Swiss Confederation

Each Western European federal state also has its own specifics. Switzerland represents the freest confederal association. The central parliament - the Federal Assembly - consists of two chambers: the National Council, elected by the entire population on the basis of proportional representation, and the Cantonal Council, whose deputies in most cantons are elected directly by voters, and in two - by the parliaments of these cantons. Both chambers of the Federal Assembly take equal part in the legislative process and in the elections of the government - the Federal Council (Bundesrat). The Federal Council has relatively narrow competence: issues of foreign policy, national security, some general government affairs (immigration policy, environmental protection, etc.). The main powers are retained by the authorities of the cantons, which have their own constitutions, parliaments and governments and are, in form and essence, states within a state.

Napoleon gave the first constitution to the Swiss. The confederation of Swiss cantons, which suddenly became a “unitary, united and indivisible Helvetic Republic,” did not know a deeper faint either 500 years before, or even in the next 200 years. In the end, the great Republican retreated and allowed the cantons to conclude a “Mediation Act”. For the first time, the confederation acquired a common government, which was responsible only for foreign policy and maintaining public order in the country.

After the fall of Napoleon, the Congress of Vienna (1815) redrew the boundaries of “Christian peoples” according to the standards of the Enlightenment - now they became “nation states”. But before the phenomenon of Switzerland, the diplomatic plow got stuck: two religions, four languages, “Germanic law” here, “Romanesque” there, already nineteen mini-states in a bundle and asking for three more... A real bone of contention in the center of Europe.

One more time and it was already last time in history, gunpowder smoke enveloped the country of Helvetia. Civil War between the Protestant and Catholic communities only outwardly looked like a religious conflict, but in fact it was a conflict of two types of sovereignty - modern and ancient. Protestants, representing mainly the bourgeois class, demanded the creation of a federation of cantons, Catholics, mainly rural traditionalists, insisted on keeping the confederal union intact. This conflict was resolved in 1848 by the adoption of a constitution with a compromise and crafty name.

But in essence, having recognized itself as a federation of cantons, Switzerland still remained a confederation of communes. For for a Swiss, a state is a canton, and Switzerland is a confederation. There are 3029 communes in Switzerland, 23 cantons, but since three of them are also divided into half-cantons, there are 26 in total. Accordingly, the confederation has 23 equal states with their own cantonal constitutions, most of which are older than the federal one.

So anyway: federation - or confederation?

On the one hand, “the cantons are sovereign, since their sovereignty is not limited by the federal constitution, and as such exercise all rights that are not transferred to the federal government” (Chapter 3). On the other hand, “any separate alliances and agreements of a political nature between the cantons are prohibited, with the exception of agreements on issues of legislation, court and administration” (Chapter 7).

How did the free cantons swallow such a restriction on their sovereignty, how does this fit in with the status of a confederation - voluntarily united states? Here is the opinion of Prof. Erich Grüner (Institute for Swiss Politics Research): “Don’t be surprised: the founding fathers of the federal constitution of 1848 weighed the pros and cons of such dualism in the name and decided, nevertheless, to preserve it. Our confederation is more than 700 years old: it was founded in 1291 year. But for the last 150 years, we have recognized ourselves as a federation of a special type, with two types of sovereignty: cantonal and confederal. We are, of course, a federation, but with very strong independence of its constituent parts and minimally limited central power."

Where the “cult of the president” as a symbol of executive power cannot appear is in Switzerland. Deputies of both chambers, having four-year mandates, elect the government cabinet for the same period of time. There are seven departments in it, which means seven senior federal officials, but they cannot be called ministers. Ministers in Switzerland can only be found in the cantons. Who are these seven? They represent the four largest "parliamentary" parties: two radicals, two demo-Christians, two socialists, one centrist agrarian. From these seven, the lower house of parliament alternately elects the President of Switzerland for exactly one year, and one must try very hard to earn re-election for a second term, so that each of the seven one day ends up at the head of the table. For this, in fact, is where the entire presidential privilege ends: for a year he sits at the head of the table, at which all seven are equal.

In the cantons, not only members of local parliaments (as a rule, they have one chamber), but even members of governments are popularly elected. The separation of legislative and executive powers is complete.

Swiss constitutions distinguish four ways of popular participation in solving problems of the federation and cantons.

The referendum is mandatory. Actually, it is mandatory because it concerns the constitutions themselves: any amendment taken on the initiative from above must pass through the sieve of popular vote. This can be done even within a year after the amendment took effect to put on the table the most compelling argument: how it has performed in real life.

People's initiative. 100,000 citizens of the federation (on a cantonal scale, naturally, smaller) can request the introduction of new or deletions or changes to existing constitutional provisions. If parliament or the government does not agree with this, they have the right to submit a parallel counter-project to a popular vote.

Counterprojects. Counterprojects win more often than the original formulas of popular initiatives: after all, the political elite is more sophisticated in interpreting laws and skillfully removes radicalism from the projects of initiative groups. However, the important thing is that counterprojects are born thanks to popular initiatives and in the overwhelming majority of cases do not diverge from them, but, as it were, “clean up” them.

The results of mandatory referendums and popular initiatives come into force only in the case of a double majority: if the majority of opinions in the country as a whole coincides with the majority in 14 (out of 26) cantons and semi-cantons.

4. The referendum is optional. 50,000 citizens (or the governments of at least eight cantons) can request a popular plebiscite in connection with any important law or decision of the federal authorities, including when it concerns international treaties that have already been ratified by parliament and have been in force for 15 years or more. A simple majority is sufficient to legitimize the results of an optional referendum.

Referendums (mandatory and optional) were established in Switzerland in 1874, popular initiatives in 1891, counterprojects in 1949. It is noteworthy that these forms of democracy were first introduced into the federal constitution, and then became the property of the cantonal ones. Over 120 years, the people and cantons, through mandatory referendums, agreed to 118 amendments to the federal constitution and rejected about the same number. During this time, over 1,200 federal laws came into force, causing optional referendums 81 times (of which 33 succeeded, 48 were “lost”). Each canton, in addition, holds its own referendums, initiatives, and counterprojects.

Switzerland is undoubtedly one of the smallest federal states in existence. For example, the United States is 227 times larger than Switzerland. The population of Switzerland reaches approximately 6.3 million. However, Switzerland is divided into 26 cantons, each of which is a state with sovereign jurisdiction. The canton of Appenzell Innerrhoden has only 14,000 inhabitants. It has fewer residents than government employees in the city of Zurich. But these small democracies can develop in a modern environment high technology and superpowers when the economy demands large territories and large markets. Historically, Switzerland as a country arose on the site of a traditional confederation of old medieval states. Although institutionally Switzerland has become a federal state, it is still called the Confederation.

Switzerland

Higher executive agency Switzerland. Federal Council (government). Major cities in Switzerland. Zurich, Geneva, Basel, Lausanne, Lucerne.

Swiss Confederation

It is fundamentally important that the Swiss Constitution begins with the words: “We, the people of Switzerland and the cantons,” which gives grounds to speak, as already emphasized above, about the special principle of sovereignty, as well as about a kind of cantonal and communal loyalty, organically complemented by loyalty to the federation as a whole . Constitutions of European States: T.3 // Ed. Okunkova L.A.

Info

M., 2001. P. 531. It is necessary to especially note the nature of the political culture of the Swiss, which largely determines the appearance of this country. As Daniel Eleizer has argued, despite the many dividing lines, Switzerland's political culture is federalist in all its manifestations (including institutional ones), especially in the organization of civil society cells in the ability to create consultative mechanisms with the aim of making decisions based on consensus.

At the federal level, the autonomy of the cantons is protected not only by the Constitution, but also by political practice, which often goes beyond the existing legal framework, but ultimately receives institutional embodiment. Switzerland is an ethno-nationally “variegated” country, consisting of four main ethnic groups: German 65%; French 18%; Italian 10%; Romansh 1% (represented by Swiss Romanches). In accordance with the Constitution, all these groups have equal rights and all four languages ​​are state (however, Romansh is a “limited” state language, i.e., not all official documents are published in this language). The linguistic composition of the population is as follows: German (63.7%), French (19.2%), Italian (7.6%), Romansh (0.6%).

Such laws also cannot be challenged in court. A feature of the legislative process in Switzerland is the introduction of constitutional amendments or additions based on the results of referendums, which are considered the most effective way influence on legislative decisions.

50 thousand citizens may demand a referendum on the decision Federal Assembly. Thus, the Swiss political tradition favors popular initiatives and referendums. As the Swiss themselves believe, in a system where power is transferred to the cantons and communes, the principles representative democracy play a secondary role. At the cantonal level, legislative power is exercised by the Grand Council or the Canton Council, or the Council of the Land.

The Swiss Confederation historically Switzerland as a country arose

GDP: 386.1 billion USD (2007) GDP per capita: 51.4 thousand USD Form of government: federalism Form of government: parliamentary republic Legislative body: bicameral parliament Head of state: president Head of government: prime minister Party structures: multi-party system Fundamentals of government B early Middle Ages almost the entire territory of Switzerland was part of the Frankish state.

After the collapse of Charlemagne's empire, Switzerland was divided into many practically unconnected lands - cantons (from the French canton - district). In August 1291, in order to jointly act against the territorial claims of the Habsburgs, the forest cantons of Switzerland entered into an “eternal alliance” among themselves, which laid the foundations of the Swiss Confederation (Swiss Union), which had broad rights within the Holy Roman Empire.

What form of government does Switzerland have?

Switzerland Swiss Confederation Date of creation of an independent state: August 1, 1291 Area: 41.3 thousand square meters. km Administrative division: 26 cantons Capital: Bern Official languages: German, French, Italian and Romansh Currency: Swiss franc Population: 7.5 million (2007) Population density per square meter.

km: 181.5 people Proportion of urban population: 68% Ethnic composition of the population: German-Swiss, Franco-Swiss, Italo-Swiss and Romansh; OK. 20% of the country's population are foreigners (Italians, Spaniards, Germans, French, etc.) Religion: Catholic Christianity dominates (42% of the population), Protestantism is in second place (33% of the population) Basis of the economy: industry, banking services Employment: in service sector - St. 70%; in industry - approx. 26%; V agriculture- OK.

Switzerland as a confederation

The reason for this confusion lies in the peculiarities of translation. In German, Switzerland is called "Schweizerische Eidgenossenschaft".

The German word "Eidgenossenschaft" does not translate into French, Italian or even English. This German word literally means that Switzerland is a country founded on an agreement of “sworn people”.

Each subject of the Swiss Confederation has its own constitution, legislature and government, but their rights are limited by the federal Constitution: according to Art. 3 of the Constitution, the cantons are sovereign to the extent that their sovereignty is not limited by the federal Constitution. Taking into account all these circumstances, the researchers indicate that Switzerland is divided into 26 cantons, each of which “is a state with sovereign jurisdiction” of the Constitution of European States: Vol.3 // Ed. Okunkova L.A. M., 2001. P. 540..

Switzerland confederation or federation

The cantons may provide that newly settled persons may exercise the right to vote at the cantonal and communal level after a maximum period of three months from the date of settlement. Cantons can enter into agreements with each other on issues of legislation, administration, justice and form joint organizations and institutions.

Attention

The Confederation may participate in these agreements within the limits of its powers. Intercantonal agreements must not be contrary to the law or interests of the Confederation or the rights of other cantons.

Switzerland confederation

Successor Communist Party Switzerland (CPS), founded in 1921 and ceased to exist in 1944, became the Swiss Party of Labor (SLP). In the last quarter of the twentieth century. The ShPT reconsidered its positions, previously focused on achieving socialist ideals, and moved closer to the democrats. The Swiss People's Party (SPP) has existed since 1971. Under its wing, people from the Party of Peasants, Burghers and Craftsmen (founded in 1919) and the Swiss Democratic Party (founded in 1941) united. New parties include the Evangelical People's Party, the Swiss Democrats and the Greens.

In the mountain valleys of the Alps, medieval republican institutions have survived to this day. Already in 1291, three peasant, or forest, cantons - Schwyz, Uri and Unterwalden - entered into an “Eternal Alliance” to maintain laws and mutual assistance against the Austrian Habsburgs. 124 Over the next two centuries, these cantons entered into alliances and confederal treaties with the cities of Zurich, which was ruled by craft guilds, and Bern, where power belonged to the military patriciate. Over time, the confederation included ten cantons united in a multi-level confederal system, and it took considerable time for a sense of national unity to develop in this ethnically and linguistically heterogeneous region.

The boundaries of the union remained very unstable, and at various times many neighboring cities and lands expressed a desire to join the confederation. Dominion over St. Gotthard and other passes on the trade routes from Italy to Germany gave her great strategic advantages. But perhaps an even more important consequence of the geographical location was something that the Italian and German cities never possessed - local patriotic troops, consisting of highly trained and warlike spearmen, which were supplied in abundance by the overpopulated mountain villages. In the XIV century. and at the beginning of the 15th century. the Swiss repelled several Habsburg attacks; in 1476 and 1477 they defeated the feudal army of the Burgundian Duke Charles the Bold, and in 1499 forced Emperor Maximilian I to retreat. After these events, not a single great power dared to attack the Swiss until the French Revolution. Already in the 14th century. A legend has developed about the national Swiss hero William Tell, a marksman who was forced by the Habsburg governor to shoot an apple from the head of his little son with an arrow.

Cities of Western and Eastern Europe

To the east and west of the wide belt of German and Italian city-states, the cities of Europe never enjoyed complete independence, although they often enjoyed considerable administrative autonomy. Since the 15th century. territorial rulers sought to limit this autonomy in every way. They easily managed to achieve their goal in Eastern Europe, where relatively small and weak cities could not resist the alliance of princes and large landowners. In the West, this process was slower. It should be recognized at the same time that the English monarchy encountered almost no resistance from the cities. London, which was in awe of the Royal Tower and economically connected with the Westminster court, could not and did not want to play an independent role. Other English cities were too small to entertain such aspirations. The Dukes of Burgundy, rulers of the Netherlands, had more problems. In Flanders, the richest and most populous province, three dominated largest cities– Ghent, Bruges and Ypres. Like many other cities that flourished in the 12th and 13th centuries, they suffered from population decline and economic decline in the 14th and 15th centuries. But Ghent and Bruges nevertheless remained the largest and richest cities north of the Alps, with the exception of Paris. They managed to achieve significant self-government from the Counts of Flanders and establish actual control over the meetings of the Flemish estates, which usually convened several times a year. Many seats in city councils were held by guilds. During the 14th century in Ghent, the weaving guild twice raised the people in uprisings, although patricians, wealthy representatives of the ruling city clans, became the heads of the new governments that were subsequently established over and over again. The movements of the urban masses never achieved any significant results, but the revolutionary traditions of the largest Flemish cities were always alive and erupted in periodic clashes between the townspeople and the Dukes of Burgundy. Only over time did the dukes manage to strengthen control over the cities, and one of the reasons for the Dutch uprising against Philip II of Spain 125 was the attempts of the cities to regain some of their former freedoms. A similar situation has developed in France. “The general power and government of the kingdom... and also of our good cities, large and small... belong to us alone,” declared Louis XI (1461–1483); but truly strict control over the cities became possible only with the advent of the system of royal intendants in the 17th century. 126

Switzerland is undoubtedly one of the smallest federal states in existence. For example, the United States is 227 times larger than Switzerland. The population of Switzerland reaches approximately 6.3 million. However, Switzerland is divided into 26 cantons, each of which is a state with sovereign jurisdiction. The canton of Appenzell Innerrhoden has only 14,000 inhabitants. It has fewer residents than government employees in the city of Zurich. But these small democracies can develop in the modern environment of high technology and superpowers, when the economy requires large territories and large markets.

Historically, Switzerland as a country arose on the site of a traditional confederation of old medieval states. Although institutionally Switzerland has become a federal state, it is still called the Confederation. The reason for this confusion lies in the peculiarities of translation. In German, Switzerland is called "Schweizerische Eidgenossenschaft". The German word "Eidgenossenschaft" does not translate into French, Italian or even English. This German word literally means that Switzerland is a country founded on the agreement of "sworn".

Each subject of the Swiss Confederation has its own constitution, legislature and government, but their rights are limited by the federal Constitution: according to Art. 3 of the Constitution, the cantons are sovereign to the extent that their sovereignty is not limited by the federal Constitution. Taking into account all these circumstances, the researchers indicate that Switzerland is divided into 26 cantons, each of which “is a state with sovereign jurisdiction” of the Constitution of European States: Vol.3 // Ed. Okunkova L.A. M., 2001. P. 540..

At the federal level, the autonomy of the cantons is protected not only by the Constitution, but also by political practice, which often goes beyond the existing legal framework, but ultimately receives institutional embodiment.

Switzerland is an ethno-nationally “variegated” country, consisting of four main ethnic groups: German - 65%; French - 18%; Italian - 10%; Romansh - 1% (represented by Swiss Romanches). In accordance with the Constitution, all these groups have equal rights and all four languages ​​are state languages ​​(however, Romansh is a “limited” state language, that is, not all official documents are published in this language). The linguistic composition of the population is as follows: German (63.7%), French (19.2%), Italian (7.6%), Romansh (0.6%). About 1 million non-citizen foreigners live in Switzerland (about 6% of the population belongs to ethnic groups other than those listed). Catholicism and Protestantism are professed by approximately equal numbers of Swiss people (other cults and religions account for 5% of the total population of the country).

The Swiss federal experience is unique: it goes beyond classical American or Canadian federalism. The Swiss federal structure is often characterized in terms of divided (or limited) sovereignty. According to the Constitution, the sovereign - along with the entire Swiss people as a single whole - are individual cantons. The cantons are sovereign in that they are their own founders and co-founders single state. But the state is also affirmed by the entire Swiss people as a whole, and this whole is also sovereign. Thus, the people of Switzerland and the citizens of the cantons “share” sovereignty. In institutional and functional terms, this is reflected in the autonomous powers of both the central government and the cantonal authorities.

In addition to the principle that works in Swiss conditions that each cantonal majority must take into account the same rights of local (communal or municipal) minorities, in the Swiss model there are other institutions for preserving unity at the federal level. The federal government retains its exclusive legislative competence in the areas of foreign policy and defense, financial system, civil and criminal law, patent law, transport, postal services, social insurance, nuclear energy. The highest authority confirming changes in the constitutions of the cantons, which are obliged to implement federal laws, is the Federal Assembly.

The highest executive body is the Federal Council. Its seven members are elected for a four-year term at a joint session of both chambers of the Federal Assembly. When forming the Federal Council, the election of two people from the same canton is excluded. In December of each year, the Federal Assembly elects a Federal President and his Deputy from the Federal Council for a period of one year. The Federal President serves as head of state, but has very limited powers, being "first among equals" in the Federal Council. The government is accountable to the Federal Assembly, but the latter does not have the power to dissolve or dismiss the Federal Council. In turn, the Federal Council also cannot dissolve parliament.

Members of the Federal Supreme Court and the Federal Insurance Court are elected from the lower house of parliament.

The country's judicial system is considered to operate primarily at the cantonal level. Each canton has a court of appeal, a court of cassation, civil and criminal courts.

Supreme legislative body Switzerland is a Federal Assembly consisting of two equal chambers - the National Council and the Council of Cantons.

The lower house of parliament - the National Council - consists of 200 deputies elected for a four-year term in direct elections using a proportional system.

The upper house of parliament - the Council of Cantons - consists of 46 people (two deputies from each canton; in divided cantons, one deputy from each half-canton), elected on the basis of cantonal laws, which vary significantly from canton to canton.

Legislation approved by both houses of parliament cannot be vetoed by the executive. Such laws also cannot be challenged in court. A peculiarity of the legislative process in Switzerland is the introduction of constitutional amendments or additions based on the results of referendums, which are considered the most effective way to influence legislative decisions, provided for by the Constitution of the country. 50 thousand citizens may demand a referendum on the decision of the Federal Assembly. Thus, the Swiss political tradition favors popular initiatives and referendums. As the Swiss themselves believe, in a system where power is transferred to the cantons and communes, the principles of representative democracy play a secondary role. At the cantonal level, legislative power is exercised by the Grand Council or the Canton Council, or the Council of the Land.

The executive branch is the prerogative of the cantonal government, which is headed by a chairman elected by local legislators for one year (this position has different names in different cantons). In small cantons (half-cantons of Appenzell and Unterwalden, Glarus) elections are not held - general meetings of citizens make decisions by simple voting.

The cantons are deprived of the right to freely secede from the federation, although there is no provision in the Constitution regulating this issue. According to Art. 6 of the Constitution, the cantons must obtain approval (guarantees) of their Constitutions from the federation. Federal laws provide for measures to ensure these guarantees, including measures of federal intervention - withdrawal of subsidies, application military force, which has not been used since 1847.

At the same time, the political autonomy of the cantons is revealed in fulfilling their obligations, since the federal government does not have executive structures for the direct implementation of federal laws. Their implementation and implementation is the function of the cantonal authorities. In this regard, the cantons retain a certain residual autonomy even within the exclusive competence of the federation. Cantons cannot organize themselves like a monarchy. Their government system must be either republican or democratic. However, they can copy the Westminster model, the American or even the French presidential system. However, none of the cantons took advantage of these opportunities. So the cantonal systems somehow changed the system of the federal government, the only government in the world that copied the directive system of the second French Republic in 1795. Encyclopedia: Federalism. // Ed. IN AND. Kovalenko. M., 2000. P. 374

Institutes local government in Switzerland they are represented by communes (municipalities), i.e., a form of self-organization that allows the interests of cantons and citizens to be most effectively balanced. The latter are given ample opportunity to make decisions at the lowest level. The role of communes (there are more than three thousand of them) in political process so significant that the Swiss federal model is sometimes called communal federalism. The number of local communities is gradually growing due to fragmentation and the formation of new communes. Approximately half of the communes have no more than 500 people. In some cantons, communes are united into districts. The degree of autonomy of communes varies and is regulated by cantonal Constitutions. However, they have certain inalienable rights: to unite with another commune, non-interference from above, unless the federal or cantonal Constitution is violated, determination of the management structure within the framework of cantonal legislation, freedom of action within the framework of powers that are not within the competence of the cantonal or federal level of government.

It is advisable to dwell on such a unique feature of Switzerland as the institution of dual (sometimes triple) citizenship, which provides for the provision of federal citizenship to non-citizens only after receiving municipal (communal) and then cantonal citizenship.

It is fundamentally important that the Swiss Constitution begins with the words: “We, the people of Switzerland and the cantons,” which gives grounds to speak, as already emphasized above, about the special principle of sovereignty, as well as about a kind of cantonal and communal loyalty, organically complemented by loyalty to the federation as a whole . Constitutions of European States: T.3 // Ed. Okunkova L.A. M., 2001. P. 531.

It is necessary to especially note the nature of the political culture of the Swiss, which largely determines the appearance of this country. As Daniel Eleizer has argued, despite the many dividing lines, Switzerland's political culture is federalist in all its manifestations (including institutional ones), especially in the organization of civil society cells in the ability to create consultative mechanisms with the aim of making decisions based on consensus. According to this researcher, the covenantal pedigree of Swiss federalism is evident in the fact that the German-speaking Swiss still call the federation "Eidgenossenschaft", which can be translated as "an association (Genossenschaft) sealed by a special obligation in the form of a mutual oath (Eid)", and Swiss citizen - "Eidgenosse", which means a party to an agreement, a comrade bound by an oath. Eleyzer D.J. Comparative federalism // Polis. 1995. No. 5. P. 106--115.

Common sense, moderate conservatism and tolerance are evident at all levels of government and in all spheres of life in Switzerland. For many years, according to an unwritten rule, the federal government has included two representatives of the Radical Democratic Party, the Christian Democratic Party people's party, Social Democratic Party and one representative of the Swiss People's Party, which helps maintain political balance in society. So we can say that multiparty Switzerland is dominated by a four-party coalition.

Compliance with agreements on the party composition of the federal council and other federal authorities is facilitated by the party system. Unlike most other federations, in Switzerland the organizational centers of parties are dispersed among the cantons, i.e., geographical divisions within parties play a more important role. important role than ideological differences between different parties. As a result, in federal elections the main battle takes place directly in the cantons.

The principle of separation of powers applies not only to the Federal Council, but also to other federal structures, as well as all levels of government. Different segments of society (national communities, religious and linguistic groups) are considered as partners in the political process. With this principle in mind, the Swiss Federal postal service, for example, is headed by three directors, each of whom belongs to a specific language group.

Although in Art. 3 and 5 of the Constitution proclaim the sovereignty of the cantons; they are not independent in external relations. According to Art. 8 of the Constitution, the conclusion of alliances and treaties is the exclusive right of the Swiss Confederation, however - as an exception - Article 9 gives the cantons “the right to conclude agreements in the field of economic relations of the public sector, regulation of relations with neighbors and on issues of police cooperation, provided that they in which they do not conflict with the Confederation or the rights of other cantons." In practical terms, the cantons have only parallel and subordinate powers, as specified in Art. 10 of the Constitution: “For the purpose of good neighborliness, the cantons may directly establish relations with the authorities and officials corresponding to them,” however, this right, as follows from Art. 9 must not be used "to the detriment of the Confederation or the rights of other cantons." Constitutions of European States: T.3 // Ed. Okunkova L.A. M., 2001. pp. 531-540.

Switzerland is in many ways a potentially very conflict-ridden country. That's why procedures that help maintain peace in society are so important.

Many observers think that democratic procedures in Switzerland are ineffective because it usually takes more than ten years to implement a political idea that needs amendments to constitutions and laws. But such a procedure allows all groups whose interests do not coincide to protect their interests in a rational and open procedure.

Moreover, since parliamentary proposals for new laws or spending are rejected unless citizens are convinced of their legitimacy and necessity, minorities are always able to prevent new laws from being passed through a referendum. And, since it is easy to propose new initiatives, minorities are also well positioned to put forward new political ideas and renew established political structures.

Many critics argue that these procedures are very ineffective. If efficiency is measured by the time it takes for new ideas to be adopted into law, this criticism is justified. But, if we take into account that these ideas must be implemented in society, that they must be carried out without police force and without violating the interests of minorities, then the test of such ideas for effectiveness in Switzerland is successful.

How well do you know Switzerland? Here's a mix of interesting facts to challenge you.

1. Switzerland is one of only two countries to have a square flag - the Vatican also has a square flag. The Swiss flag is a red square with a white cross in the center.

2. Switzerland is ready for nuclear war– it has enough nuclear shelters to resettle its entire population. The law requires that everyone have access to shelter in or near their building. Swiss military bunkers disguised as quaint village houses.

3. The country's main defense strategy is to demolish all major roads, bridges (road and rail) leading to Switzerland in the event of a foreign invasion. At the same time, at least 3,000 places across the country are prepared for impact at any moment.

4. Coffee in Zurich is the most expensive in the world - it costs on average 3.65 CHF (3.65 $US), and Copenhagen, Basel, Bern and Geneva are in the top five of the price index.
5. Switzerland became the first producer of instant coffee when Nestlé, founded by Swiss businessman Henri Nestlé in 1867, launched Nescafe in 1938.

6. In Switzerland, citizens can challenge any law passed by parliament, provided they collect 50,000 signatures against the law within 100 days. If so, a popular vote is held and voters decide by a simple majority whether to pass or reject the law.

7. Switzerland boasts some of the most famous inventions in the world - they created Velcro, cellophane, the Swiss Army knife, absinthe, the potato peeler, LSD, muesli, milk chocolate. Swiss scientists are conducting research into the use of LSD to treat mental illness and pain.

8. According to the World Health Organization (WHO), life expectancy for men in Switzerland is 81.3 years and 85.3 years for Swiss women. This puts Switzerland second (after Japan) in terms of life expectancy. The population is aging; in 2015, almost a fifth of the population was over 65 years of age.

9. Swiss law prohibits owning “social” pets outside of a couple. It is illegal in Switzerland to keep only one guinea pig, mouse, ferret, fish, canary, pig or other social creature. Switzerland treats the isolation of animals as cruel treatment. Switzerland has an animal rights lawyer and a pet rental service in case one animal in a couple dies before the owner purchases a new pet to comply with mating laws.

10. Swiss taxes on dog ownership - determined by the size and weight of the dog. Dog owners also need to take a training course to learn how to properly care for their pets.

11. Switzerland is one of the best places in a world where you can be born, live and be happy - in accordance with its consistently high rating in global reports. Switzerland was recognized as the most happy country in the world in 2015 and ranked second in 2016 (after Denmark) out of 156 countries. Zurich was voted the second best city to live in the quality of life report, after Mercer, and in 2016 after Vienna. Bern is second after Helsinki best city for personal safety, much higher than London (72).
12. There are 208 mountains in Switzerland with a height of more than 3000 m - 24 of them are more than 4000 m. The highest mountain is Monte Rosa (Dufoursptiz) with a height of 4634 m, on the Swiss-Italian border.

13. Climate of Switzerland. It was a cold, snowy winter historical norm, but frosty temperatures and heavy snowfalls today are showing up in to a lesser extent, especially in low-lying areas. Many Swiss ski resorts struggling to survive without artificial snow. During hot summers, temperatures in some areas exceed 30-35°C. The Alps act as a climate barrier: northern Switzerland tends to be colder due to Atlantic winds, while southern Switzerland has a mild climate influenced by Mediterranean winds.

14. A child can refuse the name given to him by his parents - in Switzerland it is prohibited to give a child a name that could harm the interests of the child. For example, authorities banned the Swiss musician Christina Lauterburg from calling her daughter "Lexicon" (an "object" rather than a name); may also cancel a child's name if it can be misunderstood or mispronounced in German.

15. Switzerland is known as Confoederatio Helvetica, abbreviated as CH. Helvetia is the symbol of Switzerland. Napoleonic Helvetic Republic has appeared on coins since 1879. The Swiss also call themselves “confederates”, Eidgenossen (literally: fellow-sworn), a term used since the 14th century. Swiss (resident of Schwyz), used since the 16th century, comes from the Alemannic Schwier (territory of one of the cantons of Waldstätten), Officially it is called the Swiss Confederation by historical reasons, although modern Switzerland is a federal republic consisting of 26 cantons, and the capital Bern is a federal city.
16. Swiss Confederation founded on August 1, 1291 - celebrated annually as National holiday Switzerland. The constitution has been in force in Switzerland since 1874. The new revised and approved Constitution officially came into force on January 1, 2000.

17. Switzerland has a significant wealth gap between rich and poor - 20% of the population earns more than four times the average, and 20% of the population earns below average, according to OCED.

18. Switzerland has one of the lowest crime rates among industrial developed countries, despite liberal Swiss laws. In 2015, Switzerland had only 0.5 murders per 100 thousand people (about 40 per year), compared to 5 murders per 100 thousand people in the United States (30-40 per day).
19. According to rough estimates small arms in Switzerland there are about 45.7 units per 45 inhabitants, which is the third highest rate in the world after the United States and Yemen. In 2011, Swiss voters rejected legislation calling for stricter gun control, including a proposal to ban the purchase of automatic weapons and introduce a firearms licensing system.

20. Military service is still compulsory for Swiss male citizens - Switzerland is one of last countries Western Europe, where they observe universal conscription, along with Austria. According to the Swiss constitution, Swiss male citizens must serve in the Swiss army after the age of 18, while women can serve as volunteers. Military training camps are common throughout Switzerland. In addition, it is legal to keep personal military weapons (semi-automatic rifles) after service, and high degree gun ownership in Switzerland is partly explained by the Swiss tradition of keeping military-grade rifles at home.

21. Albert Einstein developed his famous formula E = MC 2 in Switzerland - he developed his theory of relativity while studying and living in Bern, renouncing his German citizenship to avoid conscription.

22. Sunday in Switzerland is protected by a long list social laws: It is illegal to carry out activities such as cutting grass, hanging laundry, washing a car or recycling bottles to ensure peace and beauty.
23. good night and sleep are also guaranteed by rules: noisy activities are prohibited after 10 pm, including slamming a car door, flushing a toilet or emptying a bathtub.

24. Scotland's Gotthard Tunnel is the longest in the world - it is 57 km long, located under the Alps, 7 km longer than the tunnel between England and France. It took 17 years to build and is the most expensive tunnel in the world. A 45-minute journey between Zurich and Lugano, the Rhine-Alps corridor stretches from Rotterdam in the Netherlands, crosses Germany and connects the port of Genoa in Italy.

25. Almost half of marriages in Switzerland end in divorce - the divorce rate is gradually decreasing, but stood at 41.4% in 2015. People marry relatively late, with men aged 31.8 and women aged 29.6, and the average number of children per woman is 1.5 (EU average is 1.6).

26. Switzerland ranks third in the world in terms of wages and employment: Swiss workers earn an average of $57,082 US per year, equal to Luxembourg and the United States, and lose on average only 1.7% of their earnings if they become unemployed. In 2015, about 80% of the country's population, aged 15 to 64, was in paid work - the second highest employment in the OECD. Only about 2% of the workforce remains unemployed for a year or longer, lower than the OECD average of 2.6%. In addition, Switzerland is consistently among the best countries employment for youth, according to the KOF Youth Labor Market Index.

27. Women are still underrepresented in political life, despite the fact that Switzerland is often praised as an example of direct democracy.

28. Switzerland is not governed by a head of state - instead it has a 7-member executive council - the Swiss collective head of state. The President is elected for a one-year term of office and is treated as primus inter equals.

29. Switzerland lags behind most Western European countries in terms of gender equality - in 2015, only 41.3% of women worked full time, compared to 83.6% of men. Women held less than 20% of all national positions. Despite its commitment to equal pay for men and women, Switzerland ranks 24th out of 38 OECD countries for gender equality in salary, with a 17% difference. However, Schilling's 2017 State of the Union report reported that women now made up one-fifth of new management positions, up 4% on the previous year and marking the 10th consecutive year of increase.

30. Foreigners account for almost 25% of the population - one of the highest in the world. However, in February 2014, Swiss voters passed a controversial immigration initiative. It aims to introduce restrictions on the number of foreigners allowed into Switzerland and end the free movement agreement with the European Union. Despite this, in 2017 the number of foreigners on Swiss executive boards rose to 45%, highlighting Switzerland's continued need for foreign talent.

31. Tobacco use is widespread - about 28.2% of the Swiss population are smokers, compared to the British 19% or Americans 16.8%
32. Switzerland has one of the highest rates of cannabis use in the world - along with the US and UK. It is estimated that approximately 600,000 users obtain 100 tons of hash and marijuana annually. Since October 2013, possession of marijuana has been decriminalized and anyone over 18 years old caught with 10g can pay a fine of 100 Swiss francs on the spot, without going to court.

33. There are four in Switzerland national languages- French, German, Italian and Rhaeto-Romantsch (with Latin roots), although the level of proficiency in other foreign languages ​​is declining in favor of English. About 60% of the population speak English - Switzerland ranks 14th in the world in the Index English proficiency EF for English speakers.

34. Absinthe originated in the Swiss canton of Neuchâtel in the late 18th century - when French physician Pierre Ordiner created an emerald green elixir, rumored to cure all diseases, made from local herbs and Artemisia absinthium, which grew in abundance around a small Swiss town. Couvee, Val-de-Travers region of Switzerland. After allegedly sharing his recipe, Henri-Louis Pernot opened the first absinthe distillery in Couva in 1797. National Absinthe Day is celebrated on March 5th every year.

35. The Swiss eat more chocolate than any other country in the world - they eat a record amount of it, approximately 11 kg per person per year. Chocolate is a major Swiss export; With 18 Swiss chocolate companies operating, Switzerland exports almost 115,500 tons of chocolate per year. The Swiss invented conching and other technologies to improve the art of chocolate making.

36. More than half of Switzerland's domestic electricity production comes from 556 hydroelectric power plants—about 19 million gigawatt hours per year—with hydroelectricity being the country's most important renewable energy.
37. Switzerland has approximately 1,500 lakes, of which Lake Geneva is the largest and is reported to contain more than 40 shipwrecks.

38. The Swiss railway station of Aarau has a clock with a diameter of 9 meters, the second largest in Europe, only the clock at the station in Cergy (France) is larger (10 meters). St. Peter's Church in Zurich has a dial with a diameter of 8.7 m.

39. The Swiss are the best mathematicians in Europe - Swiss teenagers were ranked first in Europe in mathematics in the 2015 PISA (Program for International Student Assessment) survey and eighth in the world.
40. According to the Performance Index, Swiss teachers earn the highest annual salaries, with an average of $68,000 US.

41. Switzerland is one of the most innovative countries in the world and one of the most competitive. Switzerland invests about 3% of its GDP on research and development (R&D). 1.2% of all scientific publications, published in the world, belong to the Swiss - this is 17th place in international ranking. If we consider the actual number of documents produced in proportion to the population of the country, Switzerland comes out on top with an average of 3.6 publications per 1000 inhabitants. In terms of impact, only the United States surpassed Switzerland.

42. In one year, 23,269 patents were filed in Switzerland. Only Japan has more patent applications per capita than Switzerland. In the Global Competitiveness Report prepared by the World Economic Forum (WEF) in 2013, Switzerland was ranked first for the fifth time.

43. Switzerland has 26 cantons, which are federal states of the Swiss Confederation. They vary greatly in size, population and character: the canton of Geneva contains only one city; The canton of Uri is mountains and valleys; the population of the canton of Zurich is over one million, while the inhabitants of Appenzell Inner Rhodes would fit into a football stadium.

44. The Swiss economy is based on highly skilled workers specializing in areas such as microtechnology, biotechnology, pharmaceuticals, banking and insurance. Switzerland is widely recognized as an international research center and actively promotes science and technology.

45. Switzerland has a population of 8.3 million; About 5 million of them live on the Swiss plateau between the Jura Mountains and the Swiss Alps. All major Swiss cities are on the plateau, including the city of Zurich, which is the largest in Switzerland with a population of 376,990. The canton (federal state) of Zurich is the most populous canton in Switzerland, with a total of 1,242,000 people.

46. ​​The majority of people in Switzerland are Christians, 42% are Catholics and 35% are Protestants, but 11% of residents claim no religious affiliation at all.

47. The Swiss are an educated population - 88% of adults have the equivalent of a high school diploma. The Swiss government predicts that the number of people aged 24-65 with more than a secondary education will rise to 60% by 2040, although foreigners are expected to contribute about 30% of this increase.

48. Switzerland does not use the euro as its currency. Switzerland uses the Swiss franc (CHF). In June 2016, one Swiss franc was worth about €0.92/$1.02/GBP0.76.

49. Switzerland is home to the European Organization for Nuclear Research, the world's largest particle physics laboratory, based in Geneva and spanning the Swiss/French border. Physicists received Nobel Prize in 2013 for his work on the theory of the Higgs boson, one of the building blocks of the Universe, which was finally discovered at CERN's Large Hadron Collider in 2012.

50. Switzerland is the birthplace of many famous people: creator World Wide Web Tim Berners-Lee, architect Le Corbusier, Red Cross founder Jean Henri Dunant, DNA researcher Friedrich Miescher, philosopher Jean-Jacques Rousseau and psychologist Carl Jung.

51. Museums play an integral role in Swiss culture - Swiss museums attract more than a million visitors a month. In 2017, the Swiss statistical office released data that there are 1,111 museums in Switzerland, the majority of which (367) are regional or local, followed by art (171), technical (140), history (126) museums. Most Swiss mueseums are in German-speaking Switzerland, while Italy's Ticino has the highest density of museums.

Rolex Training Center at the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology in Lausanne was opened in 2010. It contains one of the most important collections scientific works in Europe.

52. Switzerland ranks first in the 2013 Global Innovation Index published by Cornell University, INSEAD and World Organization intellectual property (WIPO).

53. Since its founding in 1952, the Swiss National Science Foundation (SNSF) has processed more than 70,000 applications for research funding, enabling 20,000 talented young researchers to conduct research papers abroad.

54. The Commission for Technology and Innovation (CTI) supports applied research and project development, as well as the creation of start-ups. In 2013, CTI used federal grants totaling CHF 109.3 billion to finance 331 projects.

55. Two national universities Switzerland's federal technical institutes, in Zurich and Lausanne, are renowned throughout the world for their cutting-edge scientific achievements. They attract foreign researchers and lecturers - more than 50% of teachers at both institutes are not from Switzerland.