27.11.2019

Features of the doctrine of the salvation of the soul in Catholicism. Lutheran doctrine of salvation and justification by faith alone. §4. Organization of the Catholic Church

Christianity is one of the largest religions in the world, spread among many peoples who speak different languages has existed for almost two millennia. It is difficult to find a corner of the earth where Christian missionaries would never appear, and millions of people around the globe are adherents of Christianity.

The Christian religion is not a single religion, it, like other religions, is divided into a number of independent areas, the most significant of which are Orthodoxy, Catholicism, and Protestantism. . Preserving basically the orthodox provisions of Christian dogma, these trends differ from each other in their peculiar interpretation of some dogmas, specific features cult. Let's consider these directions in more detail.

Orthodoxy.

Currently, there are 15 autocephalous, that is, independent churches in the world: Constantinople, Alexandria, Antioch (Syria, Lebanon), Jerusalem, Russian, Georgian, Serbian, Bulgarian, Cypriot, Helladic (Greek), Albanian, Polish, Romanian, Czechoslovak, american. In addition, there are two autonomous Orthodox churches - Finnish (since 1957) and Japanese (since 1970)

For all Orthodox churches, the doctrine and cult are common, while they retain their canonical independence. The Patriarch of Constantinople, if he is considered “ecumenical”, then this is understood as “first among equals”, and he is not granted the right to interfere in the activities of other Orthodox churches. The limits of the autonomy of autonomous churches are determined by agreements with the autocephalous church that granted it autonomy. In administrative terms, autocephalous churches are subdivided into exarchates, dioceses, vicariates, deaneries, and parishes. Thus, the Russian Orthodox Church has 4 exarchates, 76 dioceses, 11 vicariates. In addition, a number of autocephalous churches have missions, deaneries, and courtyards attached to other Orthodox churches. The system of organization and management of Orthodox churches.

Orthodoxy, like Protestantism, does not have a single center of government like the Vatican. Autocephalous churches are headed by patriarchs (archbishops, metropolitans), elected by local councils for life. There are synods under the patriarchs. Exarchates are governed by exarchs, and dioceses by diocesan bishops, under whom individual cases diocesan councils are formed. Dioceses are made up of districts and parishes. The Orthodox Churches have not held ecumenical councils since the 8th century (the last council at which Orthodox churches participated was the Second Council of Nicaea, 783-787). Each of them, at local councils, approves canonical rules, revises or supplements the lists of saints, and determines the forms of attitude towards heresies and schisms. So, for example, at the local council of the Russian Orthodox Church in 1971, the anathema against the Old Believers was lifted. All Orthodox churches are characterized by a hierarchical principle of governance. All the clergy are divided into higher, middle and lower. In addition, the clergy is divided into black (monastic) and white (married).

Peculiarities Orthodox dogma.

The basis of Orthodox dogma is the Niceotsargrad Creed, approved at the first two Ecumenical Councils of 325 and 381. In 12 members (paragraphs) of which ideas about God as a creator, about his relationship to the world and man are formulated. These include ideas about the trinity of God, the Incarnation, redemption, resurrection from the dead, baptism, afterlife etc.

The Orthodox Church declares the main provisions of faith (dogmas) to be absolutely true, indisputable, eternal, communicated to man by God and incomprehensible to reason. Only those provisions of the dogma that were approved by the first seven ecumenical councils are considered true. The rest, adopted later, are declared erroneous, contradicting “Holy Scripture.” It is also considered a delusion that Protestant churches refuse most of the sacraments, from dividing believers into laity and clergy.

Modern Orthodoxy.

The modernization of religion is caused primarily by the changes that have taken place in the minds of the majority of believers, not only under the influence of scientific discoveries and new theories, but also new socio-political conditions of their life. And, being a reaction to the change in the consciousness of believers, religious modernism has the opposite effect on this consciousness, forming a new system of religious orientation.

A specific feature of the modern modernization of Orthodoxy is not only the revision of socio-political and socio-historical concepts, but also the fact that, without going beyond the boundaries of orthodox dogmatic principles, many clergy interpret them in a new way. More and more attention is being paid to the relationship between faith and knowledge, science and religion.

Catholicism.

Catholicism is the most widespread Christian denomination, with adherents in all areas the globe. According to the European press, in the early 1980s, the number of Catholics was about 800 million people - about 18% of the world's population. The Catholic Church is strictly centralized, has a single head - the Pope, a single center - the Vatican, a city-state in the center of Rome with an area of 44 hectares, which has its own coat of arms, flag and other attributes of statehood, up to a small guard. Combination of secular and religious power - the rarest case in modern history. The secular power of the pope in its present form was established by the Lateran Treaty of 1929 between the fascist government of Mussolini and Pope Pius XI, according to which the state of the Vatican was created, its international sovereignty was recognized, and the church received a number of privileges in the country.

The pope, through the Roman curia, which has a complex administrative structure, directs the entire church and its numerous organizations operating in the vast majority of countries of the world. The main Catholic hierarchs - cardinals and bishops - are appointed by the pope from representatives of the clergy of different countries. The College of Cardinals (conclave) elects a pope for life from its midst, who, being Catholic doctrine, “vicar of Jesus Christ, successor of St. Peter, supreme head of the universal church, western patriarch, primate of Italy, archbishop and metropolitan of the Roman province, sovereign of the Vatican city-state”, crowns the multi-level hierarchy of the authoritarian-monarchical organization of Catholicism. How sovereign state, the Vatican exchanges diplomatic representatives with other states, including Italy. The modern Catholic Church is a large religious and political organization that has a great influence not only on the worldview of its followers - believers, but also on the socio-philosophical and ethical theories that arise in society. To play an active role in the ideological and political life of modern states, Catholicism is helped by the features of its structure, historical traditions and experience, the presence of an extensive network mass organizations- a huge church apparatus with numerous monastic orders (the largest of them: Jesuits - 27 thousand, Franciscans and Salesians - 20 thousand, Christian brothers - 16 thousand, Capuchins - 12 thousand, Benedictines - 10 thousand, Dominicans - 8 thousand). In total, the Catholic Church has over 1.5 million monks and nuns, including about 400,000 priests. The activities of the Catholic Church are also characterized by the involvement of not only the clergy, but also lay Catholics in the implementation of tasks of a socio-political nature. Catholicism has large political parties, trade unions, youth and other organizations.

Features of the Catholic faith.

Compared with Orthodoxy, Catholicism has a number of features in dogma and cult. Sharing the general Christian dogma of the divine trinity, faith in the truth of the Bible and the system of myths about the creation of the world and man set forth in it, Catholicism recognizes, for example, the “proceeding” of the Holy Spirit not only from God the Father, as the Orthodox Church believes, but also from God son. Catholics believe in the existence of purgatory (except for heaven and hell), recognize the infallibility in matters of faith and morality of the Pope, who is "the vicar of Christ on Earth." Catholics consider the source of their doctrine not only “Holy Scripture”, that is, the Bible, but also “tradition”, church tradition, in which they, unlike Orthodox Christians, include not only the decisions of the first seven Ecumenical Councils, but also subsequent councils, as well as papal opinions. At the same time, only the church has the right to interpret the Bible. The clergy in Catholicism are distinguished by their vow of celibacy and the so-called doctrine of the reserve of good works - divine grace, which is distributed by priests.

The sacraments and rituals common to Christianity are also sent in a peculiar way in Catholicism. For example, the sacrament of baptism is performed by dousing with water or immersion in water, while in Orthodoxy it is only by immersion in water. The sacrament of anointing in Catholicism, called confirmation, is performed when the child is seven or eight years old (in Orthodoxy, shortly after birth). The sacrament of the Eucharist is celebrated on unleavened bread (for the Orthodox - on leavened bread), while until recently only the clergy could partake of bread and wine, while the laity had to partake only of bread.

The wide exalted veneration of the Mother of God and the doctrine of her bodily ascension, a magnificent theatrical cult using all kinds of art, an extremely developed veneration of all kinds of relics, the cult of martyrs, saints and blessed, a strictly centralized hierarchical organization headed by the "infallible" Pope - these are characteristics Catholic version of the Christian religion.

Modernism in Catholicism.

At present, the leadership of the Catholic Church has also been forced to take the path of modernizing its views. Thirty years ago, in the period of a clear confrontation between the countries of the socialist and capitalist systems, when Orthodoxy for the most part was going through hard times due to the dominance of atheistic views imposed on the majority of the population, Catholicism, actively supporting the ideological struggle against the communists and that is why it flourished in the countries of capitalism, already had to reconsider their positions. Then the main reasons were those social changes taking place in the political system of the countries of the globe: the expansion of the socialist camp, the successes in the development of socialist countries; they even influenced such a traditionally conservative institution as the Catholic Church, preventing it from associating itself with reactionary politics. For example, one can compare the actions of Pope Pius XII (his pontificate 1939-1958) and those following him John XXIII (1958-1963), Paul VI (1963-1978) and John Paul II (1978-2005): if the former unconditionally supported the policy of the Cold War, the subsequent ones repeatedly spoke out in defense of peace, for the prohibition of nuclear weapons, and general disarmament.

In the intra-church, strictly religious area, the modernization of Catholicism is carried out in order to adapt to the spirit today religious doctrine and organization, so that they are not too contrary to the secular mood and views of modern man. Reformatory activity here is aimed at getting rid of archaisms and absurdities, making church canons and religious rites more attractive to believers, etc. In particular, the constitution on liturgy, adopted by the XXI Ecumenical Council, prescribes to combine worship with local customs, especially in Asian and African countries; in some parts of the mass and in the performance of rites, use local spoken languages, to simplify the Mass so that it is understandable to ordinary believers, to pay more attention to sermons, the delivery of which is strongly recommended on weekdays, and declared obligatory on holidays; allows all believers to partake of bread and wine.

Under the influence of modern science, Catholic figures also advocate for a “modernized” interpretation of “Holy Scripture,” calling for the rejection of a literal interpretation of the most controversial biblical ideas. Also, the modern Catholic Church is conducting a kind of campaign to achieve agreement with science, dissociating itself from those compromising it. historical facts, a type of church persecution Galileo Galilei acknowledging their error.

Protestantism

Protestantism - one of the main directions of Christianity, along with Orthodoxy and Catholicism, covers many independent confessions and churches. Features of the ideology and organization of modern Protestantism are largely due to the history of its emergence and development.

Protestantism arose in the 16th century during the Reformation. It was no coincidence that the first act of the bourgeois revolution was played out in the form of religious wars. The feelings and consciousness of the masses were completely dependent on the spiritual food that the church offered, because of this, the historical movement, the content of which was the transition from feudalism to capitalism, had to take on a religious coloring.

One of the first steps of the reform movement in Germany was Martin Luther's speech against indulgences, he believed that "God cannot and does not want to allow anyone to dominate the soul, except for himself." Man can save his soul only through faith, which is directly given by God, without the help of the church. This teaching of Luther about salvation or justification by faith in the atoning sacrifice of Christ became one of the central tenets of Protestantism.

The Lutheran Reformation proclaimed the doctrine of the universal priesthood, of the equality of all believers before God. Under the slogan of restoring the traditions of the early Christian church, a demand was put forward for the abolition of a separate class of priests, the elimination of monks, prelates, the Roman curia, that is, the entire costly hierarchy. Together with the Catholic hierarchy, the authority of papal decrees and messages, decisions of councils was also rejected, the only authority in matters of faith was recognized as “Holy Scripture”, which every believer had the right to interpret according to his own understanding. Rejecting the church hierarchy and special rites as a way to the salvation of the soul, this doctrine considered the worldly activities of a person as serving God, it was in worldly life that a person had to seek salvation; hence the condemnation of monasticism, the celibacy of the clergy, and so on.

The document that expressed the essence of the reform that took place is the "Augsburg Confession", which is a statement of the foundations of Lutheranism. In 1530, he was presented to Emperor Charles V, but was rejected by him, which led to a war between the emperor and the princes, who accepted the Lutheran reformation, which ended in 1555 with the Augburg Religious Peace. The princes were given the right to determine the religion of their subjects on their own.

In the first half of the 16th century, the reform movement began to spread rapidly outside of Germany, it established itself in Austria, the Scandinavian countries, the Baltic states, separate communities appeared in Poland, Hungary, and France. At the same time, new varieties of the reform movement arose in Switzerland - Zwinglianism and Calvinism, more consistent in their bourgeois essence than Lutheranism. Zwinglianism broke more decisively with the ritual side of Catholicism, refusing to recognize a special magical power - grace behind the last two sacraments preserved by Lutheranism - baptism and communion: communion was seen as a simple rite performed in memory of the death of Jesus Christ, in which bread and wine became only symbols his body and blood. The republican principle was also consistently carried out in the organization: each community itself elected its own priest and was independent. Much more widespread was Calvinism, theologically associated with one of the main principles of the Reformation - justification by faith, and not “ good deeds". One of the main dogmas of Calvinism is the doctrine of “absolute predestination”: even before the creation of the world, God allegedly predetermined the fate of people, one is destined for heaven, the other hell, and no efforts of people, and no “good deeds” can change what was destined by the Almighty. From the very beginning, Calvinism was characterized by petty regulation of personal and public life believers in the spirit of sanctimonious decency and intolerance to any dissent. In accordance with the dogmatic basis, Calvinism discarded almost all the external attributes of the Catholic cult: icons, candles, vestments, etc. Reading and commenting on the Bible and singing psalms took the main place in the service. Presbyters (elders) and preachers played a leading role in the communities. Dogmatic issues were resolved by congregations - special meetings of preachers.

Unlike Germany and Switzerland, where the reformation began as popular movement, in England it was the initiative of the ruling elite In 1534 English parliament proclaimed the independence of the church from the pope and declared it the head of King Henry VIII. All English monasteries were closed, their property was confiscated in favor of the royal treasury, while the preservation of Catholic dogmas and rituals was announced. Over time, the influence of Protestantism on the Anglican Church intensified, she accepted the dogmas of justification by faith and scripture as the only source of faith, rejected the teaching of Catholicism about indulgences, about the veneration of icons and relics. But at the same time, the Catholic dogma about the saving power of the church was recognized, albeit with some restrictions, the liturgy and some other rites were preserved, and the episcopate remained inviolable.

In Scotland, the church reform movement took place under the banner of Calvinism and was associated with the struggle against the Stuart dynasty, which ended in the late 60s with the execution of Mary Stuart. The Presbyterian Church, which grew out of Calvinism, proceeded from the recognition of the autocracy of Christ in the community of believers and the equality of its members, in connection with this, the bishopric was abolished and only the presbytery was preserved.

With the aggravation of social contradictions in England at the end of the 16th - beginning of the 17th centuries, a bourgeois opposition to the absolutist regime was taking shape, among which Calvinism, whose adherents were called Puritans, was spreading. The activation of democratic elements led to the emergence of various religious sects of Congregationalists, Baptists, Quakers, etc. In most cases, the formation of these sects in religious form reflected the disappointment of the lower classes in the results of the bourgeois revolution.

Thus, during the period of the Reformation in Germany and Switzerland, and then during the bourgeois revolutions, especially in England, the main currents were formed that represent Protestantism at the present time. The main varieties of reformed Christianity were and remain Lutheranism and Calvinism that arose directly during the Reformation period. All other Protestant formations vary the basic principles of these currents.

Modern Protestantism.

At the beginning of our century, the most influential in Protestantism was the so-called "liberal theology." An opportunity to reconcile Christianity with reason and scientific knowledge representatives of this trend saw it as abandoning the literal understanding of biblical miracles and myths. Supporters of "liberal theology" allowed a very free allegorical interpretation of the Bible, considering Christianity as a moral doctrine in its essence. In this interpretation, Christianity took on the character of a philosophical doctrine rather than a "revealed religion."

Also associated with Protestant theological modernism was the course of so-called social Christianity or social evangelism, which brought to the fore the idea of the kingdom of God on earth.

Another direction - the school of "new orthodoxy" - abandoned the hopes placed by liberal theology on the progress of society and the establishment of reasonable and moral relations. The main idea is the thought of the insolubility of the tragic contradictions of human existence. The reasons for the tragedy of human existence are seen in the insoluble contradiction between the absolute truth of God and the imperfection of man by nature. A person cannot but strive to understand God, but these attempts are futile: for the human mind, God will forever remain an incomprehensible mystery, there is only one way to become familiar with God - through faith. The irrationalistic perception of the world, characteristic of adherents of the “new orthodoxy”, is manifested in the rejection of attempts to rationally substantiate faith itself: they propose to consider biblical myths as a way of conveying the deepest truths that reveal to man his relationship to God, and not as a story about real events.

The organizational forms of modern Protestantism are very diverse - from the church as a state institution (for example, in Sweden) to the almost complete absence of any unifying organization (for example, among the Quakers); from large denominational sects (such as the World Baptist Union) and even interfaith sects (ecumenical movement) to small isolated sects.

Lutheranism.

The largest Protestant movement is Lutheranism. Lutheran Evangelical churches exist in many countries. In Europe, they are most influential in the Scandinavian countries - Iceland, Denmark, Sweden, Norway, the Baltic States, Finland and Germany. Many Lutheran churches in North America. IN South America the positions of the Lutheran churches are weak, and the largest is the Lutheran church of Brazil. There are few Lutherans in Asian countries, their influence is stronger in Africa, where Lutheran churches are found in Ethiopia, Sudan, Cameroon, Liberia and others. . central moment Lutheran doctrine- the doctrine of justification by faith. The relationship of the church to the world characterizes Luther's doctrine of two kingdoms. Luther clearly distinguished two spheres: religious and social life. The first includes faith, Christian preaching, the activities of the church, the second - worldly activities, civil morality, the state and reason.

Calvinism.

Calvinism is currently represented by the so-called reformist (in a number of European countries) and Presbyterian (in England and the USA) churches, the total number of believers in which slightly exceeds 40 million people, as well as Congregationalism, the number of adherents of which is approximately 5 million people (mainly in the USA and England). The world Presbyterian Union includes 125 independent Calvinist churches from different countries. Congregationalism emerged during the Reformation in England as a movement opposed to the Anglican Church. Its distinctive feature is the principle of the independence of the communities of believers from the secular authorities and their complete independence, the autonomy of each community - the congregation. Congregationalists are active in preaching and missionary activities, take part in the ecumenical movement with a program whose main slogan is the revival of early Christianity, that is, "pure, true Christianity."

ecumenical movement.

The movement for a worldwide (ecumenical) unification of Christian churches that arose at the beginning of the century among a number of Protestant organizations eventually led to the formation in 1948 at a conference in Amsterdam of the World Council of Churches. At this first conference, 147 churches from 44 countries were represented. The World Council of Churches includes Protestant (Evangelical Lutheran Churches, Reform, Presbyterian, Mennonites, Baptists, Quakers, Methodists, Congregationalists, etc.), as well as the Old Catholic and some Orthodox churches, in particular the Russian Orthodox Church. The Roman Catholic Church is not a member of the World Council of Churches.

The supreme body of the ecumenical movement is the general assembly, which usually meets once every five years. It elects the Presidium of the World Council of Churches, as well as a central committee, these bodies direct all work within the framework of the ecumenical movement between the assemblies. The governing bodies of the World Council of Churches meet annually. The General Secretariat is located in Geneva.

In purely religious matters, the ecumenical movement currently holds the view that all existing christian churches are parts of a single "church of Christ" and must negotiate through negotiations to overcome historical differences in doctrine and structure. Official documents confirm that the movement does not seek to create an organization that stands above the churches, that the World Council is not a “super-church”. Membership in the World Council means that churches, while agreeing on some issues, may disagree on others.

The ecumenical movement is not limited to purely religious problems, it is also trying to find an answer to the main questions that concern modern man. The desire of its representatives in these conditions to develop a general Christian program equally suitable for believers of various Christian denominations gives the declarations and slogans of the movement a more abstract look. In general, the ecumenical movement carries progressive ideas, speaks in many non-religious issues from the point of view of a universal position, stands for peaceful community and cooperation of different countries, for detente of international tension, for universal values.

Introduction.
Orthodoxy.
1. Features of the Orthodox Faith
2. Modern Orthodoxy
Catholicism.
1. Features of the Catholic Faith
2. Modernism in Catholicism
Protestantism.
1. The rise and spread of Protestantism
2. Protestantism in the modern world
3. Modern Lutheranism
4. Modern Calvinism
ecumenical movement

lutheran church
Luther was a deep and sincere Catholic. He indulged in intense feats and fasts in order to propitiate the formidable Deity, but did not feel calm.
It was mainly under the influence of Augustine that Luther developed a view of the salvation of man by grace through faith in the Redeemer. Thus, in the thought that a person receives salvation by faith, Luther found spiritual rest. Later, his activities proceeded as a professor at the University of Wittenberg, where he acted as a reformer.
In 1510, he visited Rome and was struck by unbelief and blasphemy among the Roman clergy. Luther returned from Rome as an opponent of the Roman Church. Such a Church, in his conviction, could not give salvation to a person, and he began to teach that only a person’s personal communion with the Redeemer and a living heartfelt faith in Him save a person.
In 1517 Luther spoke openly against the Roman Church. The reason for this was the following circumstance. To maintain the luxury of his court, Pope Leo, under the pretext of renovating the church of St. Peter, announced the sale of indulgences. The seller of indulgences in Germany was the rude Dominican monk Tetzel. As a market trader, he began to praise his product, delivering both the obligatory salvation of sinners on earth, and the liberation of the souls of the dead from the torments of purgatory. Luther was indignant at such blasphemy against the remission of sins and nailed 95 theses against such a crude method of saving human souls to the doors of the Wittenberg church. He also touched upon the very basis of indulgences - the doctrine of overdue merits and purgatory.

Calvinist Church

Calvinism- one of the three main areas of Protestantism (along with Lutheranism and Anglicanism), which adopted the ideas of John Calvin. From Geneva, Calvinism spread to France (Huguenots), the Netherlands, Scotland and England (Puritans). Under the influence of Calvinism, the Dutch (XVI century) and English (XVII century) revolutions took place. For Calvinism, the following are especially characteristic: the recognition of only Holy Scripture, the exceptional significance of the doctrine of predestination (the predestination of a person’s life, his salvation or condemnation, coming from God’s will; success in professional activity serves as confirmation of his chosenness), the denial of the need for the help of the clergy in saving people, the simplification of church rituals. Modern adherents of Calvinism - Calvinists, Reformed, Presbyterians, Congregationalists.

Anglican Church

The Anglican Episcopal Church is currently the state church of England. There are also Anglican churches in the USA, India, etc., in 16 countries in total. Since 1867, the Anglican churches, while maintaining their independence, have been united by the Anglican Union of Churches. The head of the church is the English king. A hierarchy reminiscent of the Catholic one has been preserved.
Bishops are appointed by the King through the Prime Minister. At the head of the clergy of the two counties - Canterbury and York - are the archbishops.
The external ritual side of Catholicism in the Anglican Church was hardly reformed. The main place in worship was preserved for the liturgy, which is distinguished by complex rituals and solemnity.
In the United States, Anglicanism is represented by the Protestant Episcopal Church of the United States. It is headed by a head elected for life from among the bishops, the governing body includes representatives of the clergy and parishioners. The Episcopal Church of the USA conducts a large missionary activity in the countries of Asia, Africa, and Latin America.
In the doctrine of salvation, the Anglican creed repeats the general idea of the Reformation that only God acts in the justification of man, the alienated grace of God accomplishes salvation without the assistance of the saved. As the 11th member of the Anglican Confession says: "We are justified before God only by the merits of Jesus Christ through faith, and not by our good works."

Orthodoxy.

Orthodoxy, like Protestantism, does not have a single center of government like the Vatican. Autocephalous churches are headed by patriarchs (archbishops, metropolitans), elected by local councils for life. There are synods under the patriarchs. Exarchates are governed by exarchs, and dioceses by diocesan bishops, under whom diocesan councils are created in some cases. Dioceses are made up of districts and parishes. The Orthodox Churches have not held ecumenical councils since the 8th century (the last council at which Orthodox churches participated was the Second Council of Nicaea, 783-787). Each of them, at local councils, approves canonical rules, revises or supplements the lists of saints, and determines the forms of attitude towards heresies and schisms. So, for example, at the local council of the Russian Orthodox Church in 1971, the anathema against the Old Believers was lifted. All Orthodox churches are characterized by a hierarchical principle of governance. All the clergy are divided into higher, middle and lower. In addition, the clergy is divided into black (monastic) and white (married).

Features of the Orthodox Faith.

The basis of Orthodox dogma is the Niceotsargrad Creed, approved at the first two Ecumenical Councils of 325 and 381. In 12 members (paragraphs) of which ideas about God as a creator, about his relationship to the world and man are formulated. This includes ideas about the trinity of God, the Incarnation, redemption, resurrection from the dead, baptism, the afterlife, etc.

Modern Orthodoxy.

The modernization of religion is caused primarily by the changes that have taken place in the minds of the majority of believers, not only under the influence of scientific discoveries and new theories, but also the new socio-political conditions of their lives. And, being a reaction to the change in the consciousness of believers, religious modernism has the opposite effect on this consciousness, forming a new system of religious orientation.

Catholicism.

Catholicism is the most widespread Christian direction, having adherents in all areas of the globe. According to the European press, in the early 1980s, the number of Catholics was about 800 million people - about 18% of the world's population. The Catholic Church is strictly centralized, has a single head - the Pope, a single center - the Vatican, a city-state in the center of Rome with an area of 44 hectares, which has its own coat of arms, flag and other attributes of statehood, up to a small guard. The combination of secular and religious power is the rarest case in modern history. The secular power of the pope in its present form was established by the Lateran Treaty of 1929 between the fascist government of Mussolini and Pope Pius XI, according to which the state of the Vatican was created, its international sovereignty was recognized, and the church received a number of privileges in the country.

The pope, through the Roman curia, which has a complex administrative structure, directs the entire church and its numerous organizations operating in the vast majority of countries of the world. The main Catholic hierarchs - cardinals and bishops - are appointed by the pope from representatives of the clergy of different countries. The College of Cardinals (conclave) elects for life from its midst a pope who, according to Catholic doctrine, is “the vicar of Jesus Christ, the successor of St. ”, crowns the multi-level hierarchy of the authoritarian-monarchical organization of Catholicism. As a sovereign state, the Vatican exchanges diplomatic representatives with other states, including Italy. The modern Catholic Church is a large religious and political organization that has a great influence not only on the worldview of its followers - believers, but also on the socio-philosophical and ethical theories that arise in society. To play an active role in the ideological and political life of modern states, Catholicism is helped by the peculiarities of its structure, historical traditions and experience, the presence of an extensive network of mass organizations - a huge church apparatus with numerous monastic orders (the largest of them: Jesuits - 27 thousand, Franciscans and Salesians - 20 thousand, Christian brothers - 16 thousand, Capuchins - 12 thousand, Benedictines - 10 thousand, Dominicans - 8 thousand). In total, the Catholic Church has over 1.5 million monks and nuns, including about 400,000 priests. The activities of the Catholic Church are also characterized by the involvement of not only the clergy, but also lay Catholics in the implementation of tasks of a socio-political nature. Catholicism has large political parties, trade unions, youth and other organizations.

Features of the Catholic faith.

The wide exalted veneration of the Mother of God and the teaching of her bodily ascension, a magnificent theatrical cult using all kinds of art, an extremely developed veneration of all kinds of relics, the cult of martyrs, saints and blessed, a strictly centralized hierarchical organization headed by the "infallible" Pope of Rome - these are the characteristic features of the Catholic varieties of the Christian religion.

Modernism in Catholicism.

In the intra-church, specifically religious area, the modernization of Catholicism is carried out in order to adapt religious doctrine and organization to the spirit of today, so that they do not too much contradict the secular mood and views of modern man. Reformatory activity here is aimed at getting rid of archaisms and absurdities, making church canons and religious rites more attractive to believers, etc. In particular, the constitution on liturgy, adopted by the XXI Ecumenical Council, prescribes to combine worship with local customs, especially in Asian and African countries; in some parts of the mass and in the performance of rites, use local spoken languages, simplify the mass so that it is understandable to ordinary believers, pay more attention to sermons, the delivery of which is strongly recommended on weekdays, and declared obligatory on holidays; allows all believers to partake of bread and wine.

Under the influence of modern science, Catholic figures also advocate for a “modernized” interpretation of “Holy Scripture,” calling for the rejection of a literal interpretation of the most controversial biblical ideas. Also, the modern Catholic Church is conducting a kind of campaign to achieve agreement with science, dissociating itself from historical facts that compromise it, such as the persecution of Galileo Galilei by the church, recognizing their fallacy.

Protestantism

In the first half of the 16th century, the reform movement began to spread rapidly outside of Germany, it established itself in Austria, the Scandinavian countries, the Baltic states, separate communities appeared in Poland, Hungary, and France. At the same time, new varieties of the reform movement arose in Switzerland - Zwinglianism and Calvinism, more consistent in their bourgeois essence than Lutheranism. Zwinglianism broke more decisively with the ritual side of Catholicism, refusing to recognize a special magical power - grace behind the last two sacraments preserved by Lutheranism - baptism and communion: communion was seen as a simple rite performed in memory of the death of Jesus Christ, in which bread and wine became only symbols his body and blood. The republican principle was also consistently carried out in the organization: each community itself elected its own priest and was independent. Much more widespread was Calvinism, theologically connected with one of the main principles of the Reformation - justification by faith, and not by “good works”. One of the main dogmas of Calvinism is the doctrine of “absolute predestination”: even before the creation of the world, God allegedly predetermined the fate of people, one is destined for heaven, the other hell, and no efforts of people, and no “good deeds” can change what was destined by the Almighty. From the very beginning, Calvinism was characterized by petty regulation of the personal and social life of believers in the spirit of sanctimonious decency and intolerance of any dissent. In accordance with the dogmatic basis, Calvinism discarded almost all the external attributes of the Catholic cult: icons, candles, vestments, etc. Reading and commenting on the Bible and singing psalms took the main place in the service. Presbyters (elders) and preachers played a leading role in the communities. Dogmatic issues were resolved by congregations - special meetings of preachers.

Unlike Germany and Switzerland, where the reformation began as a popular movement, in England it was an initiative of the ruling elite. In 1534, the English parliament declared the church independent from the pope and declared it the head of King Henry VIII. All English monasteries were closed, their property was confiscated in favor of the royal treasury, while the preservation of Catholic dogmas and rituals was announced. Over time, the influence of Protestantism on the Anglican Church increased, it adopted the dogmas of justification by faith and the Holy Scriptures as the only source of faith, rejected the teaching of Catholicism about indulgences, the veneration of icons and relics. But at the same time, the Catholic dogma about the saving power of the church was recognized, albeit with some restrictions, the liturgy and some other rites were preserved, and the episcopate remained inviolable.

With the aggravation of social contradictions in England at the end of the 16th - beginning of the 17th centuries, a bourgeois opposition to the absolutist regime was taking shape, among which Calvinism, whose adherents were called Puritans, was spreading. The activation of democratic elements led to the emergence of various religious sects of Congregationalists, Baptists, Quakers, and others. In most cases, the formation of these sects in a religious form reflected the disappointment of the lower classes in the results of the bourgeois revolution.

The main ideas about salvation in Christianity are conventionally divided into two types, which are sometimes called "organic" and "legal" theories of salvation . IN Orthodox tradition, as well as works before the split of the churches into western and eastern, the first option prevails, in Catholicism and Protestantism - the second.

The concept of salvation in Orthodoxy

In the Orthodox tradition, sin is understood not so much as guilt, but as a disease (wound). "Sin makes us more unhappy than guilty" - Rev. John Cassian (c. 360 - c. 435). Salvation from this point of view consists in changing/healing the nature of man, which is "perishable, mortal, passionate." (The constitutive changes in human nature are supposed to have taken place as a result of the rupture of man's direct connection with God (the biblical story of the Fall).) A very brief formulation of the "organic" theory of salvation is as follows. Christ, the God-Man, is God the Word who incarnates, i.e. takes on human nature (sick, mortal, etc.) and through suffering, through death, restores this nature in himself (through death and resurrection). This restoration in oneself has the most important consequences for all subsequent life. a possibility opens up that was not in humanity before that time, namely the possibility of the spiritual birth of every person who accepts Christ as a savior. Unlike the first birth (“natural”), the second is associated with the consciousness and will of a person and is associated with self definition of a person. (Usually, in this context, Christian authors quote, among others, the words from the Revelation of John the Theologian: “Behold, I stand at the door and knock,” says the Lord, “if anyone hears My voice and opens the door, I will come in to him” (Rev., 3, 20).) Moreover, this self-determination is considered not only within the framework of “this” life, but also in the eschatological perspective (i.e., in the perspective Doomsday and man's last choice of his fate). Those. although a person does not become delivered from moral or physical evil, from illness, death (this is obvious, we are still both mortal and imperfect in other respects), but the possibility of a complete, decisive and final liberation by the resurrection of Christ to a person, according to this approach, was proposed. Since the last choice in the eschatological perspective is the choice between “to be with God or without God,” this implies the special significance that is attached precisely to the recognition of Christ as a savior and the choice “to be with Christ” in this life (and not just, say, doing good deeds). From this point of view, salvation is not so much what happened, but what Maybe happen. As one Orthodox author (Arch. D. Smirnov) said, no one is forcibly drawn into the Kingdom of God. For the salvation of man, therefore, what is required in Orthodoxy is called synergy- cooperation / joint effort of man and God in the matter of salvation (God cannot save a person without his participation).

The concept of salvation in Catholicism

In the 13th century in Catholicism, a number of new concepts appear that determine the official doctrine of the salvation of Catholicism up to the present day.

Consider the content of the main ideas. Important for the formation of this doctrine was the norm of medieval (and ancient) law, according to which the degree of guilt for an offense is determined not only by the content of the offense itself, but also by the against who it was done. Thus, the same illegal act committed, say, against a peasant and against a king, from this point of view, implies a completely different degree of guilt. In addition, any guilt always implies a certain measure of punishment according to the principle: the heavier the guilt, the more severe the punishment (with possible aggravating or mitigating circumstances). Further, the fall of man is conceived as an unlawful act committed against God, the Absolute, which means that such an offense entails endless guilt. This means that none of the people (either personally or collectively the whole of humanity) is capable of being punished, proportionate committed crime. This means that the destiny of people is to remain forever damned (in the biblical language, “curse” means “separation”, “cutting off”). But in order to reconnect with God, it is necessary.

The Fall thus placed a barrier between God and man. legal nature , i.e. comprehension of this separation of man from God is conceived in terms of law: guilt, guilty, punishment; to atone for guilt, to bring satisfaction (satisfaction) justice God, the latter is the key expression of Catholic soteriology.

So, since people are not able to bring the measure of satisfaction necessary for forgiveness to the justice of God (for the measure in this case is infinite), then God Himself brings such a sacrifice on behalf of people for the sake of restoring justice. “He Himself brings” means that God, having become a man (more precisely, the second hypostasis is embodied) himself undergoes suffering (on the cross). Such the sacrifice is commensurate with the crime committed, and thus humanity is forgiven the original sin.

If Christ brings satisfaction to the justice of God for the sin of Adam, then each person must bring personal satisfaction to the justice of God for his personal sins (i.e., to endure something, to do something in order to atone for this particular committed sin). If a person makes such atonement for sins, he gains merit. (Again, a specifically Catholic notion.) The atonement of all sins is a condition of salvation.

And what will happen if a person does charitable deeds that are not necessary for his salvation? The answer to this question is the most important catholic doctrine of overdue deeds. From the point of view of Catholic theology in the teachings of I. Christ, one should distinguish commandments(praecepta) and adviсe gospel (consilia): the former are prescribed to all as duties, the latter are offered as a means of achieving a higher, optional perfection. (For example, the adoption of monasticism is not necessary for salvation, but is a means to achieve the highest perfection.) Whoever follows the advice, he, according to the teachings of the Catholic Church, does the deeds overdue which are not necessary for the perpetrators themselves. Such a person acquires superhuman merits. Any person, if he zealously lives in a Christian way and does as many good deeds as possible, acquires an increasing amount of merit. Christ has an infinite number of them. The Virgin Mary also has practically infinite (“almost” infinite). There are many saints. But even "mere mortals" can have super-due merits.

Overdue deeds form a kind of treasury (thesaurus, literally a box), a treasury of good deeds. All supernatural good deeds benefit the members of the church by virtue of a mysterious union that binds them to the church of the celestials and to Christ himself as the Head of the church. The Pope, as the vicar of Christ, has the right to redistribute merits and impute the merits of some (from the treasury of good deeds) to others. Such a redistribution is carried out in the order of indulgence towards the sinner. This indulgence, or forgiveness, is called indulgentio in Latin. This doctrine originated in the thirteenth century. and developed in detail in the writings of Albert the Great, Thomas Aquinas, Bonaventure, Duns Scotus, and Bellarmine. In close connection with the doctrine of overdue merits is the Catholic doctrine of indulgences.

The concept of salvation in Protestantism

Protestantism posed a natural question to the Catholic doctrine of salvation: did Christ really have enough merit only to free mankind only from original sin? Of course, there are more of them. Protestantism affirms that Christ by his sacrifice brought complete satisfaction to God the Father for the sins of the world, and every believer is freed not only from original sin, but also from all personal sins. (Difference from Catholicism: in Catholicism, satisfaction is given only for (only paid for) original sin.) Exempted as follows: a believer justified. The "Formula of Concord" says "The Son of God paid for all our sins." Hence the well-known Protestant formula, “For the believer, sin not imputed into sin." (highlighted by me - O.N.) (Again, the legal conceptual field: sin is, exists/ May be, but the lawsuit on it is not opened.) For salvation, it is enough to believe in Christ as the Savior. The above-mentioned "Formula of Concord" says: "We must reject the opinion that good works are necessary for salvation." Of course, good works in Protestantism remain necessary, but not for salvation, but for showing gratitude towards God for my salvation.

Thus, justification is understood as a legal verdict. The process of salvation is not in me, and necessary me. From the Protestant point of view, it is not man that changes (as a result of the atoning sacrifice of Christ), but God, as a result of it, changes His attitude towards man. In man, the only change is that before he was subject to punishment and was in fear, and after pronuncation he is "a joyful, exultant child of God." Even the faith of a person is not the result of his activity. Luther's Short Catechism puts it this way: “I believe that I cannot by my own understanding or by my own strength believe in Jesus Christ my Lord, or come to Him. But the Holy Spirit called me through the Gospel, enlightened me with His gifts, sanctified and kept me in the true faith. here salvation is not an act human changes and this is an act god changes. It is not man who changes in salvation, but God.

Not counting the plots of love affairs, which abound in stories about pagan deities (and Zeus, as you probably remember, loved to “run around women”, Krishna, the 8th avatar of Vishnu, had, according to the Puranas, 16,100 wives, etc.) etc.)

He can be merciful and merciful, as Islam claims, and this means that Allah does not punish the repentant to the full extent. Those. mitigating circumstances are possible, but the punishment that justice calls for and requires is mandatory.

Wed "definition" of Basil the Great (c. 330-379): "Theology is the selection of the least inappropriate words."

Hypostasis (Greek) (Latin tracing paper: substantia) - lit. stand [ hypo-stasis], i.e. what underlies; Aristotle has any individual existence (concrete, this a person, a specific animal, a stone, etc.), something that cannot be a property for anything, but that perceives various properties (it is the basis, “stand” for various properties); in Christian theology, the term later came to mean a specific personal existence, personality (which, like Aristotle's hypostasis, takes on various properties, but is not itself a property, cannot be defined, and in this sense is apophatic).

Moreover, these faces/individuals are so different that one of them – and only one – has united with human nature.

Wed with polytheism. There the gods have the same entity (not one), They similar by essence.

IN Christian tradition various analogies were used to explain the trinity (in order to still give this idea of the trinity some kind of intuitiveness). Let me give you one: a comparison with a person (since, according to the Bible, only a person is created in the image and likeness of God). Man has a mind. There is a word generated by it, there is a spirit emanating from the mind. The mind is the source of both the word and the spirit (The word spirit in this case appeals to the widest possible meaning (cf. the spirit of the time, the spirit of the book, etc.).). Mind without thought cannot exist, and thought without mind. The human mind cannot be without thought; word - expressed, expressed thought; the mind, by its very nature, always produces a thought.

Wed also Hindu texts, which say that Vishnu, incarnating, is likened to an actor who changes his costume and puts on the next mask (=goes to another incarnation).

However, Christian thought also assessed the Incarnation as something that God “according to order” is completely unbecoming, but what God goes for out of love for people and (in the literal sense) superhuman humility ( kenosis).

Although, strictly speaking, Gnosticism is not a purely Greek phenomenon

For the same reason, for the Hellenic consciousness there was a wild idea (bodily) resurrection of the dead as the final definition of human existence (in the unity of body and soul).

Wed See also "The Word became flesh, and therefore became defenseless." (A.S. Dobrokhotov) http://www.patriarchia.ru/db/text/1117011.html

Wed "sin" in Greek "amartia" - in literal translation means "a miss, a shot past the target", and in Russian it has the same root as "blemish", i.e. a mistake, a mistake, aspired to one thing, it turned out another.

Wed "God does not violate human freedom. And therefore the doors of hell, if you like, can only be locked from the inside - by its inhabitants themselves. Only those who themselves did not want or do not want to leave it remain. The idea that the reason for being in hell, not excluding the devil himself, is their free “I don’t want to”, was expressed by a number of Church Fathers: Clement of Alexandria, St. John Chrysostom, St. Basil the Great, St. Maximus the Confessor, St. John Damascene, St. Isaac the Syrian, St. Nicholas Kavasila and others.” (A.I. Osipov "Posthumous life of the soul", M. 2005)

By the way, the only dogmatically accepted definition of the Kingdom of God in Christianity (not only in Orthodoxy) - there a person is with God, "before the face of God." Thus, the goal of salvation is to be with God, not blessedness. If the ultimate goal is defined as the attainment of bliss, then God becomes a function of bliss (i.e. because I am pursuing bliss, I needed God along the way). In the context of the doctrine of the sacrifice of Christ, the incarnation, etc., such goal-setting is unacceptable (or, in other words, will not lead to bliss).

In Russian, the word "satisfaction" in a religious context is likely to carry a moral and ethical aspect; Latin satisfactio rather corresponds to the concept reimbursement, compensation for damage; satisfactio is a legal term that does not cover the realm of ethics. The concept of satisfaction / satisfaction (precisely the concept, not teaching) was introduced in the 12th century. Anselm of Canterbury (1033 - 1109) (canonized in the 15th century, in the 18th century he was given the title Teacher of the Church; this title informs that this saint is revered not only for his pious lifestyle, but also that his works are recognized as adequately expressing the Catholic church doctrine).

The nature of the atonement is established by the priest. (This can be, for example, visiting hospitals for some time (for the sake of some good deeds, of course), donations, reading prayers, etc.)

Wed 3 parts in the Catholic sacrament of repentance: the repentance of a person, the remission of sins by the priest and the satisfaction of God's justice. The latter does not exist either in Orthodoxy or in Protestantism.

If a Catholic has not atoned for all sins, but at the same time has not committed mortal sins, then redemption comes after death in the so-called. purgatory. The (dogmatic) doctrine of purgatory is also specifically Catholic.

Actually, the beginning of the activity of M. Luther (1483-1546), who stood at the origins of the Reformation movement, is associated with his speech against practices indulgences. In Luther's time, this practice reached an unheard-of scale and acquired traits that boggle the imagination (for example, some distributors of indulgences set a clear tax for a particular sin: simple murder; murder of parents (more expensive); sacrilege, etc.). In addition, indulgences could be acquired not only at the expense of deeds, but also of future sins.

Wed terminology of salvation: in Orthodoxy - healing; in Catholicism, redemption; in Protestantism, justification.

Formula of Concord (lat. Formula Concordiae) is one of the most dogmatic important books Protestantism (published in German in 1576 and translated into Latin in 1584). It was supposed to serve as an end to the feud between the two currents in Protestantism that arose after the death of Luther.

The burning question here is: what if a person believes in everything that is needed and does nothing good, then what? The answer of Protestantism is decisive: salvation is achieved only by faith.

Pronunciation - the justification of the sinner that takes place in baptism

The foundations of the Protestant doctrine were formulated by M. Luther, F. Melanchthon and their associates during the German Reformation, which marked the beginning of its Lutheran branch. Therefore, the study of the general doctrinal foundations of the Reformation draws our attention, first of all, to Lutheranism, which has become the historical classic of Protestantism. It was the founders of Lutheranism who formulated the main principles of the Reformation in disputes with Catholic theologians.

These principles, in one form or another, then inherited the main branches of the Reformation.

Reformation doctrine of salvation by faith alone (sola fide)

The Augustinian understanding of original sin provided the necessary theological premise for the cornerstone of the Reformation - the doctrine of salvation by faith alone - sola fide.

The origins of the doctrine of salvation by faith alone (sola fide) lie in the peculiar understanding of the nature of original sin by the fathers of the Reformation. Luther rebelled against the teachings of the Roman Catholic Church about the primordial state of man in paradise, where the opposition of reason and sensuality was restrained by grace, and in the fall he only lost it, keeping his nature intact. The independent ability to do good deeds, by which salvation was achieved in Catholicism, depreciated, according to the forefather of the Reformation, the saving merit of Christ.

According to the Protestants, the state of man's primordial innocence was by nature distinguished not only by the absence of sin, but by the highest perfection of his spiritual abilities, which were in complete harmony with the sensual side of his being. It was "perfect righteousness", agreement not only in human nature, but also in his relationship with the Creator.

As the "Apology of the Augsburg Confession" says: "The natural forces of man, embraced general concept“image of God”, were naturally directed towards God as their direct and quite accessible goal”, i.e. man had access to the possibility of true knowledge of God and unity with Him. There was nothing supernatural in this state of the human race, "little diminished by the angels," for Protestant theology.

In contrast to the Catholic tradition, which describes the primordial state of man in similar colors, explaining it by the influence of “the grace of primordial righteousness,” the fathers of the Reformation considered such a state to be natural, innate to man at his creation.

But the more colorfully the Protestant theology describes the perfection of the primordial man in paradise, the more bleak becomes the depth of his fall after the exile. The effect of the fall into sin is not limited to the loss of God-created perfection; man falls into the exact opposite state. On the one hand, a person has lost his original righteousness, on the other hand, he has acquired a tendency to evil, he has become an enemy of God, and this enmity brings condemnation upon him.

The soul of man became dead before God, and the image of God in the fallen man, according to the definition of the "Formula of Concord", was replaced by a pillar of salt, into which Lot's wife had once turned. Man has become a "moral idol", unable not only to strive for goodness, but even to desire it.

If Eastern Christianity does not allow complete enslavement by original sin human nature and preserves in it the possibility of moral choice with the help of the highest grace, then the Reformation approved the entire dominance of the sinful principle in man.

Luther expressed himself very sharply on this subject: “The human will is like a horse. God sits on her, she runs where God wants and directs; the devil sits on her, she runs where the devil drives her. This idea of the complete inability of a person to choose between good and evil subsequently provided the basis for the development of Calvin's doctrine of predestination.

As a result, the Reformation leaves a person only limited freedom of choice, but not action. Man has only the ability to passively submit to the grace of the Almighty acting in him, instead of striving for good, only non-resistance to him is left to man. The humiliation of human nature lies in the fact that it is only capable of resisting or obeying God, but is unworthy of assisting Him.

Roots sola fide lay in those distorted ideas about God and His relationship to man, which dominated the Catholic Middle Ages, when God's justice supplanted His mercy. The idea of God as the Grand Inquisitor replaced the idea of a saving God, and it was no longer the image of the meek Savior, but the horrors of hellish torment that served as the motivating force for good. The pressure of this horror gave rise to a thirst for guaranteed salvation, a person wanted to know for sure that he would escape hell, but good deeds did not give him such confidence, because, according to the Schmalkalden Articles: “satisfaction for sins is impossible because no one knows how much he must do good for sin alone, to say nothing of all.”

The desire to know about one's salvation prompted the ordinary Christian consciousness to rush with all its might to faith, as to an instant and guaranteed sign of salvation, and in sola fide we see the ultimate expression of the thirst for guaranteed salvation, to which the Catholic Middle Ages, frightened by the horrors of hell, aspired. Luther himself admitted that the motive for his personal protest was the constant uncertainty about his own salvation: “My position was such that, although I was an infallible monk, I still stood before God, like a miserable sinner, with a troubled conscience, and I besides, there was no certainty that my merits would soften him. Therefore, I did not love the just God and murmured against Him. ... Further, I understood that the justification of God is righteousness, by which the grace and manifest mercy of God justify us by faith. It wasn't until after that that I felt reborn, like I've been through open door to paradise." With this confession, Luther expressed the feelings of thousands of good Catholics, who later turned into good Protestants.

What is this saving faith that makes a person "a vessel for receiving the merits of Christ"? Faith is not a personal merit of a person and not the fruit of his inner development, it does not belong to him, but descends from above as a special gift from God. Luther wrote of this: "faith is not a human thought that I myself could produce, but a divine power in the heart." His famous words that “everything happens according to the unchanging determination of God. God works good and evil in us; saves us without our merit and accuses us without guilt" in this case are not an exaggeration, for a person becomes an involuntary, unconscious bearer of grace acting in him, and " sola fide" became a Protestant opus operata.

A person can and should only touch Christ with his thought in order to deserve eternal life. One has only to be sure of one's own salvation in order to possess it in reality, for justifying faith combines an appeal to God and His action, in the words of Luther: "thoughts about the work of salvation, and it will be your property."

The essence of the justification that the Protestant seeks to achieve by faith is not "deliverance from sin, damnation and death", but, like Catholicism, deliverance from punishment. This punishment is canceled by proclaiming the righteousness of a person, but not because of his internal moral purification, but on account of the sacrifice of Christ. “In justification, the righteousness of Christ is assimilated to us, without the fact that we ourselves in our moral nature have become righteous.” This proclamation is called "pronuncation", and in it God refuses to present an account for sin, there is a cancellation of moral debts on the fact of faith.

But what should a Lutheran do after his faith has achieved reconciliation with God and the "writing off" of sins? As already mentioned, obvious moral considerations did not allow the reformers to completely abandon the works of virtue. Symbolic books talk a lot about the so-called living or active faith, which "necessarily gives rise to new aspirations and deeds." However, the "Apology" immediately stipulates that "good deeds are necessary not for justification, but ... as the fruit and result of justification", i.e. The Reformation, although it admits active goodness, denies its participation in the salvation of man.

As already mentioned, the theological and historical basis of the doctrine of salvation through faith was the oppressive uncertainty of medieval Catholicism in its salvation. A person always seeks to secure such confidence for himself: “under certain conditions, a Christian should be completely calm about his salvation.”

Thus, if Western Christianity, both in the Catholic and Protestant traditions, mainly found a way to change the attitude of God towards man, then the East has always called on man himself to change his attitude towards God, Who remains unchanged in love for His creation. Therefore, the West thought so deeply about what kind of propitiatory tribute - deeds or faith - is more pleasing to God in order to get rid of the punishment for sin. The religious consciousness of the Eastern Church often left this question aside, for necessary condition salvation, it has always assumed a change in the relationship of man himself to God, i.e. spiritual and moral change. Catholicism saw the way to salvation in man's own effort, the Reformation gave it entirely to the will of God, but in both cases, the very content of salvation remained unchanged. God either justified a person, satisfying His justice with his good deeds, or forgave him by faith, removing from him the guilt for sin, but in both cases the soul of the person being saved did not undergo a saving change, the person did not have to change his attitude towards God, to gain eternal life.

In Orthodox belief, the basis of human salvation is not the number of good deeds or the fact of faith, but the process of changing a person's attitude to God, i.e. spiritual and moral rebirth of the individual. For this rebirth, both faith and works are equally necessary, the unity of active faith. As the Circular Epistle of the Eastern Patriarchs of 1723 says: “We believe that a person is justified not just by faith alone, but by faith, rushed by love (i.e., faith as an active force), that is, through faith and works. Not only the ghost of faith, but the faith that is in us through works justifies us in Christ.

We must also note the unparalleled impact that the Reformation had on the public consciousness of the West and, ultimately, on the formation of Western civilization as a whole. It is with the influence of the Reformation that the end of the Middle Ages and the formation of the consciousness of the new time is connected. The Reformation changed the religious motivation of society, the result of which was a change in the very direction historical development, a change in the type of socio-religious consciousness.

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Features of the doctrine of the salvation of the soul in Catholicism. Lutheran doctrine of salvation and justification by faith alone. §4. Organization of the Catholic Church

Reformation doctrine of salvation by faith alone (sola fide)

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