the jurisdiction of the armed forces.

failures

However, despite the fact that a huge number of scientists worked on the project during the year, the assembled isotope separation device did not work. About five more variants of uranium enrichment were developed, which also did not lead to success.

It is believed that the reasons for unsuccessful experiments are the deficiency of heavy hydrogen water and insufficiently purified graphite. Only at the beginning of 1942, the Germans were able to build the first reactor, which exploded after some time. Subsequent experiments were hampered by the destruction of a deuterium oxide plant in Norway.

The latest data on the conduct of experiments that make it possible to obtain a chain reaction were dated January 1945, but at the end of the month the installation had to be dismantled and sent further from the front line to Haigerloch. The last test of the device was scheduled for March - April. It is believed that scientists could get a positive result in a short time, but this was not destined to happen, since the Allied troops entered the city.

At the end of World War II, the German reactor was taken to America.

American program

Prerequisites

The first developments related to atomic energy were carried out by America, together with Canada, Germany and England. The program was called the Uranium Committee. The project was led by two people - a scientist and a military man, physicist Robert Oppenheimer and General Leslie Groves. Especially to cover the work, a special part of the troops was formed - the Manhattan Engineering District, of which Groves was appointed commander.

In mid-1939, President Roosevelt received a letter signed by Albert Einstein that Germany was developing the latest superweapon. A special organization, the Uranium Committee, was appointed to find out how real Einstein's words were. Already in October, the news about the possibility of creating weapons was confirmed and the committee began its active work.

"Project Manhattan"

In 1943, the Manhattan Project was created in the United States, the purpose of which was the creation of nuclear weapons. Well-known scientists from allied countries, as well as a huge number of construction workers and the military, participated in the development.

Uranium was the main raw material for experiments, but the natural resource contains only 0.7% of the uranium-235 required for the production. Therefore, it was decided to conduct research on the separation and enrichment of this element.

For this, the technologies of thermal and gas diffusion, as well as electromagnetic separation, were used. At the end of 1942, the construction of a special installation for the production of gaseous diffusion was approved.

Fact. Despite the fact that scientists from England, Canada, America and Germany worked in the project, the United States refused to share the results of research with England, which served to develop some tension between the allied countries.

The main goal of the research was set: to create a nuclear bomb in 1945, which was achieved by scientists who were part of the Manhattan Project.

Implementation

The result of the activities of this organization was the creation of three bombs:

• Gadget (Thing) based on plutonium-239;
• Little Boy (Kid) uranium;
• Fat Man (Fat Man) based on the decay of plutonium-239.

Little Boy and Fat Man were dropped on Japan in August 1945, causing irreparable damage to the country's population.

Theory and development

Back in 1920, the Radium Institute was established in the USSR, which was engaged in fundamental research radioactivity. Already in the middle of the 20th century (from 1930 to 1940), active work was carried out in the Soviet Union related to the production of nuclear energy.

In 1940, well-known Russian scientists addressed the government, speaking about the need to develop a practical base in the atomic field. Thanks to this, a special organization was created (the Commission on the Problem of Uranium), whose chairman was V. G. Khlopin. During the year, a huge amount of work was done to organize and coordinate the institutions that were part of it. However, the war began, and most of the scientific institutes had to be evacuated to. Kazan. In the rear, theoretical work on the development of this industry continued.

In September 1942, almost immediately after the start American project"Manhattan" the government of the USSR decided to start work on the study of uranium. For this, special premises were allocated for a laboratory in Kazan. The report on the research results was scheduled for April 1943. And in February 1943, practical work began on the creation of an atomic bomb.

Practical developments

After the return of the Radium Institute to Leningrad (1944), scientists began the practical implementation of their projects. It is believed that December 5, 1945 is the start date for the development of atomic energy.

Research was carried out in the following areas:

• study of radioactive plutonium;
• plutonium separation experiments;
• development of technology for obtaining plutonium from uranium.

After the bombing of Japan, the State Defense Committee issued a decree establishing a Special Committee on the Use of Atomic Energy. To manage this project, the First Main Directorate was organized. A huge amount of human and material resources were thrown to solve the problem. Stalin's directive ordered the creation of uranium and plutonium bombs no later than 1948.

Development

The primary objectives of the project were the opening of the production of commercial plutonium and uranium and the construction of a nuclear reactor. For the separation of isotopes, it was decided to use the diffusion method. Secret enterprises needed to solve these issues began to be built with great speed. The technical documentation for this weapon was to be ready by July 1946, and the assembled designs already in 1948.

Thanks to the colossal human resource and powerful material base, the transition from theory to practical experiments took place in a short time. The first reactor was built and successfully launched in December 1946. And already in August 1949, the first atomic bomb was successfully tested.

bomb device

Main components:

• frame;
• automatic system;
• nuclear charge.

The case is made of durable and reliable metal that can protect the warhead from negative external factors. In particular, from temperature differences, mechanical damage or other influences that can cause an unplanned explosion.

Automation controls the following functions:

• safety devices;
• cocking mechanism;
• emergency detonation device;
• nutrition;
• demolition system (charge detonation sensor).

A nuclear charge is a device containing a supply of certain substances and providing the release of energy directly for an explosion.

Operating principle

At the heart of any nuclear weapon is a chain reaction - a process in which a chain fission of the nuclei of atoms occurs and powerful energy is released.

A critical state can be reached in the presence of a number of factors. There are substances capable or not capable of a chain reaction, in particular Uranium-235 and Plutonium-239, which are used in the production of this type of weapon.

In uranium-235, the fission of a heavy nucleus can be excited by one neutron, and as a result of the process, already from 2 to 3 neutrons appear. Thus, a chain reaction of a branched type is generated. In this case, its carriers are neutrons.

Natural uranium consists of 3 isotopes - 234, 235 and 238. However, the content of Uranium-235, necessary to maintain a chain reaction, is only about 0.72%. Therefore, for production purposes, isotope separation is carried out. An alternative option is to use Plutonium-239. This element is obtained artificially, in the process of irradiating Uranus with 238 neutrons.

In the explosion of a uranium or plutonium bomb, two key points can be distinguished:

• the immediate center of the explosion, where the chain reaction takes place;
• the projection of the explosion on the surface - the epicenter.

Damage factors in a nuclear explosion

Types of atomic bomb damage:

• shock wave;
• light and thermal radiation;
• electromagnetic influence;
• radioactive contamination;
• penetrating radiation.

The shock blast wave destroys buildings and equipment, causing damage to people. This is facilitated by a sharp pressure drop and a high air flow rate.

During the explosion, a huge amount of light and heat energy is released. The defeat of this energy can extend to several thousand meters. The brightest light affects the visual apparatus, and the high temperature ignites combustible substances and causes burns.

Electromagnetic pulses destroy electronics and damage radio communications.

Radiation infects the earth's surface in the lesion and causes neutron activation of substances in the soil. Penetrating radiation destroys all systems of the human body and causes radiation sickness.

Classification of nuclear weapons

There are two classes of warheads:

• atomic;
• thermonuclear.

The first are devices of a single-stage (single-phase) type, in which energy is generated during the fission of heavy nuclei (using uranium or plutonium) to produce lighter elements.

The second - devices that have a two-stage (two-phase) mechanism of action, there is a consistent development of two physical processes (chain reaction and thermonuclear fusion).

Another important indicator of nuclear weapons is their power, which is measured in TNT equivalent.

Today there are five such groups:

• less than 1 kt (kilotons) - ultra-low power;
• from 1 to 10 kt - small;
• from 10 to 100 kt - medium;
• from 100 to 1 Mt (megatons) - large;
• more than 1 Mt - extra large.

Fact. It is believed that the explosion at the Chernobyl nuclear power plant had a capacity of about 75 tons.

Detonation options

Detonation can be provided by connecting two main circuits or a combination of them.

Ballistic or cannon scheme

Its use is possible only in charges containing uranium. For the implementation of the explosion, a shot is fired from one block containing a fissile substance having a subcritical mass into another block, which is motionless.

implosive scheme

An inwardly directed explosion is produced, carried out by compressing the fuel, during which the subcritical mass of the fissile material becomes supercritical.

Delivery means

Nuclear warheads can deliver almost modern missiles to the target, which allow you to place ammunition inside.

There is a division of delivery vehicles into the following groups:

• tactical (means of destruction of air, sea and space targets), designed to destroy military equipment and the human resource of the enemy on the front line and in the immediate rear;
• strategic - defeating strategic targets (in particular, administrative units and industrial enterprises located behind enemy lines);
• operational-tactical destruction of targets that are in the operational depth range.

The most powerful bomb in the world

Such a warhead is the so-called "Tsar bomb" (AN602 or "Ivan"). The weapon was developed in Russia by a group of nuclear physicists. Academician IV Kurchatov supervised the project. This is the most powerful thermonuclear explosive device in the world, which has been successfully tested. The charge power is about 58.6 megatons (in TNT equivalent), which exceeded the calculated characteristics by almost 7 Mt. The megaweapon was tested on October 30, 1961.

The AN602 bomb is included in the Guinness Book of Records.

Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki

At the end of World War II, the US decided to demonstrate the presence of weapons of mass destruction. It was the only use of nuclear bombs for combat purposes in history.

In August 1945, nuclear warheads were dropped on Japan, which fought on the side of Germany. The cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki were almost completely razed to the ground. Records show that about 166,000 people died in Hiroshima, and 80,000 in Nagasaki. However, a huge number of Japanese victims of the explosion died some time after the bombing or continued to get sick for more. long years. This is due to the fact that penetrating radiation causes disturbances in all systems of the human body.

At that time, the concept of radioactive contamination of the earth's surface did not exist, so people continued to be in the territory exposed to radiation. High mortality, genetic deformities in newborns and the development of oncological diseases were not then associated with explosions.

The danger of war and catastrophe associated with the atom

Nuclear energy and weapons have been and remain the subjects of the most heated debate. Since it is impossible to realistically assess the security in this area. The presence of super-powerful weapons, on the one hand, is a deterrent, however, on the other hand, its use can cause a large-scale global catastrophe.

The danger of any nuclear industry is primarily associated with the disposal of waste, which emit a high radiation background for a long time. And also with the safe and efficient operation of all production compartments. There are more than 20 cases when the "peaceful atom" got out of control and brought colossal losses. One of the biggest disasters is the accident at the Chernobyl nuclear power plant.

Conclusion

Nuclear weapons are considered one of the most powerful tools of world politics, which are in the arsenal of some countries. On the one hand, this is a serious argument for preventing military clashes and strengthening peace, but on the other hand, it is the cause of possible large-scale accidents and disasters.

As is known, to first-generation nuclear weapons, it is often called ATOMIC, refers to warheads based on the use of the fission energy of uranium-235 or plutonium-239 nuclei. The first ever test of such a 15 kt charger was carried out in the United States on July 16, 1945 at the Alamogordo test site.

The explosion in August 1949 of the first Soviet atomic bomb gave a new impetus to the development of work to create second generation nuclear weapons. It is based on the technology of using the energy of thermonuclear reactions for the fusion of nuclei of heavy hydrogen isotopes - deuterium and tritium. Such weapons are called thermonuclear or hydrogen. The first test of the Mike thermonuclear device was carried out by the United States on November 1, 1952, on Elugelab Island (Marshall Islands), with a capacity of 5-8 million tons. The following year, a thermonuclear charge was detonated in the USSR.

The implementation of atomic and thermonuclear reactions opened up wide opportunities for their use in the creation of a series of various munitions of subsequent generations. Toward third-generation nuclear weapons include special charges (ammunition), in which, due to a special design, they achieve a redistribution of the energy of the explosion in favor of one of the damaging factors. Other options for the charges of such weapons ensure the creation of a focus of one or another damaging factor in a certain direction, which also leads to a significant increase in its destructive effect.

An analysis of the history of the creation and improvement of nuclear weapons indicates that the United States has always been a leader in the creation of new models of it. However, some time passed and the USSR eliminated these unilateral advantages of the United States. Third-generation nuclear weapons are no exception in this regard. One of the most famous third-generation nuclear weapons is the NEUTRON weapon.

What is a neutron weapon?

Neutron weapons were widely discussed at the turn of the 1960s. However, later it became known that the possibility of its creation was discussed long before that. The former president of the World Federation of Scientists, Professor E. Burop from Great Britain, recalled that he first heard about this back in 1944, when he was working in the United States on the Manhattan Project as part of a group of British scientists. Work on the creation of neutron weapons was initiated by the need to obtain a powerful combat weapon with a selective ability to destroy, for use directly on the battlefield.

The first explosion of a neutron charger (code number W-63) took place in an underground adit in Nevada in April 1963. The neutron flux obtained during the test turned out to be significantly lower than the calculated value, which significantly reduced the combat capabilities of the new weapon. It took another 15 years for neutron charges to acquire all the qualities military weapons. According to Professor E. Burop, the fundamental difference between a neutron charge device and a thermonuclear one lies in the different rate of energy release: “ IN neutron bomb energy release is much slower. It's kind of like a delayed action squib.«.

Due to this deceleration, the energy spent on the formation of a shock wave and light radiation decreases and, accordingly, its release in the form of a neutron flux increases. In the course of further work, certain success was achieved in ensuring the focusing of neutron radiation, which made it possible not only to increase its damaging effect in a certain direction, but also to reduce the danger of its use for friendly troops.

In November 1976, another test of a neutron warhead was carried out in Nevada, during which very impressive results were obtained. As a result, at the end of 1976, a decision was made to produce components for 203-mm caliber neutron projectiles and warheads for the Lance missile. Later, in August 1981, at a meeting of the Nuclear Planning Group of the US National Security Council, a decision was made on the full-scale production of neutron weapons: 2000 shells for a 203-mm howitzer and 800 warheads for the Lance missile.

During the explosion of a neutron warhead, the main damage to living organisms is inflicted by a stream of fast neutrons. According to calculations, for each kiloton of charge power, about 10 neutrons are released, which propagate with great speed in the surrounding space. These neutrons have an extremely high damaging effect on living organisms, much stronger than even Y-radiation and shock wave. For comparison, we point out that in the explosion of a conventional nuclear charge with a capacity of 1 kiloton, an openly located manpower will be destroyed by a shock wave at a distance of 500-600 m. In the explosion of a neutron warhead of the same power, the destruction of manpower will occur at a distance approximately three times greater.

The neutrons produced during the explosion move at speeds of several tens of kilometers per second. Bursting like projectiles into living cells of the body, they knock out nuclei from atoms, break molecular bonds, form free radicals with high reactivity, which leads to disruption of the main cycles of life processes.

When neutrons move in air as a result of collisions with the nuclei of gas atoms, they gradually lose energy. This leads to at a distance of about 2 km, their damaging effect practically stops. In order to reduce the destructive effect of the accompanying shock wave, the power of the neutron charge is chosen in the range from 1 to 10 kt, and the height of the explosion above the ground is about 150-200 meters.

According to some American scientists, at the Los Alamos and Sandia laboratories of the USA and at the All-Russian Institute of Experimental Physics in Sarov (Arzamas-16), thermonuclear experiments are being carried out, in which, along with research on obtaining electrical energy the possibility of obtaining a purely thermonuclear explosive is being studied. The most likely by-product of ongoing research, in their opinion, could be an improvement in the energy-mass characteristics of nuclear warheads and the creation of a neutron mini-bomb. According to experts, such a neutron warhead with a TNT equivalent of only one ton can create a lethal dose of radiation at distances of 200-400 m.

Neutron weapons are a powerful defensive tool, and their most effective use is possible when repulsing aggression, especially when the enemy has invaded the protected territory. Neutron munitions are tactical weapons and their use is most likely in so-called "limited" wars, primarily in Europe. These weapons may become of particular importance for Russia, since, in the face of the weakening of its armed forces and the growing threat of regional conflicts, it will be forced to place greater emphasis on nuclear weapons in ensuring its security.

The use of neutron weapons can be especially effective in repulsing a massive tank attack.. It is known that tank armor at certain distances from the epicenter of the explosion (more than 300-400 m in the explosion of a nuclear charge with a power of 1 kt) provides protection for crews from shock waves and Y-radiation. At the same time, fast neutrons penetrate steel armor without significant attenuation.

The calculations show that in the event of an explosion of a neutron charge with a power of 1 kiloton, tank crews will be instantly put out of action within a radius of 300 m from the epicenter and will die within two days. Crews located at a distance of 300-700 m will fail in a few minutes and will also die within 6-7 days; at distances of 700-1300 m, they will be incapable of combat in a few hours, and the death of most of them will drag on for several weeks. At distances of 1300-1500 m, a certain part of the crews will get serious illnesses and gradually fail.

Neutron warheads can also be used in missile defense systems to deal with the warheads of attacking missiles on the trajectory. According to experts, fast neutrons, having a high penetrating power, will pass through the skin of enemy warheads and cause damage to their electronic equipment. In addition, neutrons, interacting with the uranium or plutonium nuclei of the atomic detonator of the warhead, will cause their fission.

Such a reaction will occur with a large release of energy, which, ultimately, can lead to heating and destruction of the detonator. This, in turn, will lead to the failure of the entire charge of the warhead. This property of neutron weapons has been used in US missile defense systems. Back in the mid-1970s, neutron warheads were installed on Sprint interceptor missiles of the Safeguard system deployed around the Grand Forks airbase (North Dakota). It is possible that neutron warheads will also be used in the future US national missile defense system.

As is known, in accordance with the obligations announced by the presidents of the United States and Russia in September-October 1991, all nuclear artillery shells and warheads of ground-based tactical missiles must be eliminated. However, there is no doubt that in the event of a change in the military-political situation and a political decision is made, the proven technology of neutron warheads will allow them to be mass-produced in a short time.

"Super EMP"

Shortly after the end of World War II, under the conditions of a monopoly on nuclear weapons, the United States resumed testing to improve it and determine the damaging factors of a nuclear explosion. At the end of June 1946, in the area of ​​​​Bikini Atoll (Marshall Islands), under the code "Operation Crossroads", nuclear explosions were carried out, during which the destructive effect of atomic weapons was studied.

These test explosions revealed new physical phenomenon — the formation of a powerful pulse of electromagnetic radiation (EMR) in which there was immediate interest. Especially significant was the EMP in high explosions. In the summer of 1958, nuclear explosions were carried out at high altitudes. The first series under the code "Hardtack" was held over Pacific Ocean near Johnston Island. During the tests, two megaton class charges were detonated: "Tek" - at an altitude of 77 kilometers and "Orange" - at an altitude of 43 kilometers.

In 1962, high-altitude explosions were continued: at an altitude of 450 km, under the code "Starfish", a warhead with a capacity of 1.4 megatons was detonated. The Soviet Union also during 1961-1962. conducted a series of tests during which the impact of high-altitude explosions (180-300 km) on the functioning of the equipment of missile defense systems was studied.
During these tests, powerful electromagnetic pulses were recorded, which had a great damaging effect on electronic equipment, communication and power lines, radio and radar stations over long distances. Since then, military specialists have continued to pay great attention to the study of the nature of this phenomenon, its destructive effect, and ways to protect their combat and support systems from it.

The physical nature of EMP is determined by the interaction of Y-quanta of instantaneous radiation of a nuclear explosion with atoms of air gases: Y-quanta knock out electrons (so-called Compton electrons) from atoms, which move at great speed in the direction from the center of the explosion. The flow of these electrons, interacting with magnetic field Earth, creates a pulse of electromagnetic radiation. When a charge of a megaton class explodes at altitudes of several tens of kilometers, the electric field strength on the earth's surface can reach tens of kilovolts per meter.

On the basis of the results obtained during the tests, US military experts launched research in the early 80s aimed at creating another type of third-generation nuclear weapon - Super-EMP with enhanced electromagnetic radiation output.

To increase the yield of Y-quanta, it was supposed to create a shell around the charge of a substance whose nuclei, actively interacting with the neutrons of a nuclear explosion, emit high-energy Y-radiation. Experts believe that with the help of Super-EMP it is possible to create a field strength near the Earth's surface of the order of hundreds and even thousands of kilovolts per meter.

According to the calculations of American theorists, the explosion of such a charge with a capacity of 10 megatons at an altitude of 300-400 km above the geographical center of the United States - the state of Nebraska will disrupt the operation of electronic equipment almost throughout the country for a time sufficient to disrupt a retaliatory nuclear missile strike.

The further direction of work on the creation of Super-EMP was associated with an increase in its destructive effect due to the focusing of Y-radiation, which should have led to an increase in the amplitude of the pulse. These properties of Super-EMP make it a first-strike weapon designed to disable government and military control systems, ICBMs, especially mobile-based missiles, trajectory missiles, radar stations, spacecraft, power supply systems, etc. Thus, Super-EMP is clearly offensive in nature and is a destabilizing first strike weapon.

Penetrating warheads - penetrators

The search for reliable means of destroying highly protected targets led US military experts to the idea of ​​using the energy of underground nuclear explosions for this. With the deepening of nuclear charges into the ground, the share of energy spent on the formation of a funnel, a destruction zone and seismic shock waves increases significantly. In this case, with the existing accuracy of ICBMs and SLBMs, the reliability of destroying "pinpoint", especially strong targets on enemy territory is significantly increased.

Work on the creation of penetrators was started by order of the Pentagon back in the mid-70s, when the concept of a "counterforce" strike was given priority. The first example of a penetrating warhead was developed in the early 80s for the Pershing-2 medium-range missile. After the signing of the Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces (INF) Treaty, the efforts of US specialists were redirected to the creation of such munitions for ICBMs.

The developers of the new warhead encountered significant difficulties, primarily related to the need to ensure its integrity and performance when moving in the ground. Huge overloads acting on the warhead (5000-8000 g, g-acceleration of gravity) impose extremely stringent requirements on the design of the ammunition.

The damaging effect of such a warhead on buried, especially strong targets is determined by two factors - the power of the nuclear charge and the magnitude of its penetration into the ground. At the same time, for each value of the charge power, there is an optimal depth value, which ensures the highest efficiency of the penetrator.

So, for example, the destructive effect of a 200 kiloton nuclear charge on especially strong targets will be quite effective when it is buried to a depth of 15-20 meters and it will be equivalent to the effect of a ground explosion of a 600 kt MX missile warhead. Military experts have determined that with the accuracy of delivery of the penetrator warhead, which is typical for MX and Trident-2 missiles, the probability of destroying an enemy missile silo or command post with a single warhead is very high. This means that in this case the probability of destruction of targets will be determined only by the technical reliability of the delivery of warheads.

It is obvious that penetrating warheads are designed to destroy enemy state and military control centers, ICBMs located in mines, command posts and so on. Consequently, penetrators are offensive, "counterforce" weapons designed to deliver a first strike and, therefore, have a destabilizing character.

The value of penetrating warheads, if adopted, may increase significantly in the context of the reduction of strategic offensive weapons, when the reduction in combat capabilities for delivering a first strike (reducing the number of carriers and warheads) will require an increase in the probability of hitting targets with each ammunition. At the same time, for such warheads, it is necessary to ensure a sufficiently high accuracy of hitting the target. Therefore, the possibility of creating penetrator warheads equipped with a homing system in the final section of the trajectory, like a precision weapon, was considered.

X-ray laser with nuclear pumping

In the second half of the 70s, research was begun at the Livermore Radiation Laboratory to create " anti-missile weapons of the XXI century "- X-ray laser with nuclear excitation. This weapon was conceived from the very beginning as the main means of destroying Soviet missiles in the active part of the trajectory, before the separation of the warheads. The new weapon was given the name - "volley fire weapon".

In schematic form, the new weapon can be represented as a warhead, on the surface of which up to 50 laser rods are fixed. Each rod has two degrees of freedom and, like a gun barrel, can be autonomously directed to any point in space. Along the axis of each rod, several meters long, is placed a thin wire made of a dense active material, "such as gold." A powerful nuclear charge is placed inside the warhead, the explosion of which should serve as an energy source for pumping lasers.

According to some experts, to ensure the destruction of attacking missiles at a range of more than 1000 km, a charge with a yield of several hundred kilotons will be required. The warhead also houses an aiming system with a high-speed real-time computer.

To combat Soviet missiles, US military experts developed a special tactic for its combat use. To this end, it was proposed to place nuclear laser warheads on submarine-launched ballistic missiles (SLBMs). IN " crisis situation"or during the period of preparation for the first strike, submarines equipped with these SLBMs should covertly advance into patrol areas and take up combat positions as close as possible to the position areas of Soviet ICBMs: in the northern part of the Indian Ocean, in the Arabian, Norwegian, Okhotsk seas.

When a signal about the launch of Soviet missiles is received, submarine missiles are launched. If Soviet missiles climbed to an altitude of 200 km, then in order to reach the line-of-sight range, missiles with laser warheads need to climb to an altitude of about 950 km. After that, the control system, together with the computer, aims the laser rods at the Soviet missiles. As soon as each rod takes a position in which the radiation will hit exactly the target, the computer will give a command to detonate the nuclear charge.

The huge energy released during the explosion in the form of radiation will instantly transfer the active substance of the rods (wire) to the plasma state. In a moment, this plasma, cooling, will create radiation in the X-ray range, propagating in airless space for thousands of kilometers in the direction of the axis of the rod. The laser warhead itself will be destroyed in a few microseconds, but before that it will have time to send powerful radiation pulses towards the targets.

Absorbed in a thin surface layer of the rocket material, X-rays can create an extremely high concentration of thermal energy in it, which will cause its explosive evaporation, leading to the formation of a shock wave and, ultimately, to the destruction of the body.

However, the creation of the X-ray laser, which was considered the cornerstone of the Reagan SDI program, met with great difficulties that have not yet been overcome. Among them, in the first places are the difficulties of focusing laser radiation, as well as the creation of an effective system for pointing laser rods.

The first underground tests of an X-ray laser were carried out in Nevada adits in November 1980 under the code name Dauphine. The results obtained confirmed the theoretical calculations of scientists, however, the X-ray output turned out to be very weak and clearly insufficient to destroy missiles. This was followed by a series of test explosions "Excalibur", "Super-Excalibur", "Cottage", "Romano", during which the specialists pursued the main goal - to increase the intensity of X-ray radiation due to focusing.

At the end of December 1985, the Goldstone underground explosion with a capacity of about 150 kt was carried out, and in April of the following year, the Mighty Oak test was carried out with similar goals. Under the ban on nuclear tests, serious obstacles arose in the way of developing these weapons.

It must be emphasized that an X-ray laser is, first of all, a nuclear weapon and, if it is blown up near the Earth's surface, it will have approximately the same destructive effect as a conventional thermonuclear charge of the same power.

"Hypersonic Shrapnel"

In the course of work on the SDI program, theoretical calculations and the results of modeling the process of intercepting enemy warheads showed that the first echelon of missile defense, designed to destroy missiles in the active part of the trajectory, will not be able to completely solve this problem. Therefore, it is necessary to create combat means capable of effectively destroying warheads in the phase of their free flight.

To this end, US experts proposed the use of small metal particles accelerated to high speeds using the energy of a nuclear explosion. The main idea of ​​such a weapon is that at high speeds even a small dense particle (weighing no more than a gram) will have a large kinetic energy. Therefore, upon impact with a target, a particle can damage or even pierce the warhead shell. Even if the shell is only damaged, it will be destroyed upon entry into the dense layers of the atmosphere as a result of intense mechanical impact and aerodynamic heating.

Naturally, when such a particle hits a thin-walled inflatable decoy, its shell will be pierced and it will immediately lose its shape in a vacuum. The destruction of light decoys will greatly facilitate the selection of nuclear warheads and, thus, will contribute to the successful fight against them.

It is assumed that structurally such a warhead will contain a nuclear charge of relatively low power with automatic system undermining, around which a shell is created, consisting of many small metal striking elements. With a shell mass of 100 kg, more than 100 thousand fragmentation elements can be obtained, which will create a relatively large and dense field of destruction. During the explosion of a nuclear charge, an incandescent gas is formed - plasma, which, expanding at a tremendous speed, entrains and accelerates these dense particles. In this case, a difficult technical problem is to maintain a sufficient mass of fragments, since when they are flowed around by a high-speed gas flow, mass will be carried away from the surface of the elements.

In the United States, a series of tests were conducted to create "nuclear shrapnel" under the Prometheus program. The power of the nuclear charge during these tests was only a few tens of tons. Assessing the damaging capabilities of this weapon, it should be borne in mind that in dense layers of the atmosphere, particles moving at speeds of more than 4-5 kilometers per second will burn out. Therefore, "nuclear shrapnel" can only be used in space, at altitudes of more than 80-100 km, in vacuum conditions.

Accordingly, shrapnel warheads can be successfully used, in addition to combating warheads and decoys, also as an anti-space weapon to destroy military satellites, in particular, those included in the missile attack warning system (EWS). Therefore, it is possible to use it in combat in the first strike to "blind" the enemy.

The various types of nuclear weapons discussed above by no means exhaust all the possibilities in creating their modifications. This, in particular, applies to nuclear weapons projects with enhanced action of an air nuclear wave, increased output of Y-radiation, increased radioactive contamination of the area (such as the notorious "cobalt" bomb), etc.

Recently, the United States has been considering projects for ultra-low-yield nuclear weapons.:
– mini-newx (capacity hundreds of tons),
- micro-newx (tens of tons),
- secret newks (units of tons), which, in addition to low power, should be much cleaner than their predecessors.

The process of improving nuclear weapons continues and it is impossible to exclude the appearance in the future of subminiature nuclear charges created on the basis of the use of superheavy transplutonium elements with a critical mass of 25 to 500 grams. The transplutonium element kurchatov has a critical mass of about 150 grams.

A nuclear device using one of the California isotopes will be so small that, having a capacity of several tons of TNT, it can be adapted for firing grenade launchers and small arms.

All of the above indicates that the use of nuclear energy for military purposes has significant potential and continued development towards the creation of new types of weapons can lead to a "technological breakthrough" that will lower the "nuclear threshold" and have a negative impact on strategic stability.

The ban on all nuclear tests, if it does not completely block the development and improvement of nuclear weapons, then significantly slows them down. Under these conditions, mutual openness, trust, the elimination of sharp contradictions between states and the creation, in the final analysis, of an effective international system of collective security acquire particular importance.

/Vladimir Belous, major general, professor at the Academy of Military Sciences, nasledie.ru/

atomic weapons - a device that receives huge explosive power from the reactions of NUCLEAR FISSION and NUCLEAR fusion.

About atomic weapons

Nuclear weapons are the most powerful weapons to date, in service with five countries: Russia, the United States, Great Britain, France and China. There are also a number of states that are more or less successful in the development of atomic weapons, but their research is either not completed, or these countries do not have the necessary means of delivering weapons to the target. India, Pakistan, North Korea, Iraq, Iran are developing nuclear weapons at different levels, Germany, Israel, South Africa and Japan theoretically have the necessary capabilities to create nuclear weapons in a relatively short time.

It is difficult to overestimate the role of nuclear weapons. On the one hand, it is a powerful deterrent, on the other hand, it is the most effective tool strengthening peace and preventing military conflicts between powers that possess these weapons. It has been 52 years since the first use of the atomic bomb in Hiroshima. The world community has come close to realizing that a nuclear war will inevitably lead to a global environmental catastrophe that will make the continued existence of mankind impossible. Over the years, legal mechanisms have been put in place to defuse tensions and ease the confrontation between the nuclear powers. For example, many treaties were signed to reduce the nuclear potential of the powers, the Convention on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons was signed, according to which the possessor countries pledged not to transfer the technology for the production of these weapons to other countries, and countries that do not have nuclear weapons pledged not to take steps to developments; Finally, most recently, the superpowers agreed on a total ban on nuclear tests. It is obvious that nuclear weapons are the most important instrument that has become the regulatory symbol of an entire era in the history of international relations and in the history of mankind.

atomic weapons

NUCLEAR WEAPON, a device that derives tremendous explosive power from the reactions of ATOMIC NUCLEAR FISSION and NUCLEAR fusion. The first nuclear weapons were used by the United States against the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki in August 1945. These atomic bombs consisted of two stable doctritic masses of URANIUM and PLUTONIUM, which, when strongly collided, caused an excess of CRITICAL MASS, thereby provoking an uncontrolled CHAIN ​​REACTION of atomic fission. In such explosions, a huge amount of energy and destructive radiation is released: the explosive power can be equal to the power of 200,000 tons of trinitrotoluene. The much more powerful hydrogen bomb ( thermonuclear bomb), first tested in 1952, consists of an atomic bomb that, during an explosion, creates a temperature high enough to cause nuclear fusion in a nearby solid layer, usually lithium deterrite. Explosive power can be equal to the power of several million tons (megatons) of trinitrotoluene. The area of ​​damage caused by such bombs reaches large sizes: 15 megaton bomb will detonate all burning materials within 20 km. The third type of nuclear weapon, the neutron bomb, is a small hydrogen bomb, also called a high-radiation weapon. It causes a weak explosion, which, however, is accompanied by an intense release of high-speed NEUTRONS. The weakness of the explosion means that the buildings are not damaged much. Neutrons, on the other hand, cause severe radiation sickness in people within a certain radius of the explosion site, and kill all those affected within a week.

Initially, an atomic bomb explosion (A) forms a fireball (1) with a temperature of millions of degrees Celsius and emits radiation (?) After a few minutes (B), the ball increases in volume and creates a high pressure shock wave (3). The fireball rises (C), sucking up dust and debris, and forms a mushroom cloud (D), As it expands in volume, the fireball creates a powerful convection current (4), emitting hot radiation (5) and forming a cloud (6), When it explodes 15 megaton bomb blast destruction is complete (7) within an 8 km radius, severe (8) within a 15 km radius and noticeable (I) within a 30 km radius Even at a distance of 20 km (10) all flammable substances explode within two days fallout continues with a radioactive dose of 300 roentgens after a bomb detonation 300 km away The attached photograph shows how a large nuclear weapon explosion on the ground creates a huge mushroom cloud of radioactive dust and debris that can reach a height of several kilometers. Dangerous dust in the air is then freely carried by the prevailing winds in any direction. Devastation covers a vast area.

Modern atomic bombs and projectiles

Radius of action

Depending on the power of the atomic charge, atomic bombs are divided into calibers: small, medium and large . To obtain energy equal to the energy of an explosion of a small-caliber atomic bomb, several thousand tons of TNT must be blown up. The TNT equivalent of a medium-caliber atomic bomb is tens of thousands, and bombs large caliber- hundreds of thousands of tons of TNT. Thermonuclear (hydrogen) weapons can have even greater power, their TNT equivalent can reach millions and even tens of millions of tons. Atomic bombs, the TNT equivalent of which is 1-50 thousand tons, are classified as tactical atomic bombs and are intended for solving operational-tactical problems. Tactical weapons also include: artillery shells with an atomic charge with a capacity of 10-15 thousand tons and atomic charges (with a capacity of about 5-20 thousand tons) for anti-aircraft guided projectiles and projectiles used to arm fighters. Atomic and hydrogen bombs with a capacity of over 50 thousand tons are classified as strategic weapons.

It should be noted that such a classification of atomic weapons is only conditional, since in reality the consequences of the use of tactical atomic weapons can be no less than those experienced by the population of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, and even greater. It is now obvious that the explosion of only one hydrogen bomb is capable of causing such severe consequences over vast territories that tens of thousands of shells and bombs used in past world wars did not carry with them. And a few hydrogen bombs are enough to turn huge territories into a desert zone.

Nuclear weapons are divided into 2 main types: atomic and hydrogen (thermonuclear). In atomic weapons, the release of energy occurs due to the fission reaction of the nuclei of atoms of the heavy elements of uranium or plutonium. In hydrogen weapons, energy is released as a result of the formation (or fusion) of nuclei of helium atoms from hydrogen atoms.

thermonuclear weapons

Modern thermonuclear weapons are classified as strategic weapons that can be used by aviation to destroy the most important industrial, military facilities, large cities as civilization centers behind enemy lines. The most well-known type of thermonuclear weapons are thermonuclear (hydrogen) bombs, which can be delivered to the target by aircraft. Thermonuclear warheads can also be used to launch missiles for various purposes, including intercontinental ballistic missiles. For the first time, such a missile was tested in the USSR back in 1957; at present, the Strategic Missile Forces are armed with several types of missiles based on mobile launchers, in silo launchers, and on submarines.

Atomic bomb

The operation of thermonuclear weapons is based on the use of a thermonuclear reaction with hydrogen or its compounds. In these reactions occurring at super high temperatures ah and pressure, energy is released due to the formation of helium nuclei from hydrogen nuclei, or from hydrogen and lithium nuclei. For the formation of helium, mainly heavy hydrogen is used - deuterium, the nuclei of which have an unusual structure - one proton and one neutron. When deuterium is heated to temperatures of several tens of millions of degrees, its atoms lose their electron shells during the very first collisions with other atoms. As a result, the medium turns out to consist only of protons and electrons moving independently of them. The speed of the thermal motion of particles reaches such values ​​that deuterium nuclei can approach each other and, thanks to the action of powerful nuclear forces combine with each other to form helium nuclei. The result of this process is the release of energy.

The basic scheme of the hydrogen bomb is as follows. Deuterium and tritium in the liquid state are placed in a tank with a heat-impermeable shell, which serves to keep the deuterium and tritium in a strongly cooled state for a long time (to maintain it from the liquid state of aggregation). The heat-impervious shell can contain 3 layers consisting of a hard alloy, solid carbon dioxide and liquid nitrogen. An atomic charge is placed near a reservoir of hydrogen isotopes. When an atomic charge is detonated, hydrogen isotopes are heated to high temperatures, conditions are created for a thermonuclear reaction to occur and an explosion of a hydrogen bomb. However, in the process of creating hydrogen bombs, it was found that it was impractical to use hydrogen isotopes, since in this case the bomb becomes too heavy (more than 60 tons), which made it impossible to even think about using such charges on strategic bombers, and especially in ballistic missiles of any range. The second problem faced by the developers of the hydrogen bomb was the radioactivity of tritium, which made it impossible to store it for a long time.

In study 2, the above problems were solved. The liquid isotopes of hydrogen were replaced by the solid chemical compound of deuterium with lithium-6. This made it possible to significantly reduce the size and weight of the hydrogen bomb. In addition, lithium hydride was used instead of tritium, which made it possible to place thermonuclear charges on fighter bombers and ballistic missiles.

The creation of the hydrogen bomb was not the end of the development of thermonuclear weapons, more and more of its samples appeared, a hydrogen-uranium bomb was created, as well as some of its varieties - super-powerful and, conversely, small-caliber bombs. The last stage in the improvement of thermonuclear weapons was the creation of the so-called "clean" hydrogen bomb.

H-bomb

The first developments of this modification of thermo nuclear bomb appeared back in 1957, in the wake of US propaganda statements about the creation of some kind of "humane" thermonuclear weapon, which does not bring as much harm to future generations as an ordinary thermonuclear bomb. There was some truth in the claims to "humanity". Although the destructive power of the bomb was not less, at the same time it could be detonated so that strontium-90, which in an ordinary hydrogen explosion poisons the earth's atmosphere for a long time, does not spread. Everything that is within the range of such a bomb will be destroyed, but the danger to living organisms that are removed from the explosion, as well as to future generations, will decrease. However, these allegations were refuted by scientists, who recalled that during the explosions of atomic or hydrogen bombs, a large amount of radioactive dust is formed, which rises with a powerful air stream to a height of up to 30 km, and then gradually settles to the ground on large area by infecting her. Studies by scientists show that it will take 4 to 7 years for half of this dust to fall to the ground.

Video

NUCLEAR WEAPON

Possessing great penetrating power, third-generation nuclear weapons are capable of hitting enemy manpower at a considerable distance from the epicenter of a nuclear explosion and in shelters. At the same time, in biological objects ionization of living tissue occurs, leading to disruption of the vital functions of individual systems and the organism as a whole, the development of radiation sickness.

In a word, it is very difficult to hide from this. As you know, first-generation nuclear weapons, often called atomic weapons, include warheads based on the use of the fission energy of uranium-235 or plutonium-239 nuclei. The first ever test of such a 15 kt charger was carried out in the USA on July 16, 1945 at the Alamogordo training ground. The explosion in August 1949 of the first Soviet atomic bomb gave a new impetus to the development of work on the creation of second-generation nuclear weapons. It is based on the technology of using the energy of thermonuclear reactions for the fusion of nuclei of heavy hydrogen isotopes - deuterium and tritium. Such weapons are called thermonuclear or hydrogen weapons. The first test of the Mike thermonuclear device was carried out by the United States on November 1, 1952 on the island of Elugelab (Marshall Islands), the capacity of which was 5-8 million tons.

The following year, a thermonuclear charge was detonated in the USSR. The implementation of atomic and thermonuclear reactions opened up wide opportunities for their use in the creation of a series of various munitions of subsequent generations. Nuclear weapons of the third generation include special charges (ammunition), in which, due to a special design, they achieve a redistribution of the energy of the explosion in favor of one of the damaging factors. Other options for the charges of such weapons ensure the creation of a focus of one or another damaging factor in a certain direction, which also leads to a significant increase in its destructive effect. An analysis of the history of the creation and improvement of nuclear weapons indicates that the United States has always been a leader in the creation of new models of it. However, some time passed and the USSR eliminated these unilateral advantages of the United States. Third-generation nuclear weapons are no exception in this regard. One of the most well-known types of third-generation nuclear weapons is the neutron weapon.

What is a neutron weapon?

Neutron weapons were widely discussed at the turn of the 1960s. However, later it became known that the possibility of its creation was discussed long before that. The former president of the World Federation of Scientists, Professor E. Burop from Great Britain, recalled that he first heard about this back in 1944, when he was working in the United States on the `Manhattan Project` as part of a group of British scientists. Work on the creation of neutron weapons was initiated by the need to obtain a powerful combat weapon with a selective ability to destroy, for use directly on the battlefield. The first explosion of a neutron charger (code number W - 63) was carried out in an underground adit in Nevada in April 1963. The neutron flux obtained during the test turned out to be significantly lower than the calculated value, which significantly reduced the combat capabilities of the new weapon. It took almost 15 more years for neutron charges to acquire all the qualities of a military weapon. According to Professor E. Burop, the fundamental difference between a neutron charge device and a thermonuclear one lies in the different rate of energy release: `In a neutron bomb, energy release is much slower. It's kind of like a delayed action squib. Due to this deceleration, the energy spent on the formation of a shock wave and light radiation decreases and, accordingly, its release in the form of a neutron flux increases. In the course of further work, certain success was achieved in ensuring the focusing of neutron radiation, which made it possible not only to increase its damaging effect in a certain direction, but also to reduce the danger of its use for friendly troops.

In November 1976, another test of a neutron warhead was carried out in Nevada, during which very impressive results were obtained. As a result, at the end of 1976, a decision was made to produce components for 203-mm caliber neutron projectiles and warheads for the Lance missile. Later, in August 1981, at a meeting of the Nuclear Planning Group of the US National Security Council, a decision was made on the full-scale production of neutron weapons: 2000 shells for a 203-mm howitzer and 800 warheads for the Lance missile.

During the explosion of a neutron warhead, the main damage to living organisms is inflicted by a stream of fast neutrons. According to calculations, for each kiloton of charge power, about 10 neutrons are released, which propagate with great speed in the surrounding space. These neutrons have an extremely high damaging effect on living organisms, much stronger than even with Y-radiation and a shock wave. For comparison, we point out that in the explosion of a conventional nuclear charge with a capacity of 1 kiloton, an openly located manpower will be destroyed by a shock wave at a distance of 500-600 m. In the explosion of a neutron warhead of the same power, the destruction of manpower will occur at a distance approximately three times greater.

The neutrons formed during the explosion move at speeds of several tens of kilometers per second. Bursting like projectiles into living cells of the body, they knock out nuclei from atoms, break molecular bonds, form free radicals with high reactivity, which leads to disruption of the main cycles of life collisions with the nuclei of gas atoms, they gradually lose energy. This results in a distance of about 2 km. their damaging effect practically ceases. In order to reduce the destructive effect of the accompanying shock wave, the power of the neutron charge is chosen in the range from 1 to 10 kt., And the height of the explosion above the ground is about 150-200 meters.

According to some American scientists, thermonuclear experiments are being conducted at the Los Alamos and Sandy laboratories in the USA and at the All-Russian Institute of Experimental Physics in Sarov (Arzamas - 16), in which, along with research on obtaining electrical energy, the possibility of obtaining purely thermonuclear explosives is being studied. The most likely by-product of ongoing research, in their opinion, could be an improvement in the energy-mass characteristics of nuclear warheads and the creation of a neutron mini-bomb. According to experts, such a neutron warhead with a TNT equivalent of only one ton can create a lethal dose of radiation at distances of 200-400 m.

Neutron weapons are a powerful defensive tool, and their most effective use is possible when repulsing aggression, especially when the enemy has invaded the protected territory. Neutron munitions are tactical weapons and their use is most likely in the so-called `limited` wars, primarily in Europe. These weapons may become of particular importance for Russia, since, in the face of the weakening of its armed forces and the growing threat of regional conflicts, it will be forced to place great emphasis on nuclear weapons in ensuring its security. The use of neutron weapons can be especially effective in repulsing a massive tank attack. It is known that tank armor at certain distances from the epicenter of the explosion (more than 300-400 m in the explosion of a nuclear charge with a power of 1 kt) provides protection for crews from shock waves and Y-radiation. At the same time, fast neutrons penetrate steel armor of significant attenuation.

The calculations show that in the event of an explosion of a neutron charge with a capacity of 1 kiloton, tank crews will be instantly disabled within a radius of 300 m from the epicenter and will die within two days. Crews located at a distance of 300-700 m, they will be incapacitated in a few hours, and the death of most of them will stretch over several weeks. At distances of 1300-1500 m, a certain part of the crews will get serious illnesses and gradually fail.

Neutron warheads can also be used in missile defense systems to deal with the warheads of attacking missiles on the trajectory. According to experts, fast neutrons, having a high penetrating power, will pass through the skin of enemy warheads and cause damage to their electronic equipment. In addition, neutrons, interacting with the uranium or plutonium nuclei of the atomic detonator of the warhead, will cause their fission. Such a reaction will occur with a large release of energy, which, ultimately, can lead to heating and destruction of the detonator. This, in turn, will lead to the failure of the entire charge of the warhead. This property of neutron weapons has been used in US missile defense systems. Back in the mid-70s, neutron warheads were installed on `Sprint` interceptor missiles of the `Safeguard` system deployed around the `Grand Forks` airbase (North Dakota). It is possible that neutron warheads will also be used in the future US national missile defense system.

As is known, in accordance with the obligations announced by the Presidents of the United States and Russia in September-October 1991, all nuclear artillery shells and warheads of land-based tactical missiles must be eliminated. However, there is no doubt that in the event of a change in the military-political situation and a political decision is made, the proven technology of neutron warheads will allow them to be mass-produced in a short time.

`Super-EMP` Shortly after the end of World War II, under the conditions of a monopoly on nuclear weapons, the United States resumed testing to improve it and determine the damaging factors of a nuclear explosion. At the end of June 1946, in the area of ​​​​Bikini Atoll (Marshall Islands), under the code `Operation Crossroads`, nuclear explosions were carried out, during which the destructive effect of atomic weapons was studied. During these test explosions, a new physical phenomenon was discovered - the formation of a powerful pulse of electromagnetic radiation (EMR), to which great interest was immediately shown. Especially significant was the EMP in high explosions. In the summer of 1958, nuclear explosions were carried out at high altitudes. The first series under the code `Hardtek` was carried out over the Pacific Ocean near Johnston Island. During the tests, two charges of the megaton class were blown up: `Tek` - at an altitude of 77 kilometers and `Orange` - at an altitude of 43 kilometers. In 1962, high-altitude explosions were continued: at an altitude of 450 km, under the code `Starfish`, a warhead with a capacity of 1.4 megatons was detonated. The Soviet Union also during 1061-1962. conducted a series of tests during which the impact of high-altitude explosions (180-300 km) on the functioning of the equipment of missile defense systems was studied. During these tests, powerful electromagnetic pulses were recorded, which had a great damaging effect on electronic equipment, communication and power lines, radio and radar stations over long distances. Since then, military specialists have continued to pay great attention to the study of the nature of this phenomenon, its destructive effect, and ways to protect their combat and support systems from it.

The physical nature of EMP is determined by the interaction of Y-quanta of instantaneous radiation of a nuclear explosion with atoms of air gases: Y-quanta knock out electrons from atoms (the so-called Compton electrons), which move at great speed in the direction from the center of the explosion. The flow of these electrons, interacting with the Earth's magnetic field, creates an impulse of electromagnetic radiation. When a charge of a megaton class explodes at altitudes of several tens of kilometers, the electric field strength on the earth's surface can reach tens of kilovolts per meter.

Based on the results obtained during the tests, US military experts launched tests in the early 80s aimed at creating another type of third-generation nuclear weapon - Super EMP with enhanced electromagnetic radiation output. To increase the yield of Y-quanta, it was supposed to create a shell around the charge of a substance whose nuclei, actively interacting with the neutrons of a nuclear explosion, emit high-energy Y-radiation. Experts believe that with the help of Super-EMP it is possible to create a field strength near the Earth's surface of the order of hundreds and even thousands of kilovolts per meter. According to the calculations of American theorists, the explosion of such a charge with a capacity of 10 megatons at an altitude of 300-400 km above the geographical center of the United States - the state of Nebraska will disrupt the operation of radiotelephone facilities almost throughout the country for a time sufficient to disrupt a retaliatory nuclear missile strike.

The further direction of work on the creation of Super-EMP was associated with an increase in its destructive effect due to the focusing of Y - radiation, which should have led to an increase in the amplitude of the pulse. These properties of Super-EMP make it a first strike weapon designed to disable government and military control systems, ICBMs, especially mobile-based missiles, trajectory missiles, radar stations, spacecraft, power supply systems, etc. thus, the Super-EMP is clearly offensive in nature and is a destabilizing first strike weapon.

Penetrating warheads (penetrators). The search for reliable means of destroying highly protected targets led US military experts to the idea of ​​using the energy of underground nuclear explosions for this. With the deepening of nuclear charges into the ground, the proportion of energy that is looking for the formation of a funnel, a zone of destruction and seismic shock waves increases significantly. In this case, with the existing accuracy of ICBMs and SLBMs, the reliability of destroying `pinpoint`, especially strong targets on enemy territory is significantly increased.

Work on the creation of penetrators was begun by order of the Pentagon back in the mid-70s, when the concept of a `counterforce` strike was given priority. The first penetrating warhead was developed in the early 1980s for the Pershing-2 medium-range missile. After the signing of the Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces (INF) Treaty, the efforts of US specialists were redirected to the creation of such munitions for ICBMs.

The developers of the new warhead encountered significant difficulties, primarily related to the need to ensure its integrity and performance when moving in the ground. Huge overloads acting on the warhead (5000-8000 g, g is the acceleration of gravity) impose extremely stringent requirements on the design of the ammunition.
The damaging effect of such a warhead on buried, especially strong targets is determined by two factors - the power of the nuclear charge and the magnitude of its penetration into the ground. At the same time, for each value of the charge power, there is an optimal depth value, which ensures the greatest efficiency of the panetrator. So, for example, the destructive effect of a 200 kiloton nuclear charge on especially strong targets will be quite effective when it is buried to a depth of 15-20 meters and it will be equivalent to the effect of a ground explosion of a 600 kt MX missile warhead. Military experts have determined that with the accuracy of delivery of the penetrator warhead, which is typical for MX and `Trident-2` missiles, the probability of destroying an enemy missile silo or command post with one warhead is very high. This means that in this case the probability of destruction of targets will be determined only by the technical reliability of the delivery of warheads.

Obviously, penetrating warheads are designed to destroy the enemy's state and military control centers, ICBMs located in mines, command posts, etc. consequently, penetrators are offensive, "counterforce" weapons designed to deliver a first strike and therefore have a destabilizing nature. The value of penetrating warheads, if adopted, may increase significantly in the context of the reduction of strategic offensive weapons, when the reduction in combat capabilities for delivering a first strike (reducing the number of carriers and warheads) will require an increase in the probability of hitting targets with each ammunition. At the same time, for such warheads, it is necessary to ensure a sufficiently high accuracy of hitting the target. Therefore, the possibility of creating penetrator warheads equipped with a homing system in the final section of the trajectory, like a precision weapon, was considered.

X-ray laser with nuclear pumping. In the second half of the 1970s, research was begun at the Livermore Radiation Laboratory on the creation of an "anti-missile weapon of the 21st century" - an X-ray laser with nuclear excitation. This weapon was conceived from the very beginning as the main means of destroying Soviet missiles in the active part of the trajectory, before the separation of the warheads. The new weapon was given the name - `volley fire weapon`.

In schematic form, the new weapon can be represented as a warhead, on the surface of which up to 50 laser rods are fixed. Each rod has two degrees of freedom and, like a gun barrel, can be autonomously directed to any point in space. Along the axis of each rod, a few meters long, is placed a thin wire made of a dense active material, `such as gold`. A powerful nuclear charge is placed inside the warhead, the explosion of which should serve as an energy source for pumping lasers. According to some experts, to ensure the defeat of attacking missiles at a distance of more than 1000 km, a charge with a capacity of several hundred kilotons will be required. The warhead also houses an aiming system with a high-speed real-time computer. To combat Soviet missiles, US military experts developed a special tactic for its combat use. To this end, it was proposed to place nuclear laser warheads on submarine-launched ballistic missiles (SLBMs). In a 'crisis situation' or during the period of preparation for a first strike, submarines equipped with these SLBMs should secretly advance in the patrol area and take combat positions as close as possible to the position areas of Soviet ICBMs: in the northern Indian Ocean, in the Arabian, Norwegian, Okhotny seas. When a signal about the launch of Soviet missiles is received, submarine missiles are launched. If Soviet missiles climbed to an altitude of 200 km, then in order to reach the line-of-sight range, missiles with laser warheads need to climb to an altitude of about 950 km. after that, the control system, together with the computer, aims the laser rods at the Soviet missiles. As soon as each rod takes a position in which the radiation will hit exactly the target, the computer will give a command to detonate the nuclear charge.

The huge energy released during the explosion in the form of radiation will instantly transfer the active substance of the rods (wire) to the plasma state. In a moment, this plasma, cooling, will create radiation in the X-ray range, propagating in airless space for thousands of kilometers in the direction of the axis of the rod. The laser warhead itself will be destroyed in a few microseconds, but before that it will have time to send powerful radiation pulses towards the targets. Absorbed in a thin surface layer of the rocket material, X-rays can create an extremely high concentration of thermal energy in it, which will cause its explosive evaporation, leading to the formation of a shock wave and, ultimately, to the destruction of the body. However, the creation of the X-ray laser, which was considered the cornerstone of the Reagan SDI program, met with great difficulties that have not yet been overcome. Among them, in the first places are the difficulties of focusing laser radiation, as well as the creation of an effective system for pointing laser rods. The first underground tests of the X-ray laser were carried out in the adits of Nevada in November 1980 under the code name `Dauphin`. The results obtained confirmed the theoretical calculations of scientists, however, the X-ray output turned out to be very weak and clearly insufficient to destroy missiles. This was followed by a series of test explosions `Excalibur`, `Super-Excalibur`, `Cottage`, `Romano`, during which the specialists pursued the main goal - to increase the intensity of X-ray radiation due to focusing. At the end of December 1985, an underground explosion of `Goldstone` with a capacity of about 150 kt was carried out, and in April of the following year, a test of `Mighty Oak` with similar goals was carried out. Under the ban on nuclear tests, serious obstacles arose in the way of developing these weapons.

It must be emphasized that an X-ray laser is, first of all, a nuclear weapon and, if it is blown up near the Earth's surface, it will have approximately the same destructive effect as a conventional thermonuclear charge of the same power.

Hypersonic shrapnel

In the course of work on the SDI program, theoretical calculations and the results of modeling the process of intercepting enemy warheads showed that the first echelon of missile defense, designed to destroy missiles in the active part of the trajectory, will not be able to completely solve this problem. Therefore, it is necessary to create combat means capable of effectively destroying warheads in the phase of their free flight. To this end, US experts proposed the use of small metal particles accelerated to high speeds using the energy of a nuclear explosion. The main idea of ​​such a weapon is that at high speeds even a small dense particle (weighing no more than a gram) will have a large kinetic energy. Therefore, upon impact with a target, a particle can damage or even pierce the warhead shell. Even if the shell is only damaged, it will be destroyed upon entry into the dense layers of the atmosphere as a result of intense mechanical impact and aerodynamic heating. Naturally, when such a particle hits a thin-walled inflatable decoy, its shell will be pierced and it will immediately lose its shape in a vacuum. The destruction of light decoys will greatly facilitate the selection of nuclear warheads and, thus, will contribute to the successful fight against them.

It is assumed that structurally such a warhead will contain a relatively low-yield nuclear charge with an automatic detonation system, around which a shell is created, consisting of many small metal submunitions. With a shell weight of 100 kg. You can get more than 100 thousand fragmentation elements, which will create a relatively large and dense field of destruction. During the explosion of a nuclear charge, an incandescent gas is formed - plasma, which, expanding at a tremendous speed, entrains and accelerates these dense particles. In this case, a difficult technical problem is to maintain a sufficient mass of fragments, since when they are flowed around by a high-speed gas flow, mass will be carried away from the surface of the elements.

A series of tests was conducted in the United States to create `nuclear shrapnel` under the `Prometheus` program. The power of the nuclear charge during these tests was only a few tens of tons. Assessing the damaging capabilities of this weapon, it should be borne in mind that in dense layers of the atmosphere, particles moving at speeds of more than 4-5 kilometers per second will burn out. Therefore, "nuclear shrapnel" can only be used in space, at altitudes of more than 80-100 km, in vacuum conditions. Accordingly, shrapnel warheads can be successfully used, in addition to combating warheads and decoys, also as an anti-space weapon to destroy military satellites, in particular, those included in the missile attack warning system (EWS). Therefore, it is possible to use it in combat in the first strike to 'dazzle' the enemy. The various types of nuclear weapons discussed above by no means exhaust all the possibilities in creating their modifications. This, in particular, applies to nuclear weapons projects with enhanced action of an air nuclear wave, increased output of Y - radiation, increased radioactive contamination of the area (such as the notorious `cobalt` bomb), etc.

Recently, projects of ultra-low-yield nuclear charges have been considered in the United States: mini-newx (power of hundreds of tons), micro-newx (tens of tons), secret-newx (units of tons), which, in addition to low power, should be much more `clean`, than their predecessors. The process of improving nuclear weapons continues and it is impossible to exclude the appearance in the future of subminiature superheavy transplutonium elements with a critical mass of 25 to 500 grams. The transplutonium element kurchatov has a critical mass of about 150 grams. Charger when using one of the isotopes, California will be so small that, having a capacity of several tons of TNT, it can be adapted for firing grenade launchers and small arms.

All of the above indicates that the use of nuclear energy for military purposes has significant potential and continued development in the direction of creating new types of weapons can lead to a "technological breakthrough" that will lower the "nuclear threshold" and have a negative impact on strategic stability. The ban on all nuclear tests, if it does not completely block the development and improvement of nuclear weapons, then significantly slows them down. Under these conditions, mutual openness, trust, the elimination of sharp contradictions between states and the creation, in the final analysis, of an effective international system of collective security acquire particular importance.

Damaging factors:

optical radiation.

optical radiation

Light radiation is a stream of radiant energy, including the ultraviolet, visible and infrared regions of the spectrum. The source of light radiation is the luminous area of ​​the explosion - heated to high temperatures and evaporated parts of the ammunition, the surrounding soil and air. With an air explosion, the luminous area is a ball, with a ground explosion - a hemisphere.

The maximum surface temperature of the luminous area is usually 5700-7700 °C. When the temperature drops to 1700 °C, the glow stops. The light pulse lasts from fractions of a second to several tens of seconds, depending on the power and conditions of the explosion. Approximately, the glow duration in seconds is equal to the third root of the explosion power in kilotons. In this case, the radiation intensity can exceed 1000 W / cm² (for comparison, the maximum intensity sunlight 0.14 W / cm²). The result of the action of light radiation can be ignition and ignition of objects, melting, charring, high temperature stresses in materials. When a person is exposed to light radiation, damage to the eyes and burns of open areas of the body occurs, and damage to areas of the body protected by clothing can also occur. An arbitrary opaque barrier can serve as protection against exposure to light radiation. In the case of fog, haze, heavy dust and / or smoke exposure to light radiation is also reduced.

shock wave.

Most of the destruction caused by a nuclear explosion is caused by the action of the shock wave. A shock wave is a shock wave in a medium that moves at supersonic speed (more than 350 m/s for the atmosphere). In an atmospheric explosion, a shock wave is a small area in which there is an almost instantaneous increase in temperature, pressure, and air density. Directly behind the shock wave front there is a decrease in air pressure and density, from a slight decrease far from the center of the explosion and almost to a vacuum inside the fireball. The consequence of this decrease is the reverse movement of air and a strong wind along the surface with speeds up to 100 km/h or more towards the epicenter. The shock wave destroys buildings, structures and affects unprotected people, and close to the epicenter of a ground or very low air explosion generates powerful seismic vibrations that can destroy or damage underground structures and communications, and injure people in them.

Most buildings, except for specially reinforced ones, are seriously damaged or destroyed under the influence of excess pressure of 2160-3600 kg / m² (0.22-0.36 atm).

The energy is distributed over the entire distance traveled, because of this, the force of the impact of the shock wave decreases in proportion to the cube of the distance from the epicenter.

Shelters are protection against a shock wave for a person. In open areas, the effect of the shock wave is reduced by various depressions, obstacles, terrain folds.

Shock wave (SW) main damaging factor a nuclear explosion that destroys, damages buildings and structures, and also affects people and animals. The source of SW is the strong pressure formed in the center of the explosion (billions of atmospheres). The hot gases formed during the explosion, rapidly expanding, transfer pressure to neighboring layers of air, compressing and heating them, and they, in turn, act on the next layers, etc. As a result, a high-pressure zone propagates in the air at supersonic speed in all directions from the center of the explosion.

ThusHC pIt is a shock wave in the atmosphere and moves at supersonic speed. A shock wave is a zone (very small) in which there is a sharp (almost instantaneous) increase in temperature, pressure, air density. In addition to the pressure jump itself, a wake (strong wind) is formed behind it. V sk, P sk - speed, pressure developed by the shock wave, V cn, P cn - co-flow velocity, co-flow pressure.

So, in the explosion of a 20-kiloton nuclear weapon, the shock wave travels 1000 m in 2 seconds,and 5 seconds - 2000 m, for 8 seconds - 3000 m. The front boundary of the wave is called the front of the shock wave. The degree of shock damage depends on the power and the position of objects on it. The damaging effect of SW is characterized by the amount of excess pressure.

Excess pressure is the difference between the maximum pressure in the SW front and normal atmospheric pressure, measured in Pascals (PA, kPa). It propagates at supersonic speed, the SW destroys buildings and structures on its way, forming four zones of destruction (complete, strong, medium, weak) depending on the distance: Zone of complete destruction - 50 kPa Zone of severe destruction - 30-50 kPa. The zone of medium destruction is 20-30 kPa. The zone of weak destruction is 10-20 kPa.

Destruction of building structures produced by excessive pressure:720 kg / m 2 (1 psi - psi) - windows and doors fly out;

2160 kg / m 2 (3 psi) - destruction of residential buildings;

3600 kg / m 2 (5 psi) - destruction or severe damage to buildings made of monolot reinforced concrete;
7200 kg / m 2 (10 psi) - destruction of especially strong concrete structures;
14400 kg / m 2 (20 psi) - only special structures (such as bunkers) can withstand such pressure.
The propagation radii of these pressure zones can be calculated using the following formula:
R =C* X 0.333 ,
R is the radius in kilometers, X is the charge in kilotons, C is a constant depending on the pressure level:
C = 2.2, for 1 psi pressure
C = 1.0, for 3 psi pressure
C = 0.71, for 5 psi pressure
C = 0.45, for 10 psi pressure
C = 0.28, for 20 psi.

With an increase in the power of a nuclear weapon, the radii of destruction by a shock wave grow in proportion to the cube root of the power of the explosion. In an underground explosion, a shock wave occurs in the ground, and in an underwater explosion, in water. In addition, with these types of explosions, part of the energy is spent on creating a shock wave in the air as well. The shock wave, propagating in the ground, causes damage to underground structures, sewers, water pipes; when it spreads in water, damage is observed to the underwater part of ships located even at a considerable distance from the explosion site.

The shock wave acts on people in two ways:

Direct action of the shock wave and indirect action of SW (flying debris of structures, falling walls of houses and trees, glass fragments, stones). These effects cause lesions of varying severity: Light lesions - 20-40 kPa (concussions, slight bruises). Moderate - 40-60 kPa (loss of consciousness, damage to the hearing organs, dislocations of the limbs, bleeding from the nose and ears, concussion). Severe lesions - more than 60 kPa (severe contusions, fractures of limbs, damage to internal organs). Extremely severe lesions - more than 100 kPa (fatal). An effective way to protect against the direct impact of hydrocarbons will be shelter in protective structures (shelters, PRU, prefabricated by the population). For shelter, you can use ditches, ravines, caves, mine workings, underpasses; you can just lie on the ground away from buildings and structures.

penetrating radiation.

Penetrating radiation (ionizing radiation) is gamma radiation and a flux of neutrons emitted from the nuclear explosion zone for units or tens of seconds.

The radius of destruction of penetrating radiation during explosions in the atmosphere is less than the radii of damage from light radiation and shock waves, since it is strongly absorbed by the atmosphere. Penetrating radiation affects people only at a distance of 2-3 km from the explosion site, even for large-capacity charges, however, a nuclear charge can be specially designed in such a way as to increase the proportion of penetrating radiation to cause maximum damage to manpower (so-called neutron weapons).

At high altitudes, in the stratosphere and space, penetrating radiation and an electromagnetic pulse are the main damaging factors. Penetrating radiation can cause reversible and irreversible changes in materials, electronic, optical and other devices due to violation crystal lattice substances and other physical and chemical processes under the influence of ionizing radiation.

Protection against penetrating radiation is provided by various materials that attenuate gamma radiation and the neutron flux. Miscellaneous materials react differently to these radiations and protect differently.

Materials that have elements with high atomic mass (iron, lead, low-enriched uranium) are well protected from gamma radiation, but these elements behave very poorly under neutron radiation: neutrons pass them relatively well and at the same time generate secondary capture gamma rays, and also activate radioisotopes, making the protection itself radioactive for a long time (for example, the iron armor of a tank).

Example of layers of half attenuation of penetrating gamma radiation: lead 2 cm, steel 3 cm, concrete 10 cm, masonry 12 cm, soil 14 cm, water 22 cm, wood 31 cm.

Neutron radiation, in turn, is well absorbed by materials containing light elements (hydrogen, lithium, boron), which effectively and with a short range scatter and absorb neutrons, while not being activated and emitting much less secondary radiation. Layers of half attenuation of the neutron flux: water, plastic 3 - 6 cm, concrete 9 - 12 cm, soil 14 cm, steel 5 - 12 cm, lead 9 - 20 cm, wood 10 - 15 cm. Lithium hydride and boron carbide.

There is no ideal homogeneous protective material against all types of penetrating radiation; to create the most light and thin protection, it is necessary to combine layers of different materials for successive absorption of neutrons, and then primary and capture gamma radiation (for example, multilayer armor of tanks, which also takes into account radiation protection; protection of the heads of mine launchers from containers with lithium and iron hydrates with concrete), as well as the use of materials with additives. Concrete and moistened soil backfill, which contain both hydrogen and relatively heavy elements, are widely used in the construction of protective structures. Very good for construction concrete with the addition of boron (20 kg B 4 C per 1 m³ of concrete), with the same thickness with ordinary concrete(0.5 - 1 m) it provides 2 - 3 times better protection from neutron radiation and is suitable for protection against neutron weapons.

electromagnetic impulse.

During a nuclear explosion, as a result of strong currents in the air ionized by radiation and light radiation, a strong alternating electromagnetic field arises, called an electromagnetic pulse (EMP). Although it does not have any effect on humans, EMP exposure damages electronic equipment, electrical appliances and power lines. In addition, a large number of ions that have arisen after the explosion prevents the propagation of radio waves and the operation of radar stations. This effect can be used to blind missile warning systems.

The strength of the EMP varies depending on the height of the explosion: in the range below 4 km, it is relatively weak, stronger with an explosion of 4-30 km, and especially strong with a detonation height of more than 30 km (see, for example, the Starfish Prime high-altitude nuclear detonation experiment) .

The occurrence of EMP occurs as follows:

1. Penetrating radiation emanating from the center of the explosion passes through extended conductive objects.
2. Gamma quanta are scattered by free electrons, which leads to the appearance of a rapidly changing current pulse in conductors.
3. The field caused by the current pulse is radiated into the surrounding space and propagates at the speed of light, distorting and fading over time.

Under the influence of EMP, high voltage is induced in all conductors. This leads to insulation breakdowns and failure of electrical appliances - semiconductor devices, various electronic components, transformer substations, etc. Unlike semiconductors, electronic lamps are not affected by strong radiation and electromagnetic fields, so they continued to be used by the military for a long time.

Nuclear Club.

Club line-up

According to available official data, the following countries currently possess nuclear weapons:

3.UK

4.France

7. Pakistan

8.DPRK

9.Israel

The status of the "old" nuclear powers (USA, Russia, Great Britain, France and China), as the only "legitimate" members of the nuclear club, at the international legal level follows from the provisions of the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons of 1968 - in paragraph 3 of Article IX this document states: "For the purposes of this Treaty, a nuclear-weapon State is a State that has manufactured and detonated a nuclear weapon or other nuclear explosive device prior to 1 January 1967". In this regard, the UN and these five "old" nuclear powers (they are also great powers as permanent members of the UN Security Council) consider the appearance of the last four "young" (and all possible future) members of the Nuclear Club internationally illegal.

Ukraine possessed the 3rd (after Russia and the USA) nuclear arsenal, but voluntarily abandoned it under international security guarantees.

Kazakhstan at the time of the collapse of the Soviet Union was the 4th in terms of the number of nuclear warheads and ranked 2nd in the world - 21% of the world's uranium reserves, but as a result of an agreement signed between Bill Clinton(USA) and Nursultan Nazarbayev(Kazakhstan), voluntarily renounced nuclear weapons.

South Africa had a small nuclear arsenal (created like its carriers - military ballistic missiles, presumably with Israeli help), but all six nuclear weapons were voluntarily destroyed (and the missile program was terminated) after the collapse of the apartheid regime. In 1994, Kazakhstan, and in 1996 Ukraine and Belarus, on whose territory part of the nuclear weapons of the USSR were located, after the collapse of the Soviet Union transferred them to the Russian Federation with the signing of the Lisbon Protocol in 1992.

All nuclear powers, except Israel and South Africa, conducted a series of tests of their weapons and announced this. However, there are unconfirmed reports that South Africa conducted several tests of its own or joint nuclear weapons with Israel in the late 1970s and early 1980s. near Bouvet Island.

There are also suggestions that due to the shortage of U (its production provides only 28% of its consumption (and the rest is extracted from old nuclear warheads), Israel's nuclear arsenal is processed into fuel for nuclear power plants.

Iran is accused of the fact that this state, under the guise of creating an independent nuclear energy, is actually striving and has come close to possessing nuclear weapons. Similar accusations, which, as it turned out, turned out to be disinformation, were previously brought against Iraq by the governments of Israel, the United States, Great Britain and some other countries, which served as a pretext for military actions against Iraq on their part. Currently, Syria and Myanmar are also suspected of working on the creation of technology for the production of nuclear weapons.

IN different years information also appeared about the presence of military nuclear programs in Brazil, Libya, Argentina, Egypt, Algeria, Saudi Arabia, South Korea, Taiwan, Sweden, Romania (during the Soviet period).

The aforementioned and several dozen other states with research nuclear reactors have the potential to become members of the Nuclear Club. This possibility is constrained, up to and including sanctions and threats of sanctions by the UN and the great powers, by the international nuclear non-proliferation and test-ban regimes.

The 1968 Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons was not signed only by the “young” nuclear powers Israel, India, and Pakistan. The DPRK disavowed its signing before the official announcement of the creation of nuclear weapons. Iran, Syria and Myanmar have signed this Treaty.

The Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty of 1996 was not signed by the "young" nuclear powers India, Pakistan, North Korea, and other nuclear powers signed but not ratified by the United States, China, as well as suspected Iran and Egypt, Indonesia, Colombia. Syria and Myanmar have signed and ratified this Treaty.

ALGERIA

Algeria does not have the scientific, technical and material resources to build a nuclear weapons capability. In December 1993, the 15 MW As-Salyam heavy-water nuclear reactor supplied by the PRC was put into operation. There are estimates that allow that the power of the reactor could be higher. The capabilities of this reactor do not go beyond the scope of conducting conventional research in the field of isotope production, the physical and technical characteristics of fuel, experiments in neutron beams, improving the physics of nuclear reactors, and personnel training. Although, in principle, the PRC and Algeria continue negotiations on the possibilities of further development of bilateral cooperation in the nuclear field, it has not yet received practical content. Chinese personnel at the As-Salam reactor have been drastically reduced. The reactor is under IAEA safeguards, the last inspection of which in Algiers in 1994 did not reveal any violations. The country had a program for the construction of a network of nuclear power plants, mainly in the southern regions, where uranium ore reserves were explored. However, at present, due to the difficult economic situation, the program for the development of nuclear energy is practically frozen. There are no data that would confirm the existence of a military nuclear program in the country. In January 1995, Algeria acceded to the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons.

ARGENTINA

The country has a reliable raw material base for the development of nuclear energy, nuclear power plants are being built and operated, highly qualified scientific personnel have been trained, uranium enrichment technologies have been obtained, and there are centers for nuclear research. Among the countries of Latin America, Argentina has the most developed nuclear industry. Her program is being implemented in two directions. On the one hand, a nuclear fuel cycle is being created with the assistance of the industrialized countries of the West and under the control of the IAEA. On the other hand, low-capacity nuclear installations are being built on their own, not yet placed under international control. Argentina, a member of the IAEA, has signed the Treaty of Tlatelolco on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons in Latin America, as well as the Convention on the Physical Protection of Nuclear Materials. A special agreement was signed between Argentina, Brazil, ABASS (ABAC - Brazilian-Argentine Agency for Accounting and Control of Nuclear Materials) and the IAEA, providing for the extension of the Agency's full-scale safeguards to the nuclear activities of these countries. At the same time, it does not take part in the development of nuclear export policy criteria by the leading supplier countries. In March 1995, it joined the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons, which will undoubtedly help strengthen the nuclear non-proliferation regime, including in Latin America.

BRAZIL

The country has a reliable raw material base for the development of nuclear energy, nuclear power plants are being built and operated, highly qualified scientific personnel have been trained, uranium enrichment technologies have been obtained, and there are several centers for nuclear research. Brazil is a member of the IAEA, but has not acceded to the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons, considering it discriminatory, infringing on Brazil's rights to receive the latest technologies. It ratified the Treaty of Tlatelolco for the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons in Latin America and the Convention on the Physical Protection of Nuclear Material. A four-party special agreement was signed between Argentina, Brazil, AWASS and the IAEA, providing for the extension of full-scale Agency safeguards to the nuclear activities of these countries. The Brazilian government has declared its refusal to carry out nuclear tests, even for peaceful purposes. There are no data on the presence of nuclear weapons in Brazil. At the same time, information is periodically received about the existence in the country of a large advanced research program of a military-applied nature, which is the subject of discussion in scientific circles. Nuclear activities are carried out within the framework of two programs: the official nuclear power program, carried out under the control of the IAEA, and the "parallel" one, implemented under the actual leadership of the country's armed forces, primarily the Navy. Although Brazil has taken important steps towards nuclear non-proliferation, the current "parallel nuclear program"is not under the supervision of the IAEA. Work on it is carried out mainly at the Institute of Energy and Nuclear Research, the Air Force Aerospace Technology Center, the Brazilian Army Technical Development Center, and the Nuclear Research Institute.

EGYPT

There is no information about the presence of nuclear weapons in Egypt. In the foreseeable future, Egypt's access to the possession of nuclear weapons is not visible. The country does not have a special program of military-applied research in the nuclear field. Egypt has acceded to the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons. At the same time, serious work is being carried out to develop the nuclear potential, which, according to official statements, is intended for use in energy, agriculture, medicine, biotechnology, and genetics. The industrial development of 4 explored uranium deposits is planned, including the extraction and enrichment of uranium for subsequent use as fuel for nuclear power plants. There is a research reactor with a capacity of 2 MW, launched in 1961 with the technical assistance of the USSR. In 1991, an agreement was signed with India to increase the power of this reactor to 5 MW. The 30-year operation of the reactor allowed Egypt to acquire its own scientific base and sufficiently qualified personnel. In addition, there are agreements with Great Britain and India on rendering assistance in training national personnel for scientific research and work at the country's nuclear enterprises. At the beginning of 1992, a deal was concluded for the supply by Argentina to Egypt of another 22 MW reactor. The contract signed in 1991 for the supply to Egypt of the Russian cyclotron accelerator MHD-20 remains in force. Since 1990, Egypt has been a member of the Arab Organization for Nuclear Energy, which unites 11 countries. A number of Egyptian scientific projects are carried out under the auspices of the IAEA. There are bilateral agreements in the field of peaceful use of atomic energy with Germany, the USA, Russia, India, China, and Argentina.

ISRAEL

Israel is a country that unofficially possesses nuclear weapons. The Israeli leadership itself neither confirms nor refutes the information about the presence of nuclear weapons in the country. For the development of weapon-grade nuclear material, a heavy-water reactor and a facility for reprocessing irradiated fuel are primarily used. They are not under IAEA safeguards, although Israel is a member of this international organization. Their capacity is sufficient for the manufacture of 5 - 10 nuclear warheads per year. The 26 MW reactor was commissioned in 1963 with the help of France and upgraded in the 1970s. After increasing its power to 75 - 150 MW, the production of plutonium could increase from 7 - 8 kg of fissile plutonium per year to 20 - 40 kg. The plant for reprocessing irradiated fuel was created around 1960, also with the assistance of a French company. It can produce from 15 to 40 kg of fissile plutonium per year. In addition, stocks of fissile plutonium can be increased with a 250 MW heavy water reactor at a new nuclear power plant officially announced by the government in 1984. Under certain operating conditions, the reactor can produce, according to estimates, more than 50 kg of plutonium per year.

Israel was accused of secret purchases and theft of nuclear materials in other countries - the USA, Great Britain, France, Germany. Thus, in 1986, the United States discovered the disappearance of more than 100 kg of enriched uranium at a plant in Pennsylvania, presumably in the interests of Israel. Tel Aviv admitted that they illegally exported them from the United States in the early 80s. krytrons - an important element in the creation of modern nuclear weapons. Uranium reserves in Israel are estimated to be sufficient for their own needs and even export for about 200 years. Uranium compounds can be isolated at 3 phosphoric acid plants as a by-product in the amount of about 100 tons per year. To enrich uranium, the Israelis patented the laser enrichment method back in 1974, and in 1978 they developed an even more economical method for separating uranium isotopes based on the difference in their magnetic properties. According to some reports, Israel also participated in the "enrichment development" carried out in South Africa using the aerodynamic nozzle method. Together, on such a base, Israel could potentially produce in the period 1970 - 1980. up to 20 nuclear warheads, and by now - from 100 to 200 warheads.

Moreover, the high scientific and technical potential of the country allows to continue R&D in the direction of improving the design of nuclear weapons, in particular, the creation of modifications with increased radiation and accelerated nuclear reaction. Tel Aviv's interest in developing thermonuclear weapons cannot be ruled out.

The available information allows us to single out the following most important objects (with a certain degree of conditionality of the characteristics of their main purpose), which are components of the country's military nuclear potential:

Sorek - a center for the scientific and design development of nuclear weapons;
Dimona - a plant for the production of weapons-grade plutonium;
Yodefat - a facility for the assembly and dismantling of nuclear weapons;
Kefar Zekharya - nuclear missile base and storage of atomic bombs;
Eilaban is a warehouse for tactical nuclear weapons.

Israel, for strategic reasons, refuses to join the NPT.

INDIA

India is among the countries that unofficially possess nuclear weapons. There is an advanced military applied research program. The country has a high industrial and scientific and technical potential, qualified national personnel, material and financial resources for the creation of weapons of mass destruction.

As a member of the IAEA, India, however, did not sign an agreement on putting all its nuclear activities under the guarantees of this organization and did not accede to the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons, considering it "discriminatory" against non-nuclear states. India is one of the few developing countries capable of independently designing and building nuclear power units, performing various operations within the fuel cycle, from uranium mining to spent fuel reprocessing and waste processing.

The country has its own uranium reserves, which, according to the IAEA, amount to about 35,000 tons at extraction costs of up to $80/kg. Reserves of natural uranium and the amount of uranium concentrate produced are at a level sufficient to operate existing reactors, but their limited nature may become a serious obstacle to the development of India's nuclear power industry in 15-20 years. In this regard, Indian specialists are considering the use of thorium, whose deposits in the country amount to about 400,000 tons, as an alternative way to expand their own raw material base. At the same time, it should be noted that unique research has been carried out in India and significant results have been achieved in the development of technology for the use of thorium in the fuel cycle. According to available data, experimental work is being carried out to isotope uranium-233 by irradiating oxide thorium assemblies in a reactor.

India has a large production capacity of over 300 tons per year of D20 type heavy water and may become one of its exporters. Signed in April last year, an agreement on the supply of heavy water to South Korea was India's first entry into the international "nuclear market".

In general, India has been able to achieve significant progress in its nuclear program and develop original technologies, which allows it to pursue an independent policy in the field of nuclear energy. India's dependence on foreign equipment in the nuclear industry does not exceed 10 percent (according to Indian experts). The country currently has 9 operating industrial reactors with a total capacity of about 1600 MW(e). Of these, only two nuclear power plants - in Tarapur and Rajasthan - are under IAEA safeguards. Experts believe that in the near future India will become a supplier of heavy water reactors to other countries. In addition, there are 8 research reactors in the country, the most powerful of which is the Dhruva reactor, built entirely by Indian specialists, with a thermal capacity of 100 MW. According to Indian representatives, the reactor is designed to produce isotopes for industrial purposes, medicine and agriculture. However, it can also be considered as a possible plutonium producer.

In general, India has established its own nuclear fuel cycle for experimental and research reactors (pilot plants) and for power reactors (industrial plants). At the same time, research reactors and their fuel cycle are not under IAEA safeguards. According to experts, by blowing up its nuclear device in 1974, India laid a powerful foundation for the development of a military nuclear program. It has both large potential production capabilities and a testing base. With a stockpile of unsafeguarded irradiated reactor fuel, a country can reprocess it to extract plutonium to build a powerful arsenal of nuclear weapons.

IRAN

Iran does not have nuclear weapons. Convincing signs of the presence in the country of a coordinated integrated military nuclear program have not yet been found. The current state of industrial potential is such that Iran is unable to organize the production of weapons-grade nuclear materials without outside help. Iran ratified the NPT in 1970, and since February 1992 has given the IAEA the opportunity to inspect any of its nuclear facilities. Not a single IAEA inspection revealed violations by Tehran of the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons. Until 1979, Iran was implementing a program for the use of atomic energy for peaceful purposes, which included the construction of 23 nuclear power plants. A more moderate program is now under way, involving:

1. Tehran Center for Nuclear Research.

Since 1968, a research reactor with a nominal power of 5 MW, supplied from the USA and under IAEA safeguards, has been operating in the center. The construction of a plant for the production of radioisotopes has been completed (it was suspected that this plant is capable of separating plutonium from spent nuclear fuel, but there is no evidence of such work being carried out there). There is a plant for the production of "yellow cake", which has recently been out of operation due to unsatisfactory technical condition. In October 1992, a research building called "Ebn Khisem" was put into operation on the territory of the center, in which the laboratory of laser technology is located. According to reports, the laboratory does not have lasers suitable for the separation of uranium isotopes.

2. Center for Nuclear Technology in Isfahan.

A research reactor MNSR (miniaturized neutron source) with a capacity of 25/5 MW was purchased for the Center in China. According to available information, preparations have recently been made to bring the reactor into operation. Active construction work is underway on the territory of the Center. There were no signs indicating that the new buildings were intended to house military nuclear technology equipment.

3. Nuclear research center for agriculture and medicine in Keredzh.

To date, no information has been received indicating the presence in this center of premises adapted for work with radioactive materials. The construction of only one building has been completed, which houses the dosimetric laboratory and the laboratory of agricultural radiochemistry. Several more buildings are under construction, in one of which it is planned to install a calutron - an electromagnetic separator for separating non-radioactive (stable) isotopes. This building has a conventional ventilation system and, due to the degree of radiation protection, cannot be used for work with radioactive substances. The separator was purchased from China in order to obtain materials for targets that are planned to be irradiated with neutron fluxes at the 30 MeV cyclotron. The construction of the cyclotron was completed in January 1995.

4. Department of nuclear research in the city of Yazd.

Created on the basis of a local university. He is engaged in geophysical research and geology of the deposit, located 40 km southeast of the settlement of Sagend, which, in turn, lies 165 km northeast of the city of Yazd. Deposit area - 100 - 150 sq. km, reserves are estimated at 3 - 4 thousand tons of uranium oxide equivalent (U3O8), the content of U-235 is very low and ranges from 0.08 to 1.0%. Currently, work is underway at the field for its additional exploration and development. Practical exploitation of this field has not yet begun.

5. Object Moallem Kalaye.

The facility was suspected of carrying out undeclared nuclear activities without the control of the IAEA, located near Qazvin in the mountains north of Tehran. Is in the process of construction. Checked by IAEA inspectors, and, according to their official conclusion (as of February 1992), there is no nuclear activity at this facility. Recently, equipment has started to arrive at the site in Moallem Qalaye. There are no signs by which this equipment could be classified as nuclear. The increased seismicity of the area does not allow to locate a plutonium-producing reactor there, and the area of ​​the facility is insufficient to accommodate equipment of acceptable productivity for producing weapons-grade uranium. There are no reliable data on any illegal deliveries of nuclear raw materials or nuclear fuel to Iran. The construction of a uranium ore processing plant in the country was most likely completed in 2005. At the same time, some Western experts express doubts that under present conditions there are no grounds for the international community to put obstacles in the way of Tehran's implementation of its peaceful nuclear program, even under the control of the IAEA. Moreover, US officials at various levels have repeatedly stated their confidence that Iran is pursuing a military nuclear program and, according to their latest estimates, can achieve its goal in 5 years, i.e. by the year 2000. This statement is doubtful. The essence of Tehran's approach, according to the Americans, is to, observing the NPT, build its peaceful nuclear program in such a way that, if an appropriate political decision is made, the experience accumulated in the peaceful sphere (specialists, equipment) could be used to create nuclear weapons. Based on this, Washington draws the main conclusion that the countries - suppliers of nuclear technology should refrain from any cooperation with Iran in the nuclear field until there is sufficient evidence of Iran's sincere and long-term commitment to the exclusively peaceful use of nuclear energy. The current climate, according to Washington, does not meet this criterion. However, such accusations against Iran are often based on clearly unverified information. For example, there is a well-known campaign in 1992-1994 in foreign, including American and Western European, media about four nuclear warheads allegedly purchased by Tehran from Kazakhstan. Meanwhile, as the leadership of the CIA has repeatedly stated, this department has not recorded a single sale of nuclear weapons from the republics of the former USSR. The level of achievements of the Islamic Republic of Iran in the nuclear field does not exceed that of another 20-25 countries of the world.

North Korea

The DPRK signed the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons (NPT) and the Agreement on placing all of its nuclear activities under the control of the IAEA. In March 1993, the North Koreans announced their withdrawal from the NPT, and in June 1994, from the IAEA. However, due to the failure to comply with the necessary formalities in both cases, these statements remained only declarations.

The scientific and experimental infrastructure in the nuclear field was created in the 1960s. To date, a number of specialized research institutes continue to operate in the country, including the research institute at the Atomic Center in Nengbyon, the institutes of nuclear energy and radiology, the department of nuclear physics at Pyongyang University, the department of nuclear research technologies at the Polytechnic Institute. Kim Chaka. The DPRK possesses the necessary raw materials base, a network of nuclear industry facilities, which, along with scientific research institutes, constitute the country's nuclear complex. The decision to start developing nuclear power in the country was made taking into account the need for self-sufficiency in electricity. North Korea has no proven oil reserves. There is an acute shortage of electricity in the country, 50% of which is generated by hydroelectric power plants and about 50% by thermal power plants.

The choice by the North Koreans of the path of development of nuclear energy based on gas-graphite reactors has an objective basis:

The presence in the country of sufficient reserves of natural uranium and graphite, which the North Koreans could process to a degree suitable for use in gas-graphite reactors;
lack of capacity and relevant scientific and practical experience in the production of heavy water for heavy water reactors and uranium enrichment for light water reactors.

According to SVR experts, the political decision to start work on the creation of nuclear weapons was made in the DPRK at the turn of the 70s. However, due to various kinds of difficulties of an economic, financial, scientific and technical nature, the military part of the DPRK's nuclear program developed in waves. Cases of its "freezing" and subsequent restoration were noted. The growing foreign policy and economic isolation of the DPRK further increased the difficulties in this area. However, relying mainly on their own forces, the North Koreans managed to create an almost entirely plutonium nuclear cycle, which is shown in the diagram.

The experimental gas-graphite reactor with an electric power of 5 MW (thermal power 25 - 30 MW), put into operation in January 1986, according to its technical parameters, can be used to produce weapons-grade plutonium. It is assumed that during the shutdown of the reactor in 1989, the North Koreans unloaded irradiated nuclear fuel. There is no reliable data on whether it was processed in a chemical laboratory and, if so, how much weapon-grade plutonium was obtained. Theoretically, from 8000 rods, depending on the degree of their burnout, Pu 239 can be obtained in an amount sufficient to make 1-2 nuclear charges. However, the presence of weapons-grade plutonium does not yet predetermine the real possibility of creating a nuclear charge. Again, purely theoretically, the North Koreans could work in two directions:

The creation of a cannon-type plutonium charge (or the so-called primitive one) seems unrealistic, and this path, in essence, is a dead end due to physical and technical limitations associated with the implementation of the principle of approaching subcritical masses and ensuring an instantaneous chain reaction;
the creation of an implosive nuclear charge based on plutonium has already been passed by the nuclear powers and required them to solve extremely complex scientific and technical problems that are kept in the strictest confidence.

According to SVR experts, the current scientific and technological level and technological equipment of nuclear facilities in the DPRK do not allow North Korean specialists to create a nuclear explosive device suitable for field tests, and even more so to simulate a cold test of a plutonium-type warhead in laboratory conditions. Even assuming the possibility of producing a certain amount of weapons-grade plutonium, the creation of a viable nuclear charge seems unlikely. The precedent set by the DPRK for granting itself a "special status" within the framework of the NPT and the IAEA, as well as the unsettledness of the North Korean "nuclear problem" as a whole, continue to worry the world community. At the same time, certain positive developments in the settlement process should be noted. The reactor at Nonbyon has been shut down, spent fuel has been unloaded and stored in storage facilities, and there is still an opportunity (albeit limited) for IAEA control activities in the DPRK. The Geneva Accords of 21 October 1994 laid a definite foundation for settling the problem by political and economic means. Of course, along the way, the parties concerned face and will face many contradictions that are difficult to resolve. The process itself is expected to be lengthy.

LIBYA

There are no nuclear weapons in Libya. There are no reliable data that would testify to the implementation of any targeted work on its creation. The technical base available in the country and the general scientific and technical level allow us to assert that in the foreseeable future it is not in a position to gain access to nuclear weapons. At one time, Western experts classified Libya as the "most dangerous" country in terms of conducting applied military research in the field of WMD, in particular nuclear, but recently they have admitted that this assessment was clearly exaggerated. Libya has some experience in nuclear research. Commissioned in 1982 with the assistance of the former USSR, the nuclear center in Tadjoura is the only nuclear facility in the country and conducts research for the peaceful use of atomic energy. The Libyan leadership provided the territory of the country for international inspections by the IAEA, reaffirmed its commitment to the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons.

PAKISTAN

The military nuclear program was launched in the mid-70s and was focused on the uranium way of creating nuclear weapons. According to available data, the country has the technological capabilities to accelerate the production of 6-12 nuclear devices with a capacity of up to 20 kt. An objective condition for this is the independence of Pakistan in the provision of fissile materials, since in a number of regions of the country there are sufficient reserves of uranium ores. Recently there have also been reports of the interest of Pakistani scientists in the use of plutonium for military purposes. The Pakistani authorities do not deny the ability to produce nuclear weapons, but they say they will not create them for use against any particular country, and "maintaining military readiness" is dictated by "maintaining an imbalance" in the military field between it and India. Pakistan is a member of the IAEA, but has not joined the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons and the Convention on the Physical Protection of Nuclear Material, and does not participate in international agreements on nuclear export control. The presence of its own research base, the necessary scientific personnel and modern technology for uranium enrichment up to 90% contribute to the successful development of the nuclear program. The plant in Kahuta provides nuclear fuel to the nuclear power plant in Karachi and creates reserves for future plants. When building a nuclear power plant, conducting scientific research and creating an industrial basis for the production of its own nuclear reactors, Pakistan plans to rely on assistance from the PRC. Despite the active opposition of the United States and other Western countries, at the end of 1992 the government decided to purchase a 300 MW nuclear reactor from China. In the coming years, Pakistan intends to seek the construction of at least 2-3 more nuclear reactors (one of which with a power unit of 300 MW will be built by the PRC within 6 years). Before the completion of the construction of new reactors, it is planned to modernize and extend the life of the Karacha station for another 20 years. The country's leadership is aware that the acquisition of nuclear technologies and equipment on the world market is directly dependent on the signing of the NPT. Without this, Western projects of modern fast neutron reactors, which can serve as a source of weapons-grade uranium-235 or plutonium, remain virtually inaccessible to Pakistan. In general, it can be argued that Pakistan's nuclear technology is at a fairly high level, and the nuclear center in Kahuta is capable of producing highly enriched uranium sufficient to create an atomic bomb.

KOREA

It does not have its own nuclear weapons. American tactical nuclear weapons, judging by the statement of the US and the ROK, have been withdrawn from the territory of the country. The Republic of Korea acceded to the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons on the day it was opened for signing on July 1, 1968, and ratified it only on March 14, 1975. Such a long delay was explained by the South Korean leaders by the fact that the PRC and the DPRK did not put their signatures under the Treaty, and Japan did not ratify it. The country's nuclear activities are placed under IAEA safeguards. Inspections are carried out once a quarter to control the safety of the use of nuclear energy, the amount of uranium imported into the country and the storage of spent fuel for nuclear reactors. The beginning of the nuclear program of the Republic of Kazakhstan dates back to 1959. In subsequent years, the necessary research infrastructure was created to carry out work in the field of nuclear energy.

Currently, South Korea stands out for its advanced peaceful nuclear energy development program, which in the long term is focused on a consistent increase in electricity production in order to maintain a high rate of industrial development and reduce dependence on foreign supplies of coal and oil. The program is implemented through broad cooperation with industrialized countries and provides for the conclusion of long-term contracts for the supply of reactor fuel and materials for its manufacture, combined with the desire for direct participation of South Korean capital in the development of foreign uranium deposits. South Korea's own uranium reserves are about 11,800 tons. Proceeding from prospective needs, exploration of uranium deposits is being carried out both on its territory and abroad (USA, Canada, Gabon). Currently, South Korea has 9 operating power reactors with a total installed capacity of about 7.2 GW, built with the help of Western companies. 5 power reactors with a total capacity of about 4.3 GW are currently under construction. In addition to the above, by 2006 it is planned to build 8 more light water reactors (950 MW each) and 5 heavy water reactors (630 MW each).

In 1990, after the commissioning of a uranium reconversion line for light water reactors, South Korea gained de facto independence in providing its nuclear power industry with reactor fuel. Earlier, in 1987, a plant for the production of fuel for heavy water reactors was put into operation. In June 1992, plans were announced to build another plant for the production of nuclear fuel. The South Koreans believe that with the loading of fuel into the reactor of the 3rd power unit of the nuclear power plant in Yongwan on September 14, 1994, the Republic of Kazakhstan entered the era of independence from foreign partners in the field of nuclear energy, the 3rd power unit is equipped with a PWR type reactor with a capacity of 1000 MW, selected in as a base for all NPPs under construction and design. The vast majority of units and assemblies of nuclear power plants were developed by South Korean specialists. Foreign firms act only as subcontractors. Currently, each nuclear power plant has a storage facility for irradiated fuel, designed for only 10 years. In this regard, work is underway to expand storage facilities at the oldest stations Kori-1 and Wolsung-1. By 1995, it is planned to build a permanent waste storage facility, and by 1997, a central storage facility for irradiated fuel for 3,000 tons of uranium. No decision has been made in South Korea on the development of chemical reprocessing of irradiated reactor fuel and the use of plutonium as fuel for power reactors. At the same time, there is evidence that the Koreans, together with the Canadians, are studying the possibility of burning irradiated fuel from light water reactors in heavy water reactors.

Until the mid-1970s, the Republic of Korea had a small military-applied program, the degree of advancement of which is unknown to us. In 1976, work on this program was terminated under pressure from the United States. South Korea has made a choice in favor of the American "nuclear umbrella". However, even after that, a number of political and military leaders of the country did not deny the expediency of having their own nuclear arsenal.

ROMANIA

At the end of the 1980s, there were reports that Romania, within the framework of the nuclear energy program, allegedly had a specific program aimed at creating nuclear weapons by the beginning of 2000. Indeed, in 1985, the Romanian leadership set the task of studying the possibility of creating nuclear weapons, and Romanian nuclear scientists mastered the technology for obtaining plutonium and spent nuclear fuel. IAEA inspections of Romanian nuclear facilities in 1990 and 1992 revealed that since 1985, Romania had been conducting clandestine experiments in the chemical production of weapons-grade plutonium (using an American TRIGA model nuclear reactor) and a small amount of enriched uranium, also of American origin. The successful results of the work gave Ceausescu grounds to officially declare in May 1989 that, from a technical point of view, Romania is capable of producing nuclear weapons. In Pishet, an industrial plant was created with a production capacity of up to 1 kg of weapons-grade plutonium per year with the prospect of using it as a warhead on medium-range missiles of the SKAD type (own production or purchased from North Korea and China). Until 1990, the chemical plant in Pishet produced 585 tons of nuclear fuel. In August 1991, Romania bought a license from the Canadian concern AECL for a complete technology for the manufacture of nuclear fuel. In the future, it is planned to recycle the already existing reserves. In the village of Kolibash, a suburb of the city of Pishet, there is the Institute of Atomic Energy, where fuel rods are produced. At present, with the help of the United States and Canada, the institute is re-profiling to work in the field of improving the technology of its own production of nuclear fuel for nuclear power plants at a chemical plant in the same city. The main warehouse of radioactive materials is located in Bihor County. Heavy water is produced in the city of Turnu Magurele at a chemical plant and in the city of Drobeta Turnu Severin. 140 tons have already been received, in addition, 335 tons have been purchased from Canada. At present, Chernavoda NPP is under construction. The launch of the first stage was scheduled for the first quarter of 1995.

In 1991, Romania agreed to place nuclear facilities and nuclear research centers under the full control of the IAEA, and also agreed to conduct comprehensive inspections of any facilities. Based on the results of the IAEA inspection of Romanian nuclear facilities in April-May 1992, during which 470 g of plutonium was discovered in the secret laboratory of the Institute of Atomic Energy in the city of Pishet, at the session of the IAEA Board of Governors on June 17, 1992, Bucharest was warned about the need to deadlines for the complete curtailment of the nuclear military program and put forward a number of requirements:

The complete cessation of nuclear research for military purposes and the destruction of industrial equipment intended for these purposes,

Installation of IAEA control instruments at the Institute of Atomic Energy in Pishet and at Chernavoda NPP,

The adoption of urgent legislative and administrative measures to control nuclear activities,

Establishment of a single body for the control of nuclear activities, reporting directly to the Prime Minister,

Placement of all nuclear facilities under the control of the IAEA,

Official confirmation by Romania of strict observance of international agreements on the non-proliferation of weapons of mass destruction.

All these conditions were met by Bucharest, which was confirmed by the verification of the IAEA delegation headed by its CEO G. Blixom in April 1994. As a result of the audit, Romania was allowed to resume the activities of nuclear centers in a redesigned form, purchase nuclear fuel in Canada and the United States for the first reactor of the Cernavoda nuclear power plant and resume the production of heavy water. The IAEA proposed a specific program of assistance to Romania in the nuclear field in the amount of 1.5 million dollars, which includes a project to ensure the safe operation of nuclear power plants, consultations, the supply of certain types of equipment and instruments, the allocation of 26 scholarships for studying abroad, holding two seminars in Bucharest on nuclear issues. The IAEA also made 156 recommendations for the construction of the Cernavoda nuclear power plant, which were fully implemented by the Romanian side. Romania has been a party to the NPT since February 1970. In 1992, a law on the control of export-import of nuclear, chemical and biological technologies and materials was adopted and the National Export Control Agency was established, which included representatives of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, the Ministry of Internal Affairs, the Ministry of Defense, the Ministry of Economy and Finance, and other departments. Based on the foregoing, it seems possible to draw a reasonable conclusion about the peaceful orientation of the Romanian nuclear energy program at this stage.

Taiwan is a member of the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons, but does not have an agreement with the IAEA on the supply of all its nuclear activities under the guarantees of this organization. IAEA safeguards apply only to those facilities and nuclear materials, the delivery of which to the country is stipulated in the terms of the contract. It can be stated with a reasonable degree of certainty that officially imported nuclear technology However, the knowledge and equipment prevent Taiwan from developing nuclear weapons, but they provide it with the necessary experience in conducting work in the nuclear field and can accelerate its own nuclear development of a military nature, if such a decision is made.

South Africa

In 1991, South Africa joined the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty as a non-nuclear state. In the same year, it entered into an agreement with the IAEA on full safeguards. In March 1994, the South African government sent a formal request to the IAEA to join the Agency and at the same time made an application to join the Nuclear Suppliers Group. For the first time in world history, the government of a country that possesses nuclear weapons took the courageous decision and voluntarily abandoned it, essentially carrying out nuclear disarmament unilaterally. Naturally, such a step could not be painless and smooth for the country and not cause a stormy and sometimes ambiguous reaction both within South Africa and the entire international community. The start of work within the framework of the military nuclear program can be attributed to 1970, South Africa followed the "beaten" path of creating a cannon-type nuclear charge, which made it possible to do without its field tests and, thus, keep its nuclear capability in the strictest confidence. In 1974, a political decision was made to create a "limited" nuclear arsenal. From that moment on, the construction of an experimental test site in the Kalahari Desert began. In 1979, the first cannon-type nuclear charge based on uranium with an enrichment of 80% and a yield of about 3 kt was manufactured. By 1989, South Africa becomes the owner of 5 more charges with an estimated yield of 10-18 kt. The seventh device was under production by the time the decision was made to destroy the entire arsenal in connection with preparations for South Africa's accession to the NPT.

The design features of the explosive device and the focus of R & D suggest that South Africa has strengthened warheads by using highly enriched (more than 80%) uranium with deuterium and tritium additives. 30 g of tritium for this purpose were received from Israel in exchange for 600 metric tons of uranium oxide. This amount of tritium, according to experts, would in principle be sufficient for the production of about 20 reinforced warheads (the storage facility discovered in South Africa was designed for 17 units). An analysis of information on the military nuclear program of South Africa shows that by 1991, in terms of the quality of the scientific and experimental base and production and technological capabilities, the country had reached a milestone beyond which it could quite realistically begin to develop and create more modern nuclear warheads with improved specific characteristics of the implosion type, requiring less weapons-grade uranium. Considering the intensification of activities in 1988 at the previously mothballed test site in the Kalahari Desert and the fact that this type of nuclear device is in more needs to be checked for capacity, SVR experts do not exclude that South African nuclear scientists were able to create a prototype of an implosive nuclear device and were preparing to test it. On February 26, 1990, the President of South Africa ordered the destruction of 6 nuclear warheads, the dismantling of which was completed in August 1991. The facilities involved in the military nuclear program were also converted. The work carried out before the entry into the NPT and the signing of the IAEA safeguards agreement to eliminate "nuclear traces" did not allow the IAEA inspectors to completely and finally close the "South African file". This is largely due to the fact that the recognition in the South African Parliament on March 24, 1993 of the fact of the creation of nuclear weapons was made in parallel with the destruction of documentation (technical descriptions, drawings, computer programs, etc.) related to the military nuclear program. These circumstances inevitably raise certain doubts among some experts as to whether there are still opportunities in South Africa to reproduce a military nuclear program.

JAPAN

Japan is guided in its policy by three well-known principles - "do not produce, acquire or have nuclear weapons on its territory." However, there is some ambiguity about the possibility of having nuclear weapons on board US Navy ships based in Japan. Also noteworthy is the line of the government of the country to refuse to give the status of laws to these non-nuclear principles. They are fixed only by a government decision, and, therefore, their cancellation at a meeting of the Cabinet of Ministers is theoretically admissible. Some excitement in the international community was caused by doubts voiced from Tokyo at the time about the wisdom of an indefinite extension of the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons, as well as now declassified research documents of official institutions, in which the expediency of a nuclear choice was theoretically considered. Japan is a party to the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons and has an agreement with the IAEA on full-scale safeguards in the field of nuclear energy.

The development of the Japanese nuclear potential is predetermined by the needs of a highly developed economy and the country's lack of necessary natural energy sources. To date, more than 40 nuclear power plants are operating in Japan. The share of electricity generated by them exceeds 30%. Since the beginning of the 1970s, Japan has been actively developing uranium nuclear power engineering and has established a multiply duplicated nuclear fuel cycle. The contracts concluded by it ensure the receipt of enriched uranium of energy quality from abroad in the required volumes until the year 2000. A lot of experience has been accumulated in working with fissile materials. Numerous high-level specialists and scientific personnel have been trained, who have worked out their own highly efficient technologies in the nuclear field. The long-term program for the development of nuclear energy is based on the concept of a gradual transition over the next decade to a closed nuclear cycle, which ensures a more rational use of nuclear materials and reduces the severity of the problem of radioactive waste management. The ultimate goal of the program is to switch by 2030 to the use of nuclear fuel with a plutonium component (mox fuel) at all nuclear power plants in Japan.

The first stage of the program provides for an increase by 2010 in the number of WWR reactors up to 12 units. Prior to commissioning in 2000 of a plant for the production of MOX fuel cells with a capacity of about 100 tons per year, they will be supplied from Europe, where they will be fabricated from plutonium obtained from the reprocessing of Japanese spent fuel. In parallel with this, a program will be carried out for the construction of fast neutron reactors (FRN), which in the future will become the second main component of nuclear energy. In 1995, it is planned to bring the Monzyu experimental reactor to full capacity, the main task of which will be the further development of the relevant technologies. The program also provides for the commissioning by 2005 of the first demonstration RFR with an electric power of 600 MW, and then a second similar reactor.

The source of plutonium for the RBN until 2000 will be the processing plant in Tokai, as well as European suppliers. By the year 2000, it is planned to put into operation a plant in Rokkamo for reprocessing spent fuel from WWR reactors, which will fully satisfy Japan's needs for plutonium and remove the issue of its supply from abroad. For the purposes of implementing the long-term FNR program, by 2010 it is planned to complete the construction of the second reprocessing plant. will amount to about 4 tons and will be satisfied by processing capacities in Tokai and supplies from abroad.

In the period from 2000 to 2010, the demand will amount to 35 - 45 tons, but will be completely satisfied by Japanese capacities. According to some experts, by 2010 Japan may have about 80 - 85 tons of plutonium. To date, out of 5.15 tons of plutonium available in Japan, 3.71 tons have been spent for research purposes. Thus, more than a tonne of plutonium is surplus. Implementing its nuclear program, even such a highly developed country as Japan faced certain problems in the field of control over fissile materials. In particular, in the Tokai center, which is regularly inspected by the IAEA and is considered a model facility, in May 1994, 70 kg of “unaccounted for” plutonium, actually weapon-grade, was discovered. According to the calculations of some experts, this amount of plutonium is enough to produce at least 8 nuclear warheads. Foreign Intelligence Service experts believe that Japan does not currently possess nuclear weapons and their means of delivery. At the same time, attention should be paid to the incompleteness of Japan's solution to the problems associated with the effectiveness of control over nuclear materials and the transparency of its nuclear program as a whole.

Nuclear weapons are weapons of a strategic nature, capable of solving global problems. Its use is associated with terrible consequences for all mankind. This makes the atomic bomb not only a threat, but also a deterrent.

The appearance of weapons capable of putting an end to the development of mankind marked the beginning of its new era. The probability of a global conflict or a new world war is minimized due to the possibility of total destruction of the entire civilization.

Despite such threats, nuclear weapons continue to be in service with the world's leading countries. To a certain extent, it is precisely this that becomes the determining factor in international diplomacy and geopolitics.

History of the nuclear bomb

The question of who invented the nuclear bomb has no clear answer in history. Prerequisite for working on atomic weapons is considered to be the discovery of the radioactivity of uranium. In 1896, the French chemist A. Becquerel discovered the chain reaction of this element, initiating developments in nuclear physics.

In the next decade, alpha, beta and gamma rays were discovered, as well as a number of radioactive isotopes of some chemical elements. The subsequent discovery of the law of radioactive decay of the atom was the beginning for the study of nuclear isometry.

In December 1938, the German physicists O. Hahn and F. Strassmann were the first to be able to carry out the nuclear fission reaction under artificial conditions. On April 24, 1939, the leadership of Germany was informed about the likelihood of creating a new powerful explosive.

However, the German nuclear program was doomed to failure. Despite the successful advancement of scientists, the country, due to the war, constantly experienced difficulties with resources, especially with the supply of heavy water. In the later stages, exploration was slowed down by constant evacuations. On April 23, 1945, the developments of German scientists were captured in Haigerloch and taken to the USA.

The US was the first country to express interest in the new invention. In 1941, significant funds were allocated for its development and creation. The first tests took place on July 16, 1945. Less than a month later, the United States used nuclear weapons for the first time, dropping two bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki.

Own research in the field of nuclear physics in the USSR has been conducted since 1918. The Commission on the Atomic Nucleus was established in 1938 at the Academy of Sciences. However, with the outbreak of the war, its activities in this direction were suspended.

In 1943, information about scientific work in nuclear physics was received by Soviet intelligence officers from England. Agents have been introduced into several US research centers. The information they obtained made it possible to accelerate the development of their own nuclear weapons.

The invention of the Soviet atomic bomb was headed by I. Kurchatov and Yu. Khariton, they are considered the creators of the Soviet atomic bomb. Information about this became the impetus for preparing the United States for a pre-emptive war. In July 1949, the Troyan plan was developed, according to which it was planned to start hostilities on January 1, 1950.

Later, the date was moved to the beginning of 1957, taking into account that all NATO countries could prepare and join the war. According to Western intelligence, a nuclear test in the USSR could not have been carried out until 1954.

However, the US preparations for the war became known in advance, which forced Soviet scientists to speed up research. In a short time they invent and create their own nuclear bomb. On August 29, 1949, the first Soviet atomic bomb RDS-1 (special jet engine) was tested at the test site in Semipalatinsk.

Tests like these thwarted the Trojan plan. Since then, the United States has ceased to have a monopoly on nuclear weapons. Regardless of the strength of the preemptive strike, there was a risk of retaliation, which threatened to be a disaster. From that moment on, the most terrible weapon became the guarantor of peace between the great powers.

Principle of operation

The principle of operation of an atomic bomb is based on the chain reaction of the decay of heavy nuclei or thermonuclear fusion of lungs. During these processes, a huge amount of energy is released, which turns the bomb into a weapon of mass destruction.

On September 24, 1951, the RDS-2 was tested. They could already be delivered to launch points so that they reached the United States. On October 18, the RDS-3, delivered by a bomber, was tested.

Further tests moved on to thermonuclear fusion. The first tests of such a bomb in the United States took place on November 1, 1952. In the USSR, such a warhead was tested after 8 months.

TX of a nuclear bomb

Nuclear bombs do not have clear characteristics due to the variety of applications of such ammunition. However, there are a number of general aspects that must be taken into account when creating this weapon.

These include:

• axisymmetric structure of the bomb - all blocks and systems are placed in pairs in containers of a cylindrical, spherical or conical shape;
• when designing, they reduce the mass of a nuclear bomb by combining power units, choosing the optimal shape of shells and compartments, as well as using more durable materials;
• the number of wires and connectors is minimized, and a pneumatic conduit or explosive cord is used to transmit the impact;
• the blocking of the main nodes is carried out with the help of partitions destroyed by pyro charges;
• active substances are pumped using a separate container or external carrier.

Taking into account the requirements for the device, a nuclear bomb consists of the following components:

• the case, which provides protection of the ammunition from physical and thermal effects - is divided into compartments, can be equipped with a power frame;
• nuclear charge with a power mount;
• self-destruction system with its integration into a nuclear charge;
• a power source designed for long-term storage - is activated already when the rocket is launched;
• external sensors - to collect information;
• cocking, control and detonation systems, the latter is embedded in the charge;
• systems for diagnostics, heating and maintaining the microclimate inside sealed compartments.

Depending on the type of nuclear bomb, other systems are integrated into it. Among these may be a flight sensor, a blocking console, a calculation of flight options, an autopilot. Some munitions also use jammers designed to reduce opposition to a nuclear bomb.

The consequences of using such a bomb

The "ideal" consequences of the use of nuclear weapons were already recorded during the bombing of Hiroshima. The charge exploded at a height of 200 meters, which caused a strong shock wave. Coal-fired stoves were overturned in many houses, causing fires even outside the affected area.

A flash of light was followed by a heatstroke that lasted a matter of seconds. However, its power was enough to melt tiles and quartz within a radius of 4 km, as well as to spray telegraph poles.

The heat wave was followed by a shock wave. The wind speed reached 800 km / h, its gust destroyed almost all the buildings in the city. Of the 76 thousand buildings, about 6 thousand partially survived, the rest were completely destroyed.

The heat wave, as well as rising steam and ash, caused heavy condensation in the atmosphere. A few minutes later it began to rain with drops black from the ashes. Their contact with the skin caused severe incurable burns.

People who were within 800 meters of the epicenter of the explosion were burned to dust. The rest were exposed to radiation and radiation sickness. Her symptoms were weakness, nausea, vomiting, and fever. There was a sharp decrease in the number of white cells in the blood.

In seconds, about 70 thousand people were killed. The same number later died from wounds and burns.

3 days later, another bomb was dropped on Nagasaki with similar consequences.

Stockpiles of nuclear weapons in the world

The main stocks of nuclear weapons are concentrated in Russia and the United States. In addition to them, the following countries have atomic bombs:

• Great Britain - since 1952;
• France - since 1960;
• China - since 1964;
• India - since 1974;
• Pakistan - since 1998;
• North Korea - since 2008.

Israel also possesses nuclear weapons, although there has been no official confirmation from the country's leadership.