When classifying international organizations, various criteria can be applied.

1. By the nature of their members we can distinguish:

1.1. interstate (intergovernmental) - the participants are states

1.2. non-governmental organizations - unite public and professional national organizations, individuals, for example the International Red Cross, Inter-Parliamentary Union, Association of International Law, etc.

2.According to the range of members, international organizations are divided into:

2.1. universal (worldwide), open to the participation of all states of the world (United Nations (UN), United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), World Health Organization (WHO) and other organizations of the UN system (its specialized agencies), International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), International Civil Defense Organization, etc.),

2.2. regional, whose members may be states of the same region (Organization of African Unity, European Union, Commonwealth Independent States).

3. Based on the objects of activity, we can say:

3.1. on organizations of general competence (UN, Organization of African Unity, Commonwealth of Independent States, Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe)

3.2. special (International Labor Organization, Universal Postal Union). Political, economic, social, cultural, scientific and other organizations also differ.

62. Legal nature of an international organization

An international intergovernmental organization has a derivative and functional legal personality and is characterized by the following characteristics.

Firstly, it is created by states that record their intention in a constituent act - the Charter - as a special type of international treaty.

Secondly, it exists and operates within the framework of a constituent act that defines its status and powers, which gives its legal capacity, rights and obligations a functional character.

Thirdly, it is a permanent association, which is manifested in its stable structure, in the system of its permanent bodies.

Fourthly, it is based on the principle of sovereign equality of member states, while membership in the organization is subject to certain rules characterizing the participation of states in the activities of its bodies and the representation of states in the organization.

Fifthly, states are bound by resolutions of the organs of the organization within the limits of their competence and in accordance with the established legal force of these resolutions.

Sixth, each international organization has a set of rights characteristic of a legal entity. These rights are fixed in the constituent act of the organization or in a special convention and are implemented taking into account the national legislation of the state in whose territory the organization performs its functions. As a legal entity, it is competent to enter into civil transactions (conclude contracts), acquire property, own and dispose of it, initiate cases in court and arbitration and be a party to litigation.

Seventhly, an international organization has privileges and immunities that ensure its normal activities and are recognized both at the location of its headquarters and in any state in the exercise of its functions.

It is characteristic of the legal nature of international organizations that its general goals and principles, competence, structure, and area of ​​common interests have an agreed upon contractual basis. Such a basis is the charters or other constituent acts of international organizations, which are international treaties. The question of the relationship between state sovereignty and the general goals and interests of the organization is resolved in its constituent act.

Autonomous organizations of the OECD

One of the most powerful organizations within the OECD system is the G7 group, created in 1975 to resolve global financial and monetary issues at the level of heads of government of leading Western countries. In 1997, Russia joined this organization, and the group began to be called the “Big Eight” (Great Britain, Germany, Italy, Canada, USA, France, Japan, Russia).

At the meetings of the organization, issues of achieving a balanced growth dynamics of the main exchange rates, coordination and harmonization of economic development strategies, and the development of a common economic course for the leading countries of the world are discussed.

An autonomous body within the OECD, the International Energy Agency (MEA), created in 1974, with the participation of all OECD member countries, with the exception of Iceland and Mexico.

The MEA's organizational structure includes: a Governing Council, which consists of senior representatives from each state responsible for energy issues; permanent groups and special committees (on long-term cooperation in the field of energy, emergency situations, oil markets, etc.); A secretariat consisting of experts in the field of energy and performs supporting functions.

Main goals and objectives of MEA:

Cooperation on the development and application of various energy sources;

Measures to improve energy efficiency;

Ensuring the constant functioning of the information system on the state of the international oil market;

Establishing cooperation with non-MEA countries and international organizations to solve global energy development problems;

Improving the system for overcoming disruptions in the power supply.

The OECD system also includes the Nuclear Energy Agency (NEA), established in 1958 with the participation of OECD member countries, with the exception of New Zealand and the Republic of Korea. The purpose of this organization is cooperation between the governments of participating countries in the use of nuclear energy as a safe, economical source.

The main functions of the Nuclear Energy Agency include: - assessing the contribution of nuclear energy to the overall energy supply; - Development of a system for the exchange of scientific and technical information; - Organization of international research, preparation of nuclear energy development programs; - Encouraging cooperation to harmonize nuclear energy regulatory policies and practices (protecting people from radiation and protecting the environment).

The organizational structure of the Agency includes the following divisions: OECD Council; Nuclear Energy Executive Committee; five specialized committees (on the development of nuclear energy and the fuel cycle; on regulation of activities in the field of nuclear energy; on the safety of nuclear devices, radiation protection; on health protection).

International organizations of general competence within the framework of economic cooperation

Organizations of general competence include organizations formed after the collapse of colonial empires or as a result of macro-regionalization of world economic relations.

The most important of them are the Council of Europe, the Commonwealth of Nations, the Northern Cooperation Organization, the League of Arab States, the Organization for Security and Cooperation, and the Organization of the Islamic Conference.

1. The Council of Europe (has 46 countries, founded in 1949) is a wide-ranging organization that covers the following areas of activity: human rights, means mass media, cooperation in the legal field, social and economic issues; healthcare, education, culture, youth, sports, environmental protection. The Council of Europe develops pan-European conventions and agreements, which form the basis for corresponding changes in national legislation with a view to their harmonization.

Ukraine has chosen a democratic path of development that meets the standards of the European community. On November 9, 1995, at the headquarters of the Council of Europe in Strasbourg (France), a solemn ceremony of Ukraine's accession to this organization took place. The Council of Europe has developed a number of programs to promote democratic and legal reforms in the countries of Central and Eastern Europe, for the implementation of which approximately $10 million was provided. The programs concerned local self-government, legal proceedings, and elections. Thus, the “Demosthenes” program provided for an expert analysis of draft bilateral agreements to ensure the rights of national minorities, which Ukraine proposed to conclude with the newly independent states on the territory of the former USSR. The Council of Europe provides advice in developing curricula for training lawyers in Ukraine (for example, at the Institute of International Relations of T. Shevchenko University of Kyiv). Representatives of our state participate in the work of the main and special committees of the Council of Europe, in particular on human rights, on issues of social security, migration, cultural heritage, mass media. Ukrainian experts worked in the committee on legal problems of refugees and stateless persons, the rights of national minorities and their linguistic rights. Ukraine has become one of the contracting parties to some conventions of the Council of Europe, the European Cultural Convention, the European Framework Convention on Trans-Border Co-operation between Territorial Communities and Authorities, the European Convention on Information on Foreign Legislation, as well as conventions on the fight against crime, the protection of the rights of national minorities.

2. The Commonwealth of Nations (including 53 countries and founded in 1931) operates in the following main areas: supporting political and economic cooperation; promoting sustainable development of the economies of participating countries; consulting, representation and information tasks; development and implementation of Commonwealth development programs; organizing and holding conferences to adopt declarations on various issues of world politics. The Declaration on World Trade was adopted in 1987; in 1991 - the Declaration of Fundamental Rights.

3. The Nordic Cooperation Organization, including five countries, was established in 1971. its main objectives are: improving the quality and competitiveness of products in the northern region; ensuring environmental protection and environmentally sustainable use natural resources; growth in employment, improvement of working conditions and social security.

4. The League of Arab States (LAS) was created in 1945. its members are 21 Arab countries and the Palestinian Authority. The purpose of the operation is the thorough and coordination of the participating countries in various fields, the protection national security and independence.

5. The Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE), created in 1975, has 55 countries, with 6 main objectives: achieving sustainable economic development; improving contacts and practical cooperation on environmental protection; promoting strengthening international peace and safety.

6. The Organization of the Islamic Conference (OIC) includes 57 Muslim states. II was created in 1969 with the aim of deepening cooperation in economic, social and scientific issues, holding consultations between participating countries in international organizations, and strengthening Muslim solidarity.

Article 52 of the UN Charter provides for the establishment and operation of regional agreements or bodies to resolve matters relating to international peace and security. Moreover, such bodies must be suitable for regional action, and their activities must be compatible with the goals and principles of the UN. States that have entered into relevant agreements and established such bodies shall make every effort to peacefully resolve local disputes through such regional bodies before referring such disputes to the Security Council. In turn, the UN Security Council should encourage the development of this institution both on the initiative of interested states and on its own initiative. Where appropriate, the Council may use regional agreements or enforcement bodies under its authority. Finally, in accordance with Article 54 of the Charter, he must always be fully informed of actions taken or proposed to maintain peace and security at the regional level.

Thus, the UN Charter assigns a significant role to regional organizations in achieving the main statutory purpose of the Organization. More than half a century of practice has confirmed the viability of this institution. Moreover, regional international structures began to play an increasingly important role in coordinating cooperation between states in other areas: economic, social, humanitarian, etc. In fact, several existing international organizations of general competence can be considered as a kind of “regional UN” that solves the whole complex current problems international relations in the relevant region. The most authoritative of them are ASEAN, LAS, OAS, OAU, OSCE, etc.

Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) was created in 1967 by five founding countries: Indonesia, Malaysia, Singapore, Thailand and the Philippines. Later, ASEAN included Brunei, Vietnam, Laos, Myanmar, Cambodia and other countries. The main documents regulating cooperation between states within ASEAN are the Treaty of Friendship and Cooperation in Southeast Asia and the ASEAN Declaration of Concord signed in 1976 on the island of Bali, as well as the Singapore Declaration of 1992. During " cold war“ASEAN has been the subject of a struggle for influence between two world social systems.

The goals of ASEAN are: 1) organizing cooperation between member states in economic, social and other fields; 2) promoting peace and stability in Southeast Asia. The main form of cooperation among member states is regular meetings and consultations of authorized officials: heads of state, foreign ministers, heads of various departments, etc. In fact, ASEAN coordinates a very wide range of issues, which includes the development of a common approach to political problems, as well as the development of mutually beneficial relationships in certain sectors of the economy, environmental protection, the fight against crime, countering the spread of drugs, etc.

The highest body of the organization is the Meeting of Heads of State and Government, at which the most important issues of regional partnership are discussed and major decisions are made. Each participating State is represented at these summits. Meetings are held once every three years, alternately in each country in alphabetical order.

Since 1994, the ASEAN Regional Security Forum (ARF) has also been in operation. Officials not only of ASEAN states, but also of the organization’s partner countries, the number of which is steadily growing, take part in its work. In fact, the forum addresses two sets of issues at once: on the one hand, coordination of cooperation between ASEAN states in the field of strengthening security, on the other, coordination of positions between ASEAN and third countries, contacts with the largest states of the world.

The permanent body of ASEAN is the Standing Committee, which performs the functions of an executive and coordinating body that ensures the implementation of decisions adopted within ASEAN and signed documents. The Committee includes employees of the foreign affairs departments of the ASEAN member states: their ambassadors in the country of the organization’s chairman, as well as the heads of the ASEAN national secretariats included in the structure of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. The work of the Committee is headed by the Minister of Foreign Affairs of the state in which the meeting took place. last Meeting heads of state and government. Periodically (once a year), meetings of foreign ministers are held within the framework of ASAEN, who assume the functions of the Standing Committee for the duration of the meeting.

Ongoing organizational work is also carried out by the ASEAN Secretariat, headed by the Secretary-General.

ASEAN actively cooperates with states and organizations that are not members of it, but are interested in maintaining peace and stability in the region. Representatives of the relevant countries regularly participate in meetings and consultations held within the organization. Recently, this cooperation has begun to take on institutional forms: in many states, appropriate committees and other bodies are created, which, as a rule, include diplomats from ASEAN countries. In particular, the USA, China, Japan, Russia, Korea, Canada, have the status of permanent partners of ASEAN, European Union etc. Cooperation between ASEAN and the Republic of Kazakhstan is developing quite intensively.

League of Arab States (LAS) was created in 1945 in Cairo, when the Conference of Arab States adopted the main founding document - the League Pact. In accordance with it, the goals of the organization are:

Ensuring closer relations between member states;

Coordination of political actions of member states;

Organization of cooperation in economic, financial, trade, cultural and other fields;

Ensuring the independence and sovereignty of member states;

Consideration of all issues affecting Arab states and their interests.

In fact, the main activity of the Arab League for a very long time was to ensure the sovereignty of the Arab states, which is associated with the tense international situation in the region. All independent Arab countries, of which there are currently more than twenty, can be members of the Arab League. At the same time, the Palestine Liberation Organization and one non-Arab state (Somalia) are members of the Arab League. In 1979, Egypt's membership in the Arab League was suspended due to the signing of a peace treaty between Egypt and Israel.

The main bodies of the Arab League are the Council, the Conference of Heads of State and Government, and the General Secretariat. The League Council is a sessional plenary body composed of representatives of each member state. The main organizational and legal form of the Council's activities is regular sessions, which are convened twice a year.

According to the 1945 Pact, decisions of the Council are binding only on those states that voted for their adoption. The only exceptions are those decisions that relate to the internal life of the League (budget, personnel, etc.) - they are made by a majority vote and are binding on all members of the League. If any decision is made unanimously by the Arab League member states, it is binding on everyone.

Since 1964, the Conference of Heads of State and Government has been convened to discuss at the highest level the most pressing problems for the countries of the Arab world. The decisions taken at the Conference are an important source regulating the activities of the Arab League and its bodies. The Secretariat provides current and organizational issues for the activities of the League. The headquarters of the Secretariat is located in Cairo.

In addition to those mentioned, the structure of the Arab League includes various bodies that coordinate cooperation between member states in certain areas of international relations: the Joint Defense Council, the Economic Council, the Legal Committee, the Oil Committee and other specialized bodies.

In most cases, the Arab League strives to develop a common position of all Arab states on key international issues. Within the framework of the League, a mechanism for the peaceful settlement of disputes between its members, as well as a mechanism for preventing and repelling aggression, has been created and is functioning. As practice shows, the Arab League plays a significant role in modern international relations. The League has permanent observer status at the United Nations.

Organization of American States (OAS) was created in 1948, when its Charter was adopted (came into force on December 13, 1951 and was amended several times). Its creation was a logical continuation of the process of deepening cooperation American countries: The Inter-American Conference in Bogota, which adopted the Charter, was the ninth in a row. In addition to the Charter, the main founding documents of the OAS traditionally include the Inter-American Treaty of Mutual Assistance of 1947 and the Inter-American Treaty for the Peaceful Settlement of Disputes of 1948. The OAS includes more than 30 states North America, Latin America and the Caribbean.

The objectives of the OAS are:

Maintaining peace and security in the Western Hemisphere;

Settlement of disputes between member states;

Organization of joint actions against aggression;

Development of cooperation in political, economic, social, scientific, technical and cultural fields.

The main organs of the OAS are the General Assembly, the Consultative Meeting of Foreign Ministers, the Defense Advisory Committee, the Permanent Council, the Inter-American Council for Integrated Development, the Inter-American Judicial Committee, the Inter-American Commission on Human Rights, the Inter-American Court of Human Rights and the General Secretariat. In addition, several specialized organizations operate within the OAS (for example, the Pan American Health Organization), which are regional analogues of specialized UN agencies.

The General Assembly is the highest plenary body of the OAS, meeting for its regular sessions once a year. The competence of the General Assembly includes discussing the most important issues of inter-American cooperation. The Consultative Meeting of Foreign Ministers considers situations and problems of an urgent nature and meets as they arise. In fact, this is the organization’s rapid response body to crisis situations. As a rule, OAS member states are represented at the General Assembly at the level of their foreign ministers.

The Permanent Council is a permanent body (it meets twice a month) that provides general management of the activities of the OAS in the period between sessions of the General Assembly. As for the Inter-American Council for Integrated Development, it coordinates all socio-economic programs operating within the OAS. Both bodies are formed from representatives of all member states on a parity basis. The seat of the Permanent Council is Washington.

Supreme official The OAS has a Secretary General, who is elected by the Assembly for a five-year term without the right of re-election. Moreover: according to the regulations, the successor of the Secretary General cannot be a citizen of his state.

Within the framework of the OAS, it was not always possible to satisfactorily resolve issues of maintaining peace and security (for example, due to ideological differences, Cuba was at one time expelled from the OAS). At the same time, member states cooperate closely on issues such as the unification of legal systems, protection of individual rights, expansion of cultural ties, etc.

Organization of African Unity (OAU) was created on May 25, 1963. On this day, which is celebrated as African Liberation Day, the OAU Charter, the main founding document of the organization, was signed in Addis Ababa.

The objectives of the OAU are:

Strengthening the unity and solidarity of African states;

Coordination and strengthening of cooperation between African states in such areas as politics and diplomacy, defense and security, economics, transport, communications, education, culture, etc.;

Defense of the sovereignty, territorial integrity and independence of African states;

Elimination of all types of colonialism in Africa;

Encouraging international cooperation in accordance with the UN Charter and the Universal Declaration of Human Rights.

The main bodies of the OAU are the Assembly of Heads of State and Government, the Council of Ministers, the Commission for Mediation, Conciliation and Arbitration, the Commission of African Jurists, the Liberation Committee, a number of specialized commissions, as well as the General Secretariat.

The Assembly of Heads of State and Government is the highest plenary body of the OAU, in which all member states are represented at the highest level. The Assembly meets for its regular meetings once a year, and at the request of 2/3 of its members - for extraordinary sessions. This body is competent to consider the most important issues of international cooperation of African states and make legally binding decisions based on the results of the discussion. The Assembly works closely with the Council of Ministers, to which it gives instructions for organizing the implementation decisions made. In the Council, African states are represented, as a rule, by ministers of foreign affairs, however, depending on the nature of the issues being resolved, other ministers may participate in the work of the Council. The Council of Ministers is the executive body of the OAU and has a sessional structure of work: it meets in sessions twice a year.

The day-to-day work of the OAU is organized by the Secretariat, whose headquarters are located in Addis Ababa. Other OAU bodies coordinate cooperation African countries in various fields, from peaceful settlement of disputes to cultural exchanges.

The OAU, along with the OSCE, is the largest of all existing regional organizations: it includes more than 50 states. As practice shows, at all major international forums, including the UN General Assembly, African states try to act as a single bloc in order to better protection special interests of Africa. Corresponding efforts are regularly reflected in various international documents (for example, in the Millennium Declaration, where African interests are highlighted in an independent structural section). According to the OAU Charter, this organization adheres to a policy of non-alignment with any military-political blocs. After the final elimination of the colonial system, the activities of the OAU are focused on implementing a fair world economic order and solving social problems. Within the framework of the OAU, there is a mechanism for peacekeeping operations; The organization has permanent observer status at the UN.

An important milestone in cooperation in Africa was the signing in 1991 of the Treaty establishing the African Economic Community, which should result in the creation of a single market for goods, services and work force, as well as the introduction of a single currency and deepening economic integration.

Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE) formed from among the participating states of the Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe and states sharing the goals and principles formulated in the 1975 CSCE Final Act. The organization has had this name since January 1, 1995. As for the OSCE's constituent documents, it is quite difficult to determine their exact list, since many acts that are important for this structure do not take the form of an international treaty. The most famous of them, in addition to the mentioned Final Act, are the Charter of Paris for a New Europe of 1990, the Declaration of the “Challenge of the Time of Change” of 1992 (Helsinki), the decisions of the Budapest Summit of 1994, the documents of Lisbon (1996) and Istanbul (1999). ) meetings and some others. In accordance with these acts, the CSCE was transformed into the OSCE with a new structure of bodies, principles and areas of activity, etc. Since 1993, the OSCE has been granted observer status at the UN.

The very renaming of the CSCE into the OSCE took place at the end of 1994 (at a meeting in Budapest), although already in the Helsinki Documents it was decided to consider the CSCE as a regional agreement in the sense as stated in the UN Charter, Chapter 8 of which makes virtually no distinction between regional agreements and regional bodies. The member states themselves have repeatedly emphasized in various documents that the renaming of the CSCE does not change its status and the obligations of its participants.

The main objectives of the OSCE are:

Creating conditions to ensure long-term peace;

Support for the easing of international tensions;

Cooperation in the field of security, disarmament and conflict prevention;

Contribution to human rights;

Deepening cooperation in economic, cultural and other fields.

According to the Declaration on a Common and Comprehensive Security Model for Europe in the 21st Century, adopted on December 3, 1996 in Lisbon, the OSCE is called upon to play a key role in strengthening security and stability in all its dimensions.

The main bodies of the OSCE are the Meeting of Heads of State and Government, the Council of Ministers, the Governing Council, the Permanent Council, the Office for Democratic Institutions and Human Rights, the Center for Conflict Prevention, the High Commissioner on National Minorities, the Parliamentary Assembly and the Secretariat.

The Meeting of Heads of State and Government is a body that, in its form of work, resembles an international conference. Decisions made at such meetings (they have been held at various intervals since 1990) determine the directions of cooperation between European states and set guidelines for European integration.

The Council of Ministers meets, as a rule, once a year. In this body, each state is represented at the level of the Minister of Foreign Affairs. Its decisions are more normative in nature, which is why the Council is considered the central governing body of the OSCE. One of the Council members serves as OSCE Chairman for a year. As a rule, he works closely with the previous and next chairman (the so-called “leadership troika”). Currently, the issue of the upcoming chairmanship of the OSCE of the Republic of Kazakhstan in 2007 is being considered.

Monitoring the implementation of decisions of the Council of Ministers and preparing the agenda for its meetings is carried out by the Governing Council. He also coordinates the activities of all bodies within the OSCE structure. Meetings of the Governing Council are held in Prague at least twice a year.

The Permanent Council operates on a permanent basis within the OSCE, with its seat in Vienna. The Council, which deals with current OSCE policy issues, includes representatives from each participating State. One of the functions of the Permanent Council is to respond promptly in case of emergency situations. Also a permanent body is the OSCE Secretariat, headed by the Secretary General. The latter is elected for a term of three years by the Council of Ministers on the recommendation of the Governing Council.

To strengthen regional security within the OSCE, the Conflict Prevention Center operates, which is a mechanism for multilateral consultations of member states, and also coordinates cooperation between states in certain aspects of military activity. This structure operates in close contact with the Council of Ministers. The location of the Center is Vienna.

Mention should also be made of such a specific structure as the OSCE Forum for Security Co-operation, which has the function of preventing possible conflict situations involving OSCE member states and strengthening confidence-building measures in the region.

Currently, 53 states are members of the OSCE, including the Republic of Kazakhstan.

Control questions

1. List the constituent documents of the CIS.

2.What is the legal nature of the Commonwealth of Independent States?

3.Name the main bodies of the CIS and describe their competence.

4.What are the main problems in the functioning of the CIS at the present stage?

5.Describe the structure of the European Union.

6.What should be understood by EU law?

7.What views on the nature of the EU exist in the doctrine of international law?

8.Tell us about the status of international regional organizations of general competence (OAU, LAS, OAS, ASEAN, OSCE).

Literature

Egorov V., Zagorsky A. Cooperation of the CIS states in the military-political field. - M., 1998.

Zaitseva O. G. International intergovernmental organizations. - M., 1983.

Isingarin N. Problems of integration in the CIS. - Almaty, 1998.

Kalachan K. Economic integration of member states of the Commonwealth of Independent States: international legal aspects. - M., 2003.

Kapustin A. Ya. European Union: integration and law. - M., 2000.

Moiseev E. G. Decade of the Commonwealth: international legal aspects of the CIS activities. - M., 2001.

Nazarbayev N. A. Eurasian Union: ideas, practice, prospects. - M., 1997.

Tolstukhin A. E. On the supranational character of the European Union // Moscow Journal of International Law. 1997. No. 4.

Topornin B. N. European communities: law and institutions. - M., 1992.

Shibaeva E. A. Law of international organizations. - M., 1986.

European Law: Textbook for Universities / Ed. L. M. Entina. - M., 2000.

International law: Textbook for universities / Ed. ed. G. V. Ignatenko, O. I. Tiunov. - M., 2006.

International public law: textbook. / Ed. K. A. Bekyasheva. - M., 2004.

Fundamentals of European Union Law / Ed. S. Yu. Kashkina. - M., 1997.

Law of the European Union: Coll. documents / Comp. P. N. Biryukov. - Voronezh, 2001.

Law of the European Union: Textbook / Ed. S. Yu. Kashkina. - M., 2002.

Collection of documents on international law. Volume 1. / Under general. ed. K.K. Tokaeva. - Almaty, 1998.

Bekker P. The Legal Position of Intergovernmental organizations. - Dordrecht, 1994.

The practice of creating sustainable international associations has its roots in the era of ancient Greece and Rome. In Ancient Greece, similar associations appeared in the 6th century. BC. in the form of unions of cities and communities (symmachy and amphictyony). At the same time, Rome became the head of the Latin Union, which united 30 cities of Latium. Such alliances were created primarily for protection against a common enemy. International economic and customs associations began to emerge at a later stage. Formed in the 16th century. and the commercial and political union of North German cities led by the city of Lübeck, known as the Hanseatic Trade Union, which formally existed until 1669, is one of such associations.

The prototype of intergovernmental (interstate) organizations in their modern understanding were the so-called international administrative unions that appeared in the 19th century. and were institutions endowed with, although rather narrow, their own competence for work in areas of public life closely related to the development of the economy, science, and technology. In addition, in contrast to such forms of interstate communication as international conferences, commissions and committees, international administrative unions had permanent bodies in the form of so-called international bureaus.

These types of unions include the Central Commission for Navigation on the Rhine (1815), International Union for measuring the earth (1864), the Universal Telegraph Union (1865), the International Meteorological Organization (1873), the Universal Postal Union (1874), etc.

The League of Nations (1919) was the first political international organization created for the purpose of maintaining peace and international security. In 1945 it was replaced by the United Nations (UN). It is precisely with this that the recognition of MMPO as a subject of international law is associated. After the creation of the UN, a number of international administrative associations received the status of its specialized agencies, others function as international international organizations on special problems.

The emergence of intergovernmental (interstate) organizations was dictated by the practical needs of states to combine their efforts to solve problems that they were no longer able to effectively cope with alone.

Intergovernmental organizations must be distinguished from non-governmental organizations (INGOs). While international in nature, they have fundamentally different legal natures.

An interstate organization is characterized by such features as membership of states, the presence of a constituent international treaty, the presence of a headquarters and a system of permanent bodies, respect for the sovereignty of member states, as well as their international legal personality, etc.

An essential feature of INGOs is that they were not created on the basis of an interstate treaty and unite individuals and (or) legal entities (International Law Association, Doctors Without Borders). INGOs are also characterized by: lack of profit-making goals; recognition by at least one state or presence of consultative status with international intergovernmental organizations; operating in at least two countries; creation on the basis of a constituent act. INGOs cannot include subjects of international law.

According to Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC) resolution 1996/31 of July 25, 1996, an INGO is any non-governmental organization that is not established on the basis of an intergovernmental treaty and does not pursue the goal of making commercial profit.

Classification of intergovernmental (interstate) organizations

International organizations can be classified on various grounds.

Based on the range of participants, intergovernmental (interstate) organizations are divided into universal, open to the participation of all states of the world (UN, its specialized agencies), and regional, whose members can be states of the same geographic region (African Union, Organization of American States, etc.).

In other cases, the possibility of membership is determined by other criteria. Thus, only those countries for which oil exports are the main source of income can be members of the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries.

There are international organizations of general and special competence. The activities of the former cover all areas of international relations: political, economic, social, cultural, etc. (UN, OAS). The latter are limited to cooperation in one special area (UPU, ILO, etc.) and can be divided into political, economic, scientific, religious, etc.

Classification by the nature of powers allows us to distinguish between interstate and so-called supranational (supranational) organizations.

The first group includes the vast majority of international organizations whose purpose is to organize interstate cooperation and whose decisions are addressed to member states.

There is no consensus on the issue of supranationality of intergovernmental (interstate) organizations.

Some believe that, contrary to the frequent statements of the MMPO, which by the beginning of the 21st century. There were about 300, and the central place among which is occupied by the UN, are not some kind of global, supranational formations that “absorb” the sovereign rights of states and dictate to them the rules and norms of behavior on the world stage. Their functioning is not associated with any infringement of the sovereignty of states or their delegation of their sovereign rights, because this would contradict the very nature of intergovernmental (interstate) organizations, which are unique centers for harmonizing the interests of states and coordinating their efforts to solve various international problems. The participation of states in the work of intergovernmental (interstate) organizations gives them additional opportunities to exercise their own sovereignty, coordinate actions in the international arena with other states to achieve the goals set in the constituent documents of intergovernmental (interstate) organizations.

Supporters of the concept of supranationality of international organizations believe that they become such, in particular, due to the transfer of certain sovereign powers to them by states, the ability to make decisions addressed not only to member states, but also to their national individuals and legal entities (EU), the presence of such organizations mechanism for enforcing its decisions.

Depending on the procedure for joining them, international organizations are divided into open (any state can become a member at its own request) and closed (membership is accepted at the invitation of the original founders). An example of a closed organization is NATO.

Creation of intergovernmental (interstate) organizations

International organizations as secondary, derivative subjects of international law are created by states. The process of creating a new international organization goes through a number of stages: adoption of a constituent document; creation of its organizational and legal basis; convening of the main bodies, indicating the beginning of the functioning of the organization.

The most common way to legally formalize the will of states regarding the creation of intergovernmental (interstate) organizations is the development and conclusion of an international treaty, which becomes the constituent act of the organization. In this regard, we can talk about the contractual-legal nature of intergovernmental (interstate) organizations. The names of such an act can be different: statute (League of Nations), charter (UN, Organization of American States), convention (Universal Postal Union), etc. The date of entry into force of the founding act is considered the date of creation of the organization.

There is a different, simplified procedure for establishing international organizations in the form of a decision being made by another international organization. The UN has repeatedly resorted to this practice, creating autonomous organizations (UNCTAD, UNDP) with the status of a subsidiary body General Assembly. In this case, the concerted will of states regarding the creation of an international organization is manifested by voting for a constituent resolution, which comes into force from the moment of its adoption.

At the second stage, the internal infrastructure of the organization is formed. For this purpose, a special preparatory body established on the basis of a separate international treaty or annex to the charter of the organization being created can be used, designed to draw up draft rules of procedure for future organs of the organization, study issues related to the creation of headquarters, draw up a preliminary agenda for the main bodies, etc. This is how UNESCO, WHO, IAEA, etc. were created.

The convening of the main bodies and the commencement of their work usually means the completion of measures to create an international organization.

Participants of intergovernmental (interstate) organizations

Among the participants in intergovernmental (interstate) organizations are:

• original members (founders) - states that participated in the development and adoption of the constituent act of the organization;
• affiliated members - states that joined the organization after the start of its activities by acceding to its constituent act;
• partial members - states that are not members of the intergovernmental (interstate) organization itself as a whole, but are members of its individual bodies;
• associate members (employee members, partial members). As a rule, such members do not participate in voting, do not elect and cannot be elected to the bodies of intergovernmental (interstate) organizations;
• states and other international organizations that may take part in the work of any IGO as an observer.

Termination of intergovernmental (interstate) organizations and membership in it

The termination of the existence of intergovernmental (interstate) organizations is most often carried out by signing a protocol on dissolution. Thus, on July 1, 1991, at a meeting of the Political Consultative Committee in Prague, the states participating in the Warsaw Pact - Bulgaria, Hungary, Poland, Romania, the USSR and Czechoslovakia - signed the Protocol on the termination of the Treaty of Friendship, Cooperation and Mutual Assistance of May 14, 1955. and the Protocol on the extension of its validity, signed on April 26, 1985. Similarly, the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance was liquidated in the same year.

If a new organization is created instead of a liquidated organization, then the problem of succession arises. The objects of succession are property, funds, and some functions. Such succession took place with the liquidation of the League of Nations and its replacement by the UN in 1946. The latter took over a number of functions of the League. The property of the League passed to the UN according to the agreement concluded between them.

The ways to terminate the membership of states in the MIPO are:

• voluntary withdrawal from the organization;
• automatic exit - the state is forced to terminate its membership in the organization; for example, if a state ceases to be a member of the IMF, then it automatically leaves the membership of the IBRD and other organizations of the World Bank group;
• exclusion from the organization is a type of international sanctions. As a rule, it is a consequence of systematic violation by the state of the charter of intergovernmental (interstate) organizations;
• termination of the existence of the state;
• the liquidation of the MIPO itself automatically terminates the membership of participating states.

Features of the legal personality of intergovernmental (interstate) organizations

Interparliamentary bodies are characteristic mainly of regional organizations. Their members are either directly elected by the population of member states through direct general elections (European Parliament) or appointed by national parliaments (Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe). In most cases, parliamentary bodies limit themselves to accepting recommendations.

An important structural link in almost all intergovernmental (interstate) organizations are administrative bodies. They consist of international officials in the service of an international organization and responsible only to it. Such persons are recruited in accordance with quotas established for Member States on a contract basis.

A significant role in the activities of intergovernmental (interstate) organizations is played by bodies consisting of individuals in a personal capacity (for example, arbitration and judicial bodies, expert committees).

Based on the number of members, two types of bodies can be distinguished: plenary, consisting of all member states, and bodies of limited membership. The plenary body, as a rule, determines the general policies and principles of the organization, making decisions on the most fundamental issues. Its scope of competence includes budgetary and financial issues, adoption of draft conventions and recommendations, revision of the charter and adoption of amendments to it, issues related to membership in the organization - admission, expulsion, suspension of rights and privileges, etc.

At the same time, in the activities of a number of international organizations, especially specialized UN agencies, there is a tendency towards an increased role in the management of their activities by bodies of limited membership (for example, in the ILO, IMO, ICAO).

For bodies with limited membership, issues of their composition are important. These bodies must be staffed in such a way that the decisions they make reflect to the greatest extent the interests of all states, and not just one or two groups. In the practice of international organizations, the following principles are most often used to form bodies of limited composition: fair geographical representation; specific interests; equal representation of groups of states with divergent interests; the largest financial contribution, etc.

When forming organs, one of the principles is most often applied. In some cases, organs are formed taking into account two or more criteria. For example, the election of non-permanent members of the Security Council is carried out taking into account, first of all, the degree of participation of UN members in the maintenance of international peace and security and in achieving other goals of the Organization, as well as equitable geographical representation.

To characterize the bodies of intergovernmental (interstate) organizations, it is possible to use other criteria, for example, the hierarchy of bodies (main and auxiliary), the frequency of meetings (permanent and sessional), etc.

The procedure for making decisions by international organizations and their legal force

Decisions of intergovernmental (interstate) organizations are made by its bodies. The decision of an international organization can be defined as the expression of the will of the member states in the competent authority in accordance with the rules of procedure and the provisions of the statute of the organization. The decision-making process begins with the manifestation of initiative coming from a state, from a group of states, from bodies or officials of an international organization. As a rule, the initiator proposes studying a specific problem. But in a number of cases, he can also introduce a draft future decision for discussion.

In most international organizations, decisions, before they are submitted for discussion to the plenary body, are submitted to subsidiary bodies for consideration, where, in essence, a draft decision is developed and its supporters and opponents are identified.

The decisive stage of decision-making is voting. In the vast majority of bodies of international organizations, each delegation has one vote.

Decisions in intergovernmental (interstate) organizations can be made:

a) on the basis of unanimity, which may be:

• complete - an unambiguous vote of all members of the organization. The absence of any member of the organization or his abstention from voting excludes the possibility of making a decision;
• relative - unanimity of the member states present and voting. Abstention from voting or the absence of any member of the organization does not prevent the adoption of a decision;

• simple majority - 50% of the votes present and voting plus one vote;
• qualified - 2/3, 3/4 votes of all those present and voting;

c) based on weighted voting - the number of votes for each state is determined by various criteria depending on the nature and goals of the organization. In the Council of the European Union, the number of votes is determined in proportion to the size of the territory and population. In the IBRD, IMF, IDA, the number of votes of each participating state is determined in proportion to its financial contribution;

d) based on consensus, i.e. the decision is made in conditions of general agreement without voting and in the absence of objections. The degree of agreement between states' positions is determined by the absence of direct objections to this decision. Acclamation (a type of consensus) is used when making decisions on procedural issues: the decision is made without voting in the absence of objections;

e) on the basis of decision-making in a package - several issues on which voting in each case could be carried out separately are combined into one package and voting is carried out on it. This ensures the decision is made.

The rules of procedure of each body establish the quorum necessary for making decisions and most often constitute a simple majority of the members of the body.

The above indicates the existence of an independent branch of international law - the law of international organizations, which is a set of norms and principles regulating the process of creation and functioning of international international organizations.

The doctrine distinguishes the concept of internal law of the International Public Association, which covers a set of rules that define the structure, scope of competence and operating procedure of the International International Public Organizations bodies, regulating the recruitment procedure and the legal status of their personnel. These norms are contained in the constituent acts, in the decisions of the MMPO itself, aimed at regulating intra-organizational relations, in contracts concluded by organizations with their employees.

General characteristics of the structure and activities of the UN

States may, according to Art. 36 of the Statute, declare at any time that they recognize, without special agreement, ipso facto, in relation to any other State accepting the same obligation, the jurisdiction of the Court as compulsory in all legal disputes concerning the interpretation of the treaty; any question of international law; the existence of a fact which, if established, would constitute a breach of the international obligation, and the nature and extent of the compensation due for the breach of the international obligation. The above statements may be unconditional, or on conditions of reciprocity on the part of certain states, or for a certain time.

By the beginning of 2015, 70 out of 193 UN member states declared recognition of the compulsory jurisdiction of the Court in accordance with paragraph 2 of Art. 36 of the Statute, and many statements are accompanied by such reservations that make this consent essentially illusory.

During the existence of the Court, it issued about 90 decisions and 25 advisory opinions. The decisions of the Court are considered binding on the states parties to the dispute. If any party to a case fails to fulfill an obligation imposed on it by a decision of the Court, the Security Council, at the request of the other party, “may, if it considers it necessary, make recommendations or decide to take measures to give effect to the decision” (Article 2, paragraph 2). 94 of the UN Charter).

In addition to judicial jurisdiction, the International Court of Justice also exercises advisory jurisdiction. According to Art. 96 of the UN Charter, the General Assembly or the Security Council may request advisory opinions from the International Court of Justice on any legal matter. In addition, other UN organs and specialized agencies, which the General Assembly may at any time authorize to do so, may also request advisory opinions of the Court on legal questions arising within their sphere of activity. Currently, three main organs of the UN, one subsidiary organ of the General Assembly, 19 specialized agencies of the UN and the IAEA (a total of 24 bodies) can request advisory opinions from the Court.

On February 3, 1994, the Court delivered its ruling in the case "Territorial Dispute (Libya v. Chad)", according to which the border between Libya and Chad is determined by the Treaty of Friendship and Good Neighborliness concluded on August 10, 1955 by France and Libya. In its Resolution 915 of 4 May 1994, the Security Council decided to establish the United Nations Observer Group in the Aouzou Strip (UNOAG) to monitor the implementation of the agreement signed on 4 April 1994 between Libya and Chad, in which the parties pledged to comply with the decision of the International Court of Justice . The decision of the Security Council is the first example of the provision by the Security Council in accordance with Art. 94 of the UN Charter, assistance to the parties in implementing the decision of the Court.

In connection with the application in December 1994 of the UN General Assembly to the International Court of Justice for an advisory opinion on the question of the legality of the threat or use of nuclear weapons, the Court unanimously concluded on July 8, 1996 that neither in the ordinary course nor in the treaty There is no specific authorization under international law for the threat or use of nuclear weapons, there is no comprehensive and universal prohibition of such acts, and the threat or use of force using nuclear weapons, which contradicts the provisions of paragraph 4 of Art. 2 of the UN Charter and does not meet all the requirements provided for in Art. 51, illegal. The Court unanimously concluded that the threat or use of nuclear weapons must also comply with the requirements of international law applicable to armed conflicts, especially those enshrined in the principles and rules of international humanitarian law, as well as specific treaty obligations and other obligations that specifically relate to nuclear weapons. weapons. In the UN Millennium Declaration adopted at the September 2000 summit, leaders of all countries of the world declared their determination to strengthen the International Court in order to ensure justice and the rule of law in international affairs.

The UN Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC) consists of 54 members who are elected by the General Assembly for a term of three years in accordance with the procedure provided for in the Charter (Article 61), with 18 members being elected annually for a three-year term to replace those 18 members who have a three-year term whose activities have expired. Decisions in ECOSOC are made by a simple majority of votes of those present and voting.

ECOSOC coordinates the economic and social activities of the UN and its 19 specialized agencies, as well as other institutions of the UN system. It serves as a central forum for discussing international economic and social issues of a global and cross-sectoral nature and for making policy recommendations on these issues for States and the UN system as a whole.

ECOSOC is responsible for convening numerous international conferences, preparation for submission to the General Assembly of draft conventions on various issues of interstate cooperation, negotiations with specialized agencies regarding agreements defining their relationship with the UN. The Council has the power to coordinate the activities of the specialized agencies through consultation with them and make recommendations to the agencies, as well as the General Assembly and members of the UN.

ECOSOC holds an organizational session in New York at the beginning of the year and a substantive session in the summer of each year, alternately in Geneva and New York.

In relation to states, ECOSOC and General Assembly resolutions on economic, monetary and financial issues are advisory in nature. However, resolutions addressed to subsidiary bodies and specialized agencies in a number of cases have a different quality, of course, depending on the provisions of the agreements of these institutions with the UN. Thus, the general principles of economic and technical cooperation can be mandatory and as such can serve as an important starting point in the ongoing intensive process of rule-making activities of states in the socio-economic, scientific, technical, and humanitarian fields.

Throughout the year, the work of the Council is carried out in its subsidiary bodies, which meet regularly and report to the Council. The subsidiary bodies include five regional commissions located in Europe, Latin America, Africa, Asia and the Pacific and Western Asia. The ECOSOC subsidiary mechanism includes four standing committees and a number of permanent expert bodies.

In addition, ECOSOC works in close cooperation with such institutions as the UN Children's Fund, the Office of the UN High Commissioner for Refugees, the UN Development Program, the World Food Program, etc.

Guardianship Council. It currently consists of five members (Russia, USA, England, France and China). The Council meets once a year in New York. Of the original 11 Trust Territories, all gained independence during the course of the Council's work. In accordance with Resolution 956, unanimously approved by the Security Council on November 10, 1994, the Trusteeship Agreement for the last Trust Territory was terminated. At the proposal of Malta, an item entitled “Review of the role of the Trusteeship Council” was included in the agenda of the 50th session of the General Assembly.

During the discussion of this issue, various proposals were made, including the abolition of the Trusteeship Council and its transformation into the Human Rights Council, giving it the functions of guardian and trustee of the common heritage of mankind and environmental protection.

The fate of the Trusteeship Council did not go unnoticed in the Report of the High-Level Group on Threats, Challenges and Changes dated December 1, 2004, the authors of which proposed, without any justification, to exclude from the UN Charter the chapter dedicated to the Trusteeship Council. XIII.

The proposals put forward regarding the abolition of the Trusteeship Council or the possible endowment of some new functions to it seem unacceptable for a number of reasons. This would be a departure from the system of methods and forms of adaptation of the UN Charter to the changing conditions of global development, established in UN practice and proven by more than half a century of experience, would lead to inciting disputes and disagreements between states and would sow doubts about the enduring value of the main provisions of the UN Charter. It should also be taken into account that the Guardianship Council has not yet exhausted the possibilities provided for in Art. 77 of the UN Charter, according to which territories voluntarily included in the trusteeship system by the states responsible for their administration may be transferred to the jurisdiction of the Council. This was confirmed in Resolution 2200/LXI of May 25, 1994 adopted by the Trusteeship Council, which, in particular, directly provides for the possibility of convening this body in the future. In accordance with this Resolution, the Trusteeship Council may be convened by its own decision, or by decision of the Chairman, or at the request of a majority of members, or at the request of the General Assembly or the Security Council. Therefore, at this stage, there are neither legal nor practical grounds for abolishing the Guardianship Council or vesting it with any new functions and powers, i.e. There is no need to write off this one of the main UN bodies.

UN Secretariat. One of the main bodies of the UN is the Secretariat. It consists of the Secretary-General and such personnel as may be required by the Organization. It serves other UN bodies and conducts practical work for the implementation of programs of activities and decisions approved by these bodies, provides conference services to all main and subsidiary bodies of the UN. The work of the Secretariat includes carrying out peacekeeping operations under the authorization of the Security Council, organizing and conducting international conferences on issues of global importance (for example, the Law of the Sea Conference), compiling reviews of world economic and social trends and problems, preparing studies on issues such as disarmament, development, human rights. The functions of the Secretariat also include interpretation and translation of speeches and documents and distribution of documentation.

All personnel of the UN Secretariat are divided into four categories: specialists, field service staff, general service staff, and economic and technical service staff. The bulk of professional posts are subject to distribution among Member States on the basis of the principle of equitable geographical representation, taking into account the size of the contribution to the UN budget and the size of the population.

There are two types of recruitment in the UN Secretariat: on the basis of permanent (until retirement age) contracts and fixed-term (temporary) contracts. Currently, about 60% of Secretariat staff have permanent contracts.

General Secretary. The Secretariat is headed and the chief administrative officer is the Secretary-General, appointed by the General Assembly on the recommendation of the Security Council for a five-year term, after which he can be reappointed. The Secretary-General presents an annual report on the work of the Organization to the General Assembly and also brings to the attention of the Security Council issues that, in his opinion, may threaten the maintenance of peace.

Since January 2007, Ban Ki-moon (Republic of Korea) took up the duties of Secretary General.

UN specialized agencies

UN specialized agencies, bodies, programs and funds are an important part of the entire UN system. Their creation, operating procedure and legal status are directly provided for by the UN Charter (Chapters IX and X). According to Art. 57 of the Charter, specialized agencies are created on the basis of intergovernmental agreements and are vested with international responsibilities broadly defined in their constituent instruments in order to contribute to improving living standards; full employment of the population; creating favorable conditions for economic and social progress and development; resolving international problems in the areas of economic, social, health care; international cooperation in the field of culture and education; universal respect and observance of human rights and fundamental freedoms for all, without distinction of race, sex, language or religion.

Thus, specialized institutions have a limited scope of activity, mainly related to responsibilities in economic, social, cultural, educational, health and similar fields. From Art. 57 of the UN Charter directly implies that, for example, military organizations cannot become specialized agencies. This is why, in particular, such an important organization with recognized authority on international nuclear energy issues as the IAEA does not have the status of a specialized agency, although in many international documents it is mentioned together with specialized agencies. Within the meaning of Art. 57 cannot be specialized institutions and numerous regional organizations.

The important purpose of specialized intergovernmental organizations, programs and funds is that they should continue into the 21st century. play the role of a kind of mediator in order to resolve disagreements between states that differ in their power, culture, size and interests, and serve as forums for expressing the opinions and approaches of states and defending the interests of all humanity.

The UN specialized organizations are:

International Labor Organization (ILO) - develops policies and programs aimed at improving working conditions and increasing employment levels, and sets international labor standards used by countries around the world;

Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) - focuses on improving productivity Agriculture and strengthening food security, as well as improving the living conditions of the rural population;

United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) - promotes the implementation of the goals of universal education, cultural development, conservation of the world natural and cultural heritage, international scientific cooperation, freedom of the press and communication;

World Health Organization (WHO) - coordinates programs aimed at solving health problems and achieving the highest possible level of health for all people. Works in areas such as immunization, health education and the provision of essential medicines;

The World Bank Group (International Bank for Reconstruction and Development - IBRD, International Development Association - IDA, International Finance Corporation - IFC, Multilateral Investment Guarantee Agency - MIGA, International Center for Settlement of Investment Disputes - ICSID) - provides loans and technical assistance to developing countries in to reduce poverty and promote sustainable economic growth;

International currency board(IMF) - promotes international cooperation in the monetary sphere and ensures financial stability and serves as a permanent forum for consultation, advice and assistance on financial issues;

International organization civil aviation(ICAO) - establishes international standards necessary to ensure the safety, reliability and efficiency of air services, and acts as the coordinator of international cooperation in all areas related to civil aviation;

Universal Postal Union (UPU) - establishes international standards for postal services, provides technical assistance and promotes cooperation in the field of postal services;

International Telecommunication Union (ITU) - promotes international cooperation to improve all types of telecommunications, coordinates the use of radio and television frequencies, promotes security measures and conducts research;

World Meteorological Organization (WMO) - encourages scientific research related to the study of the Earth's atmosphere and climate change, and promotes the worldwide exchange of meteorological data;

International Maritime Organization (IMO) - created on March 17, 1958. Since 1959, it has become a specialized agency of the UN. IMO members are 166 states, including Russia. The structure of the IMO is: Assembly, Council, Maritime Safety Committee, Legal Committee and Marine Environment Protection Committee. Location - London (England);

World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) - promotes international intellectual property protection and promotes cooperation in matters relating to copyrights, trademarks, industrial designs and patents;

United Nations industrial development(UNIDO) - promotes the industrial development of developing countries by providing technical assistance and advisory services and training;

World Tourism Organization (WTO) - serves as a global forum for policy issues related to tourism and a source of practical experience in the field of tourism.

Regional organizations and subregional structures and their interaction with the UN

Regional and subregional organizations and structures are an important part of the global system of collective security provided for by the UN Charter. The basis for increasingly broader interaction between the UN and regional organizations is Ch. VIII of the UN Charter, which, although it does not clearly define regional agreements and organizations, at the same time allows them to adapt their activities to the constantly changing situation in the world and contribute, together with the UN, to the maintenance of international peace and security.

The experience of more than half a century of UN cooperation with regional organizations shows that regional organizations have played and continue to play an increasingly active role in ensuring regional security, not only in the areas of preventive diplomacy, peacekeeping and confidence-building, but also in relation to coercion to the world.

The Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE) began its activities in 1972 as a multilateral forum for dialogue and negotiation. In 1975, the sphere of competence of the Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe (CSCE) was fixed in the Final Act, approved at the first summit in Helsinki.

At the CSCE summit in Budapest in December 1994, it was decided to rename the CSCE into the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE) from January 1, 1995. At present, although the OSCE Charter has not been developed, a fairly extensive structure of the OSCE has emerged, which consists of: a meeting of the heads of state and government of the OSCE; Council of Ministers, convened once a year; Governing Council; Standing Council; Forum for Security Cooperation (consists of representatives of delegations of participating states and meets weekly in Vienna); The OSCE Chairman-in-Office, who is responsible for the implementation of OSCE decisions (this post is held by the Minister of Foreign Affairs of a participating State for one year; the Chairman is assisted in the exercise of his functions by the previous and future Chairmanships, who together form the “troika”); OSCE Secretariat (the first OSCE Secretary General was appointed in June 1993); Office for Democratic Institutions and Human Rights, headquartered in Warsaw; High Commissioner on National Minorities, based in The Hague; Office for Freedom of the Media and OSCE Parliamentary Assembly. Currently, 55 states are participating in the OSCE, including Russia. Location - Vienna (Austria).

The Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) was created in December 1991 and includes 12 countries, including Russia. In accordance with the CIS Charter adopted on January 22, 1993, the main goal of the Commonwealth is, among other things, cooperation in political, economic, environmental, humanitarian, cultural and other fields. The main bodies of the CIS are: the Council of Heads of State; Council of Heads of Government; Council of Foreign Ministers; Economic Council; Economic Court; Council of Defense Ministers; Headquarters for the coordination of military cooperation of the CIS member states; Council of Commanders of the Border Troops; The CIS Executive Committee, which is a permanent executive, administrative and coordinating body headed by the Chairman - the CIS Executive Secretary, and the Inter-Parliamentary Assembly. The CIS is a regional organization within the meaning of Chapter. VIII of the UN Charter and, like other regional organizations, has observer status in the UN General Assembly. Location - Minsk (Belarus).

On January 1, 2015, the Eurasian Economic Union (EAEU), which included Russia, Belarus and Kazakhstan, began to operate. Already on January 2, 2015, Armenia joined the EAEU. It is expected that Kyrgyzstan will join the union in May 2015.

The Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) was founded on August 8, 1967 in Bangkok. The main bodies of ASEAN are the meetings of heads of state and government, the meetings of ministers of foreign affairs (FMAs), the Standing Committee and the Secretariat. Location - Jakarta (Indonesia).

The ASEAN Regional Forum (ARF) is an intergovernmental structure in the Asia-Pacific region, within which a range of issues related to strengthening security and stability in this area of ​​the world are regularly discussed. The ARF was founded in 1994. The ARF holds its annual sessions at the level of the foreign ministers of the participating countries. Ministerial sessions are supreme body Forums during which ministers discuss the entire range of problems affecting the security of the participating countries and the region as a whole. From the first days of the ARF's existence, Russia has been actively participating in events held within the Forum.

The European Union (EU) is the largest political and economic integration association 25 European countries.

The main directions of EU activity at the current stage: movement from a common market to an economic and monetary union; implementation of expansion strategy; formation of the foundations of a common foreign and defense policy and the acquisition of a European defense identity; intensification of regional policy in the Mediterranean, Northern Europe, Asia, Latin America, Africa; further harmonization of the social sphere, interaction in the field of justice and internal affairs. The system of common bodies and institutions of the EU includes: the European Council, the European Parliament (EP), the Council of the European Union, the Commission of the European Communities (CEC) and the European Court of Justice. No final decision has been made regarding the headquarters of the EU, and meetings of its main bodies are held in Brussels, Luxembourg and Strasbourg.

The North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) was created on the basis of the Washington Treaty of April 4, 1949 as a defensive political and military alliance. At the moment, the North Atlantic Alliance Organization includes 26 states of Western, Central and Eastern Europe, as well as the USA and Canada.

The NATO structure is an extensive network of political and military bodies, which include: the highest political body - the NATO Council, the Political Committee for Military Planning, the International Secretariat headed by the NATO Secretary General. Headquarters - Brussels (Belgium).

The African Union (until July 2000 had the name "Organization of African Unity (OAU)") is a regional organization uniting 53 African states, which was created by the decision of the Constituent Conference of Heads of State and Government of African Countries, held on May 22 - 25, 1963. in Addis Ababa (Ethiopia). By the end of the 20th century, the problem of reorganizing and increasing the effectiveness of the OAU and its adaptation to new realities in the international situation, including the fundamental changes that had occurred on the African continent, had clearly become urgent. Under these conditions, Libya officially put forward the idea of ​​​​transforming the OAU into the African Union, which was approved at the 4th Extraordinary Assembly of Heads of State and Government of the OAU member countries in Sirte in September 1999. In July 2000, at the OAU summit in Lomé ( Togo) an Act was adopted on the establishment of the AC and the creation within its framework of an extensive system of bodies. On July 8-10, 2002, the 39th session of the Assembly of Heads of State and Government of the OAU member countries was held in Durban (South Africa), which formally became the founding summit of the AU. The headquarters of the AU is located in Addis Ababa (Ethiopia).

The Organization of American States (OAS) was created on the basis of the OAS Charter, signed in Bogota in 1948. The OAS members are 35 states (Cuba's participation was suspended in 1962). The main bodies of the OAS are the General Assembly, the Permanent Council and the General Secretariat. Since 1971, the institution of permanent observers has been operating at the OAS. Currently, the European Union and 42 states, including Russia, have this status. Location - Washington (USA).

The League of Arab States (LAS) is a voluntary association of sovereign Arab states created on the basis of the League Pact Arab countries, signed on March 22, 1945. The activities of the League are based on its Charter, which came into force on May 11, 1945. The League has its representative offices or information bureaus in a number of countries, including since January 1990 in Russia. Location - Cairo (Egypt).

International non-governmental organizations and forms of their cooperation with the UN

Throughout the existence of the UN and the creation of other IGOs, the number of non-governmental organizations (INGOs) has grown rapidly. Today in the world there are about 40 thousand INGOs dealing with economic, cultural, humanitarian and other issues.

For a long time there was no clarity on what was considered a non-governmental organization. A more or less satisfactory and very general definition was developed only on July 25, 1996, when the following definition was included in ECOSOC Resolution 1996/31 “Consultative relations between the UN and non-governmental organizations”: “Any such organization that is not established by any or by a government agency or by intergovernmental agreement, shall be considered a non-governmental organization for the purposes of these activities, including organizations that accept government-appointed members, provided that such membership does not interfere with the free expression of the organization's views." From this definition it follows that tens of thousands of non-governmental organizations around the world, from local to global levels, engaged in issues such as sustainable development, environmental protection, human rights and democratization of public life. On the other hand, it follows from this definition that various types of secret societies, closed clubs, terrorist organizations, drug syndicates with transnational connections, associations of persons involved in money laundering, illegal arms trade, trafficking in women and children and kidnapping cannot be considered as NGOs for the purpose of ransom, and other elements and organizations of the so-called anti-civil society. It is not legitimate, from the point of view of the UN Charter, to identify INGOs with such powerful international economic complexes like transnational corporations.

Many international international organizations actively cooperate with international non-governmental organizations in order to improve the efficiency of their work. The UN and its specialized agencies have very developed ties with INGOs. According to Art. 71 of the UN Charter, ECOSOC is authorized to “take appropriate measures for consultation with non-governmental organizations interested in matters within its competence. Such measures may be agreed upon with international organizations, if necessary with national organizations after consultation with the interested member of the Organization." This article created a legal basis for the development of mechanisms for cooperation between the UN and INGOs.

UN practice has developed criteria for determining those INGOs that can be granted consultative status in ECOSOC. First of all, the area of ​​activity of INGOs must coincide with the areas of competence of ECOSOC, defined in Art. 62 of the UN Charter. Another necessary condition for obtaining consultative status is that the activities of INGOs comply with the goals and principles of the UN, as well as providing assistance to the UN in its work and disseminating information about the activities of the UN. In addition, the INGO itself must have a representative character and a strong international reputation, representing a certain part of the population.

Of significant importance is the provision of ECOSOC Resolution 1996/31 of 25 July 1996, according to which the granting, suspension and withdrawal of consultative status, as well as the interpretation of rules and decisions on this issue, are the prerogative of member states, exercised through ECOSOC and its INGO Committee.

ECOSOC Resolution 1996/31 provides for three categories of consultative status for INGOs.

1. General consultative status for organizations associated with most of the activities of ECOSOC and its subsidiary bodies, which can demonstrate to ECOSOC's satisfaction that they can make a significant and sustained contribution to the achievement of the goals of the UN, and which are closely related to the economic and social life of the inhabitants of the represented countries their districts and whose membership broadly represents major sectors of society in various regions of the world.

2. Special consultative status for organizations having special competence in only a few areas of activity of ECOSOC and its subsidiary bodies or specially dealing with these areas and known internationally in those areas in which they have or are seeking consultative status.

3. Other organizations which do not have general or special consultative status, but which, in the opinion of ECOSOC or the Secretary-General of the United Nations, in consultation with ECOSOC or its NGO Committee, may from time to time make useful contributions to the work of ECOSOC and its subsidiary bodies or other UN bodies within their competence are included in a list called the “register”.

By the end of the 20th century. Over 2 thousand INGOs have received consultative status with ECOSOC, including a number of Russian NGOs (International Association of Peace Funds, Women's Union of Russia, Federation of Independent Trade Unions of Russia, International Academy of Informatization, All-Russian Society of Disabled Persons, Association for Assistance to Families with Disabled Children, Russian UN Association, etc.).

The activities of numerous INGOs especially intensified after the end of the Cold War. Many INGOs began to advocate for a revision of their role in the UN system, for the creation of an “Assembly of Peoples” in the UN as a parallel partner of the current UN General Assembly, for limiting the principle of state sovereignty, for the inclusion of INGOs in all areas of UN activity, for the right of INGOs to participate on an equal basis with states in the work of UN bodies and meetings and conferences held under its auspices. However, such plans are at odds with the criteria and procedures for the activities of INGOs provided for in the UN Charter.

In general, one cannot fail to recognize the positive influence of INGOs on the overall development of international relations, the rule-making process taking place in the world, the formation of a system of collective security in the global and regional levels and to strengthen the role of the UN and other international interstate organizations in the 21st century.

The process of updating and adapting the UN and its Charter to new world realities and changes

In its approach to the UN Charter, Russia proceeds from the fact that this most important international document is currently the only act whose provisions are binding on all existing states of the world. This document fully and fully meets the needs of the development of international relations at the present stage, and its progressive democratic principles and goals remain relevant to this day.

In UN practice there have been various forms and means of adapting the UN Charter to the changing conditions of world development. One of these ways is the preparation, under the auspices of the UN, of international treaties and agreements that, as it were, “catch up” with the UN Charter and many of which are of key importance for the development of broad international cooperation (Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons of 1968, International Covenants on Human Rights of 1966 g., etc.). As UN Secretary-General Perez de Cuellar rightly noted, over the years of its existence the UN has done more in the field of codification of international law than in the entire previous period of human history.

Tested ways and means of adapting the UN Charter to new world realities include the development and adoption of declarations and resolutions of the General Assembly, which specify the general statutory principles and provisions and have great moral and political weight and practical significance. Although resolutions and declarations of this kind are not binding, they nevertheless sometimes have a decisive impact on the policies of states and on the positive solution of major international problems.

Another way to “match” the provisions of the UN Charter with the changing conditions of the development of international relations is the adoption by the Security Council of decisions and statements that develop the provisions of the UN Charter in relation to specific situations and problems of international life. Considering that in accordance with Art. 25 of the UN Charter, its members agree to obey and implement the decisions of the Security Council; its decisions acquire a certain normative significance. Such decisions include, for example, the adoption by the Security Council of Resolution 1373 of September 28, 2001, which is a kind of international set of norms and measures to combat terrorism that are mandatory for all states.

The process of adapting the UN Charter to the changing conditions of the development of international relations was, without a doubt, particularly influenced by the resolutions adopted by the Security Council on various aspects of UN peacekeeping activities, the establishment of sanctions regimes against states that violated the provisions of the UN Charter, etc.

Thus, we can say that, based on the decisions of the Security Council, the process of evolutionary debugging of the UN crisis mechanism is taking place, which is acquiring the features of a capable peacekeeping instrument for preventing and suppressing future cases of violation of international peace and security.

An important part evolutionary process development and bringing the UN Charter into line with the emerging new needs for the normal functioning of the Organization is the achievement of generally acceptable agreements regarding the agreed “understanding” and “interpretation” of certain provisions of the UN Charter.

It is appropriate to recall that this unique international document contains a number of provisions that, according to various reasons were not used or were not fully implemented. Suffice it to recall Art. Art. 43 - 47 of the UN Charter, which provide for the provision of armed forces at the disposal of the Security Council at its request and in accordance with special agreements and the effective functioning of the Military Staff Committee (MSC) - a permanent subsidiary body of the Council, designed to assist it and give advice on all issues relating to the military needs of the Security Council in the maintenance of international peace and security. These most important obligations of states under the UN Charter to create UN armed forces in order to protect peace, prevent war and suppress aggression were virtually forgotten during the Cold War.

Meanwhile, the end of the Cold War, the unprecedented growth in the number of UN peacekeeping operations, their increasingly multi-component and multifunctional nature, the emerging tilt of UN operations towards “peace enforcement”, the emergence of a large number of new generation conflicts, including those related to inter-ethnic, inter-religious and other contradictions both between and within states, inevitably lead many states to the conclusion that the most rational course of action in the current situation is to use the potential of the UN Charter and the mechanisms provided for by it, primarily the Security Council and its permanent subsidiary body - VShK. At the same time, the MSC could, on an ongoing basis, engage in a comprehensive operational analysis of the military-political situation in conflict zones and prepare recommendations to the Security Council, including those related to the adoption of preventive measures, assessing the effectiveness of sanctions, forecasting possible options for events, and the creation of multilateral naval forces under the auspices of The UN is not only used to localize conflicts, establish a naval blockade and enforce sanctions, but also to combat piracy, international terrorism, and hostage-taking.

Thus, the problem of adaptation cannot be reduced to a revision of the UN Charter and cannot be solved by changes in the text of the Charter alone. This is not a one-time act, but a multidimensional and unlimited time process, which includes various forms and methods of creative development and transformation of the institutions and mechanisms of the Organization in relation to new realities.

These include, in particular, the method of natural obsolescence of individual provisions, loss of their original meaning and meaning. This method makes it possible to avoid the use of the lengthy and cumbersome procedure for introducing appropriate amendments to the UN Charter provided for by the UN Charter. For example, clause 3 of Art. has not been applied for a long time and cannot be applied in the future. 109 of the Charter, which provides for the possibility of adopting before the 10th annual session of the General Assembly or at the 10th session itself a decision on convening a General Conference to revise the UN Charter.

An analysis of the main forms and methods of adapting the UN Charter to the changing conditions of the evolution of international life clearly shows that the revision of the UN Charter is not the only way for the United Nations to gain new strength and capabilities so that it can keep up with the times and successfully cope with the challenges imposed on it. more and more responsible and complex tasks. Furthermore, any attempt to radically break the UN Charter is fraught in the current conditions with the emergence of an effect snow avalanche, which, growing, can destroy the entire Organization. It should also be borne in mind that attempts to revise the Charter in its main provisions may lead to inciting disputes and disagreements between states, distract the Organization’s attention from solving pressing problems of our time, and undermine people’s faith in the enduring value and universal applicability of the fundamental goals and principles of the UN Charter.

In the current conditions of rapid change, it would be imprudent to revise the structure and functions of the UN and its bodies. The issue of amending the UN Charter should be approached from a very cautious and balanced position, taking into account all possible negative consequences of such a step. The dynamics of international relations dictate the task of achieving a carefully calibrated and consensus-based adaptation of the Charter, expanding and clarifying the scope of its purposes and principles. To do this, it is necessary to find the right balance between reformist sentiments and the preservation of proven designs, to which there is currently no alternative. Now it is important to fully realize the potential that the UN has, to improve the structure of the Organization on the basis of the UN Charter, and to fill the forms and methods of its activities with new content.

The basic law of evolution states that nothing is more fickle than success. Paradoxically, the most prosperous firms today become the most vulnerable tomorrow. A company whose core competencies, assets, distribution channels and mentality are perfectly aligned with meeting existing needs and fending off competitors risks losing ground as consumer needs change.

Strategy determines the direction in which the company moves to achieve its goals. At the center of the strategy are decisions in the field of marketing and innovation. The most important strategic decision is the choice of markets, the development of which will be focused on. The second most important decision is the decision about positioning, about what competitive advantages will provide the company with a leading position in the market. Strategic decisions determine the core competencies required by the company, the set of its product lines, and the production and distribution infrastructure.

Typically, the mission statement of multi-industry companies is formulated in fairly general terms, which are often perceived as parental instructions, devoid of specific content and development incentives. Many business unit managers develop their own mission statements that describe in more detail the unit's goals, prospects, core competencies of employees, and competitive advantages. Similar to the company's mission statement, they are aimed at instilling in employees a sense of pride in their work, involvement in common goals, as well as determining the direction of SBU development and developing internal priorities.

Once the company's management has determined the strategic direction of development and the required core competencies, the company begins work on acquiring new skills.

Increased competition has forced companies to concentrate their efforts on their core activities. During the economic boom of the 1960-1970s. many companies were engaged in a wide variety of completely unrelated activities. Oil companies became interested in retail trade, tobacco companies became interested in insurance, grocery companies acquired enterprises that produced electronics. However, as competition and economic conditions intensified, conglomerates found themselves lacking core competencies. Business leaders have realized that maintaining competitive advantage is determined by concentrating efforts on core competencies in a limited area of ​​market and technology.

First, firms maximize the return on internal resources by focusing their investments and efforts on what the enterprise does best. Second, a well-developed core competency creates difficult barriers to entry for existing and potential competitors to enter the company's domain, thereby maintaining and protecting the strategic advantages of market share. Third, perhaps the greatest impact is achieved by the company getting maximum benefit from the investments, innovations and specific professional capabilities of suppliers, which would be prohibitively expensive or even impossible to duplicate on its own. Fourthly, in conditions of rapidly changing markets and technological features, cooperation strategies reduce risks, reduce the duration of technological cycles, and reduce the level of necessary investments and create conditions for more effective response to customer needs.

The manager's current understanding of reality may turn out to be erroneous not only as a result of changes that have occurred in the world around him, but also because the company has moved into a new area of ​​​​activity, where the game is played by different rules. When a company achieves significant success in a sector that does not offer opportunities for further growth, it often tries to apply its core competencies to other markets that at first glance appear very similar. At the same time, she does not notice the hidden differences in the new market, which require a different approach from her than before.

The search and mobilization of factors for increasing income is, in a certain sense, within the competence of the company’s top management, as well as its marketing service. The role of the financial service comes down mainly to justifying a reasonable pricing policy, assessing the feasibility and economic efficiency of new products, monitoring compliance with internal benchmarks for profitability indicators in relation to existing and new production facilities.

This model takes into account three parameters for selecting a business - market attractiveness, competitiveness of the business, and the degree of connection with the core competencies of the corporation. In Fig. Figure 5.1 shows an example of the business portfolio of one of the small Russian machine-building plants. The main production - machines - is in an area of ​​low attractiveness, although it is part of the company's core competencies and the company's strength is great. Another type of production and, accordingly, a different business is the production of automobiles.

A classic example of integrated analyzer companies can be the branches of the world's leading auditing and consulting companies (PriceWaterhouseCooper, Deloitte&Touche and others) operating in the Russian market. The main competence of such companies is the availability of proven operating algorithms and a high level of trust on the part of Western investors. This is what allows companies to set prices for their services that, on average, significantly exceed the prices of Russian auditing and consulting firms.

By viewing the firm as a set of core competencies and focusing on products and markets that are peripheral or indirect to the firm's core organizational units, it is possible to move beyond the firm's existing market. For example, Motorola was considered the leader in the wireless communications market (core competency). Then, in addition to its existing products and markets (such as mobile phones and pagers), it explored other markets for opportunities to leverage its core competency of global positioning of satellite signal receivers. Similarly, the search for "white space" between major organizational units allowed Kodak to explore the area between traditional chemical products (photographic film) and electronic imaging devices (photocopiers) and identify a new market for photo storage and viewing. Accordingly, the company's concept is to develop a process that allows photographs to be viewed on television.

The third favorable condition for creating your share of a new market is the ability to realize the company’s existing strengths. For example, ASIO used its core competencies in microelectronics to move from producing calculators to producing watches. Marx and Spen's reputation as a reliable and trustworthy retailer allowed it to create investment trust funds with a low degree of risk and an average return on capital invested.

Among the most important Danish companies, the concept of technology ratings has attracted interest from managers, who have found such ratings to be an important tool that they lack. Although some financial institutions have rated technologically advanced firms using their own methodology, they have often focused on technology rather than other aspects. Traditionally, financial institutions in the Netherlands served the market only for a small number of technologically advanced firms, either through government incentives or as part of their core competence. And now, however, they have decided to change their approach to technologically advanced firms. Technology ratings have come to be seen by these financial institutions as adding value to the market, particularly for small and medium-sized enterprises.

White spots. These opportunities include creating new products or services and entering new markets by leveraging the company's core competencies in other ways. The Walkman audio player provided such an opportunity for Sony. The parent company transferred its business capabilities to business units engaged in the production of tape recorders and headphones.

One of the ways to prolong the period of obtaining excess profits from technological leadership is innovative competence. The more numerous and complex the technological parameters of a new product, the more difficult it is for competitors to determine the main characteristics with which to compete. And if you add to complex technologies the special internal culture of the company, which in itself generates innovation, it is almost impossible to imitate this product. In addition to this, innovators always strive to establish close relationships with suppliers and distributors, which enhances the company's competence and know-how. The main competitive strategies to maximize the profitability of innovations are discussed in detail in Chapter 3, Innovation Planning.

By using other firms as suppliers of a variety of resources, a company can achieve benefits in a variety of ways. Considering that resources for any firm are limited, there is a need to collaborate with other organizations. Modern business requires a focus on areas of core competence where competitive advantage can be developed (Prahalad and Hamel, 1990). The company needs to invest its resources in the area of ​​its core, core activities. Those areas of activity that are not key can be quite easily delegated (or transferred within the framework of alliances) to external organizations that are capable of producing the required product or service at the proper level. Even within core competencies, there may be opportunities for cooperation where it is much more difficult to manage alone, or where the firm's internal resources are simply insufficient. An important advantage that firms should not easily ignore is being first to market with a new or improved product or service. By concentrating on areas of core competence and collaborating with other organizations that specialize in other areas, a firm can simultaneously benefit from both economies of scale and economies of differentiation or product line variety. Alliances and partnerships can free up scarce resources for core functions, allowing them to be performed more efficiently by those organizations that focus more efforts on core competency areas. It is important to understand that other companies that have already explored this area may be able to perform some functions more effectively. Duplicating work already done by others and reinventing the wheel are unlikely to lead to significant company growth and increased profitability. And, although in most cases this conclusion may sound paradoxical, dependence on external organizations may well be the basis of a firm's independence (Lewis, 1995). Following or relying on an organization's internal, or organic, growth is just one possible alternative. There is a very diverse range of options, formed on the basis of general self-confidence, on the one hand, and on the basis of trust in resources, on the other hand. Firms must consider all options and choose the best one that can contribute to the development and maintenance of long-term competence in the areas of key activities for the company.

Competencies that are most likely to predict long-term career success for candidates that are difficult to develop through training or work experience. These include core competencies, such as achievement orientation or impact and influencing, which are better made as selection criteria rather than developed later. For example, a company hiring technical talent might want to hire 10% of new recruits for impact and influence competencies. By selecting some candidates who not only have good grades, but also have previously served as captain of a sports team or leader of a student organization, the company will receive a pool of technical employees with the competencies sufficient to become managers in the future.

In addition, as we analyzed the information we received, we also revised our initial assumptions about whether, in a particular case, there really was a serious corporate error that caused the company's failure. For example, many say that when developing the original concept of the PC in 1979, IBM made a blunder by outsourcing the operating systems to Microsoft and the microprocessors to Intel. While there is no doubt that the lion's share of value in this industry comes from operating systems and microchips, we think it's not entirely reasonable to assume that IBM should have figured this out almost twenty-five years ago. Few of us, no matter who we are, have a magic crystal that allows us to look into the future. In addition, IBM's strategy of outsourcing operating system and microprocessor work—both areas outside the company's hardware core competencies—reflects a desire to concentrate on the core business component of hardware.

The company's core competency - product innovation - laid the foundation for its resounding success. Rubbermaid's pioneering spirit and ability to bring innovations to market quickly gave them a monopoly in many product categories, allowing their products to gain a foothold before competitors could even copy their designs. By the end of the 1980s, Rubbermaid was producing 365 products a year, a record that reflected a well-established new product development process that allowed the company to narrow the gap between the time an idea was conceived and its actual implementation on the shelf. The core ingredients of this process—close customer contact, minimal market testing, and cross-functional teams—provided a killer combination of speed and innovation.

Is M&A a Core Competency Successful companies always have core competencies that help them execute their chosen competitive strategies. Accordingly, M&A companies must develop core competencies that will enable them to become effective acquirers. This problem cannot be solved if you treat each acquisition as an exceptional phenomenon. The experience gained by the people involved in a given transaction needs to be captured, shared, and complemented by knowledge gained from subsequent mergers and acquisitions, as is the case with ISO, GE, Eaton, and other established experts in the field.

This concludes our story about negative transference. It is quite possible that many of our readers will be able to draw a parallel between these stories and what is happening in their own companies, for the sake of which, in fact, this whole conversation was started. Getting to know negative transference helps us learn a serious lesson: experience and intellectual potential are not always beneficial, moreover, in some cases, experience becomes a source of great trouble. Negative transference can exist in a wide variety of forms, sometimes masked by the impeccable logic of core competencies. Therefore, we should always remember how carefully we need to approach the definition of these competencies. In the next section we will move from negative values ​​to zero, and consider

Despite the solidarity with the Libyan side, expressed by eight OPEC members and including practical proposals from the ADR, Iran, Kuwait and the UAE to provide immediate assistance to it by sending oil personnel, Saudi Arabia vetoed the draft resolution, saying that due to its political nature, this issue is not included within the competence of the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries. However, the most important real significance, in our opinion, is not Saudi demarches of this kind, but the preservation for Aramco shareholders of the advantages enjoyed by the privileged counterparties of this Arabian monarchy. It seems that the access of outsider firms in one form or another to the development of its oil resources, the largest in the capitalist world, is not facilitated in any significant way as a result of the nationalization of the main concession. Having a strong rear here and being largely protected from competition, leading American energy concerns can afford a more stringent raw materials policy in relation to other liberated states than the bulk of independent companies.

At the end of the 1990s. A survey of the world's leading companies was conducted on the identification and development of core competencies1. CEOs and other executives from companies such as Boeing, Citicorp, Lockheed Martin, Okidata, and others have attempted to articulate their core technology competencies, processes, and key relationships and envision ways to strengthen and develop core competencies. The most popular way to maintain process reliability was found to be the creation of a corporate culture aimed at maintaining operational standards and minimizing waste in every sense. The most popular method of strengthening external relations was the acquisition of other companies and the use of the relationship potential they had accumulated. As for technological competencies, here the opinions of the leaders of the world's leading corporations are most divided. A significant portion of managers pointed out the need to fully take into account all factors of the economic and technological environment when planning and developing technological know-how. However, almost the same proportion of managers emphasized the need to partially or completely ignore prevailing opinions about existing technological or operational limitations in the production and distribution of products.

Particular attention should be paid to the analysis of the third question. Here it can be pointed out that KUR tends to increasingly turn into a purely investment company, concentrating on investments in high technology areas. This is both the strength and weakness of the chosen development model. Concentration of all investments in one, albeit very promising sector ( high tech), makes the company vulnerable to all fluctuations in this sector. And, indeed, in March 2001, KUR Industries released its financial results Marketing Management (2001) - [