Popular riots of the 17th century table. The rebellious age: the causes of popular movements. Bestial cruelty of the nobility

The "Salt Riot" got its name because the reason for it was dissatisfaction with the salt tax. This event was preceded by a general crisis in the taxation system. Official documents of that time frankly admit that the collection of streltsy and yamsky money was extremely uneven due to the mass evasion of the townspeople. In 1646, some of the direct taxes were abolished, and instead the duty on salt was quadrupled - from five kopecks to two hryvnias per pood. Since the sale of salt was a state monopoly, Chisty assured that the salt tax would enrich the treasury. In fact, the opposite happened, as buyers reduced their salt intake to the limit. Moreover, the salt tax led to unpredictable consequences. On the Volga, due to the high cost of salt, thousands of pounds of fish rotted, which the common people ate during fasting. At the beginning of 1648, the unsuccessful tax was abolished, but at the same time, taxable people were required to pay the old taxes for three years in a row. The discontent of the people intensified. An outbreak of spontaneous discontent occurred in the early summer of 1648.

Copper Riot of 1662

If the "salt riot" was generated by the tax crisis, then the cause of the "copper riot" was the crisis of the monetary system. At that time, the Muscovite state did not have its own gold and silver mines, and precious metals were brought from abroad. At the Money Yard, silver Joachimstalers, or, as they were called in Rus', “Efimkov”, minted Russian coins: kopecks, money - half kopecks and half kopecks - quarter kopecks. The protracted war with Poland over Ukraine demanded huge expenses, in connection with which, on the advice of A.L. Ordin-Nashchokin, the issue of copper money began at the price of silver. As with the salt tax, the result was just the opposite of what was intended. Despite the strict royal decree, no one wanted to accept copper, and the peasants, who were paid with copper poltins and altyns, "thin and uneven", stopped the supply of agricultural products to the cities, which led to famine. Poltinas and altyns had to be withdrawn from circulation and re-coined into kopecks. A small copper coin at first really had circulation on a par with silver kopecks. However, the government could not avoid the temptation to replenish the treasury in an easy way and immensely increased the issue of unsecured copper money, which was minted in Moscow, Novgorod and Pskov. At the same time, paying salaries to service people with copper money, the government demanded the payment of taxes (“fifth money”) in silver. Soon copper money depreciated, for 1 ruble silver they gave 17 rubles copper. And although a strict royal decree forbade raising prices, all goods rose sharply in price.

Counterfeiting was on the rise. According to the Council Code of 1649, for counterfeiting a coin, criminals were poured with molten metal in their throats, but the threat of a terrible execution did not stop anyone, and a stream of "thieves' money" flooded the state.

"Copper Riot" was a performance of the city's lower classes. Craftsmen, butchers, pie-makers, peasants of suburban villages took part in it. Of the guests and merchants, “not a single person stuck to those thieves, they even helped those thieves, and they received praise from the king.” Despite the merciless suppression of the rebellion, it did not go unnoticed. In 1663, by the royal decree of the copper business, the courtyards in Novgorod and Pskov were closed, and the minting of silver coins was resumed in Moscow. The salaries of all ranks to service people were again paid in silver money. Copper money was withdrawn from circulation, private individuals were ordered to melt it into boilers or bring it to the treasury, where 10 rubles were paid for each ruble, and later even less - 2 silver coins.

Major performances took place in 1650 in Pskov and Veliky Novgorod. The impetus for the speeches was the purchase of bread, which was carried out to send it to Sweden. These events are often referred to as the "Bread Riot".

Under the terms of the peace agreement with Sweden, Russia undertook to supply good grain for the resettling Russians and Karelians who left the territories lost as a result of the Time of Troubles. Bulk purchases of grain, carried out by a large Pskov merchant Fedor Yemelyanov on behalf of the government, led to an increase in grain prices. At the end of February 1650, the townspeople, archers, gunners and other people demanded that the local governor N.S. Sobakin stop the export of bread, detained the Swedish representative in Pskov and plundered Yemelyanov's yard. By the beginning of March, the governor had practically no power in the city, the real control was in the hands of the "all-city hut" (zemstvo hut), which included elected representatives from different segments of the population. On March 15, an uprising began in Veliky Novgorod. To suppress the unrest, troops were sent under the command of Prince I. N. Khovansky. On April 13, government forces entered Novgorod without resistance, the main participants in the uprising were arrested and subjected to corporal punishment.

The 17th century in the history of Russia is nicknamed the “rebellious century”. In this century, our country was shaken by riots, riots and uprisings of various scope and causes. Below are the events of the rebellious age in the form of a table:

Popular movements in the 17th century.

Contemporaries called the 17th century rebellious. A characteristic feature of this time is the uprisings in the cities and on the outskirts of the state.

Reasons for popular uprisings:
The growth of military spending, which forces the government of Alexei Mikhailovich to introduce new forms of taxes.
General strengthening of state control over society. Enslavement of the peasants.
Church reform. Many popular uprisings became part of the schismatic movement.

In the middle of the 1640s. a high duty on salt was introduced, which, because of this, rose sharply in price. In 1647 the government abandoned the salt duty; nevertheless, in 1648, the “Salt Riot” broke out, directed against the initiators of its introduction: the boyar Morozov, the mayor Shaklovity, the duma deacon Chisty, the guest (merchant engaged in foreign trade) Vasily Shorin and others. The rebellion was supported by the archers, who also suffered from the increase in salt prices and had not received a salary for a long time. Taken by surprise, the government extradited or executed most of the figures hated by the mob.

In 1650, an uprising began in Pskov. It was suppressed by one of the associates of Alexei Mikhailovich, the boyar A. L. Ordin-Nashchekin.

In 1662, the government, which was experiencing an acute shortage of precious metals, tried to replace the silver coin with a copper one. It conducted all its payments in copper money, and collected taxes in silver. Such a policy became the cause of the "Copper Riot" In July 1662, an excited crowd broke into the village of Kolomenskoye - the summer residence of Alexei Mikhailovich, the archers barely coped with the rebels. The authorities temporarily refused to issue a copper coin.

From the middle of the XVII century. , in connection with the search for fugitive peasants in the southern regions, relations between the government and the Don Cossacks became more complicated. Constant conflicts between them led to the Cossack uprising of Stepan Razin.

At the first stage of the uprising (1669-1670 - the so-called Campaign for zipuns) - Razin makes predatory campaigns in Persia and attacks trade caravans. Having plundered the western coast of the Caspian Sea, Razin returned to Astrakhan with great booty and the glory of an invincible leader.

In the spring of 1670, the second stage of the uprising began. Razin openly opposed the tsarist government. The participation of peasants in his army gave the campaign an anti-serf character, so it can be called a peasant war with reservations. Having captured Tsaritsyn in April, Razin returned to Astrakhan in June and proclaimed his power here. In the summer of 1670, Saratov and Samara went over to the side of Razin, peasant unrest, thus, covered a vast territory. Only near Simbirsk a large but poorly trained and armed peasant army was defeated. Razin fled to the Don, where he was captured and handed over to the authorities by wealthy (household) Cossacks. In 1671 Stepan Razin was executed in Moscow.

Another popular uprising was the Solovetsky uprising of 1667-1676. - one of the brightest pages in the history of the Schism. Having a purely anti-reform character, the uprising was suppressed only after the betrayal of one of the defenders of the Solovetsky Monastery.

On the westward pivot foreign policy Russia had relations with the Commonwealth. When characterizing this direction, one should especially dwell on the anti-Polish liberation movement led by Bogdan Khmelnitsky. The applicant must show the importance of joining the Left-Bank Ukraine to Russia.

In the southern direction, Russia dealt with the Crimean Khanate and the Ottoman Empire.

When studying the issue of accession Eastern Siberia to Russia, it is necessary to pay attention to the facts related to the development of Siberia in the 17th century, to emphasize the important role of Russian "explorers" in the discovery and settlement of new lands, in introducing the peoples of Siberia to Russian culture.

.Urban uprisings in the middle of the 17th century. The 17th century went down in the history of Russia as a "rebellious time . "Salt Riot" of 1648 in Moscow. Participants: townspeople, archers, nobles, dissatisfied with the pro-boyar policy of the government of B.I. Morozov. The reason for the speech was the dispersal of the delegation of Muscovites by the archers, who were trying to submit a petition to the tsar at the mercy of the clerks, who, in their opinion, were guilty of imposing a tax on salt. The uprising was suppressed by the archers, who were forced by the government to give increased salaries.

The uprising in Moscow received a wide response - a wave of movements in the summer of 1648 swept many cities: Kozlov, Salt Vychegodskaya, Kursk, Ustyug the Great, etc. In total, in 1648-1650. there were 21 uprisings. The most significant of them were in Pskov and Novgorod. They were caused by a sharp increase in the price of bread as a result of the government's commitment to deliver grain to Sweden. In both cities, power passed into the hands of zemstvo elders. The Novgorod uprising was suppressed by an army led by Prince Khovansky. Pskov, on the other hand, offered successful armed resistance to government troops during a three-month siege of the city (June-August 1650). The zemstvo hut, headed by Gavriil Demidov, became the absolute owner of the city, distributing bread and property confiscated from the rich among the townspeople. At the emergency Zemsky Sobor, the composition of the delegation was approved to persuade the Pskovites. The resistance ended after all the participants in the uprising were forgiven.

In 1662, the Copper Riot in Moscow, caused by the protracted Russian-Polish war and the financial crisis. The monetary reform (the minting of depreciated copper money) led to a sharp fall in the exchange rate of the ruble, which primarily affected the soldiers and archers who received monetary salaries, as well as artisans and small merchants. On July 25, "thieves' letters" with an appeal to action were scattered around the city. The excited crowd moved to seek justice in Kolomenskoye, where the tsar was. In Moscow itself, the rebels smashed the courts of the boyars and wealthy merchants. While the tsar was persuading the crowd, archery regiments loyal to the government approached Kolomenskoye. As a result of the brutal massacre, several hundred people died, and 18 were publicly hanged. The "Copper Riot" forced the government to stop issuing copper coins. But even in the autumn of 1662, the archery tax on bread was doubled. This put the townspeople in a particularly difficult situation, since they practically did not engage in agriculture. Mass runs to the Don began - people fled from the settlements, peasants fled.

Peasant war led by Stepan Razin. The culmination of popular performances in the XVII century. there was an uprising of Cossacks and peasants led by S.T. Razin.

Causes of the war: the strengthening of serfdom and the general deterioration of the life of the people. Participants: peasants, the poorest Cossacks, the urban poor. Razin's uprising 2 periods.

1st period from the robbery campaign of the Cossacks to the Caspian Sea in 1667, the Razintsy captured the Yaitsky town. In the summer of 1668, almost 2,000 Razin troops successfully operated in the possessions of Persia (Iran) on the Caspian coast. The captured valuables were exchanged by the Razintsy for Russian prisoners who replenished their ranks. In the winter of 1668, the Cossacks defeated the Persian fleet sent against them. This greatly complicated Russian-Iranian relations and changed the attitude of the government towards the Cossacks.

Then Razin approached Astrakhan. The local governor preferred to peacefully let him into Astrakhan, on the condition that part of the booty and weapons be ceded. In September 1669, Razin's detachments sailed up the Volga and occupied Tsaritsyn, after which they departed for the Don. Inspired by good luck, Razin set about preparing a new campaign, this time “for the good tsar” against the “traitors of the boyars”.

2nd period. The second campaign of Razin from the Don to the Volga began in April 1670. The Cossacks remained the military core, and with the influx into the detachment of a huge number of fugitive peasants, the peoples of the Volga region - Mordovians, Tatars, Chuvashs, social orientation movement has changed dramatically.

In May 1670, Razin's 7,000-strong detachment captured Tsaritsyn again. At the same time, detachments of archers sent from Moscow and Astrakhan were defeated. Having approved the Cossack administration in Astrakhan, the rebels headed up the Volga. Samara and Saratov surrendered without a fight. Throughout the second period, Razin sent out "charming letters" in which he called the people to fight. The peasant war reached its highest limit and covered a vast territory, on which numerous detachments were operating, led by chieftains M. Osipov, M. Kharitonov, V. Fedorov, and nun Alena. The rebels sacked monasteries and estates.

In September, Razin's army approached Simbirsk and stubbornly besieged it for a month. The frightened government announced the mobilization of the nobility - in August 1670, a 60,000-strong army headed for the Middle Volga region. In early October, a government detachment under the command of Yu. Baryatinsky defeated the main forces of Razin and joined the Simbirsk garrison under the command of governor I. Miloslavsky. Razin, wounded, with a small detachment went to the Don, where he hoped to recruit a new army, but was betrayed by the top of the Cossacks and handed over to the government. June 6, 1671 Razin was executed on Red Square in Moscow. In November 1671, Astrakhan fell - the last stronghold of the rebels. The participants in the uprising were severely repressed.

Reasons for the defeat of the uprising: spontaneous nature; lack of a clear action plan; weak discipline and poor weaponry of the rebels; lack of a clear political program; contradictions between different social groups in the camp of the rebels. Razin's uprising was defeated. But it was one of the largest anti-feudal actions in the history of Russia.

The 17th century for Russia is the most turbulent time in its entire history. It received a well-deserved name - the Rebellious Age. The largest popular revolt was, of course, the uprising led by Stepan Razin, but the performances of the archers were no less significant. Tens of thousands of killed and executed - such is the Russian XVII century. What are the 5 main riots of the Rebellious Age?

The final enslavement of the peasants, the restriction of the freedom of the Cossacks and the increase in taxes during the reign of the second Romanov, the Russian people answered unambiguously in 1670. Then an uprising of peasants and Cossacks began under the leadership of Stepan Razin.

The goals of the rebels: the abolition of serfdom and the destruction of the nobles

There is no extradition from Don

TO mid-seventeenth centuries on the Don, where the rule “no extradition from the Don” was in effect, a huge number of fugitive peasants accumulated. The Cossacks who lived here earlier were called "domovity". They received a salary from the king, ran their own household, and could engage in trade. The mass exodus of peasants from the central regions of Russia led to the creation of a new layer - the "young, stupid" Cossacks, that is, the naked.

The backbone of the uprising were the peasants who fled from serfdom

Zipun hike. Preparing for war

In the 1660s, famine began on the Don. Then one of the future leaders of the uprising, Vasily Us, appeared. Together with the detachments of the bare, he went to Moscow, robbing the estates, but, frightened by the troops sent to meet him, he returned to the Don. Many of the Cossacks who walked with Us then went with Razin on the so-called Campaign for zipuns 1667-1669, which is now attributed to the first stage of the uprising, although the campaign was more of a preparation. The main achievement of the Razintsy during this period was the campaign in Persia, the defeat of the Persians and good booty: weapons and valuables. The Cossacks returned to Rus' through Astrakhan. The local governor did not want to fight the Cossacks and let them through, forcing them to leave only heavy guns.

Stepan Razin throws the Persian princess into the Volga

Peasants' War

The uprising itself against the tsarist troops and the nobility began in 1670 with the capture of Tsaritsyn (now Volgograd). The Cossacks surrounded the city, which began to feel a lack of water, and the cattle of the inhabitants began to starve without grass. Gradually, dissatisfaction with the nobility and the governor ripened in the city, and a revolt was prepared.

Tsaritsyn was taken almost without a fight - the locals helped

The governor of the city, Timofey Turgenev, decided to try to negotiate with the Cossacks, so that the residents could at least take water from the Volga. He sent the townspeople for negotiations, who ... coordinated their actions and the beginning of a riot with the Cossacks. As a result, Tsaritsyn was taken practically without a fight: many archers and townspeople went over to the side of the Cossacks, and all the nobility were killed or drowned.

Capture of Astrakhan by the Razintsy, engraving of the 17th century

Executions of oppressor nobles

In the following months, the Razintsy win victory after victory. A detachment of archers of Ivan Lopatin was killed, the survivors were taken prisoner and made rowers. Then Kamyshin was taken and not without the help of local residents. Streltsov, nobles and the governor were executed, the locals were ordered to pack their things and leave the city. Then Kamyshin was looted and burned. Next, an important point on the Volga - Astrakhan. There, the archers were supportive of Razin and angry at the authorities, who delayed the payment of salaries. The Astrakhan fleet sent against Razin went over to his side. When the Cossacks attacked Astrakhan, an uprising of archers and the poor broke out in the city. It is known what happened to the nobles and the governor.

Streltsy massively went over to the side of the rebels

Every slave is now a free man

After these victories, the Middle Volga region went over to the side of Razin and his Cossacks: Saratov, Samara, Penza, as well as the Chuvash, Mari, Tatars and Mordovians. This was largely facilitated by the fact that Stepan Razin declared every peasant who went over to his side a free man. Near Samara, Razin announced that Patriarch Nikon and Tsarevich Alexei Alekseevich were coming with him. This further increased the influx of the poor into its ranks.

Razin made every peasant a free man

Razin's campaign on the Volga was accompanied by mass uprisings of serfs in this newly enslaved area. Here, local leaders came to the fore, one of whom was the fugitive nun Alyona Arzamasskaya.

B. M. Kustodiev. "Stepan Razin"

inglorious end

In September 1670, the Razintsy besieged Simbirsk, but could not take it. Government troops headed by Prince Yu. A. Dolgorukov moved to Razin. A month after the start of the siege, the tsarist troops defeated the rebels, and the seriously wounded Razin was taken to the Don by his associates. Fearing reprisals, the Cossack elite, led by the military ataman Kornil Yakovlev, handed over Razin to the authorities. In June 1671 he was quartered in Moscow; his brother Frol was allegedly executed on the same day. Despite the death of their leader, the rebels continued to fight. So, the Razintsy held Arkhangelsk until November 1671, and individual foci did not go out for a long time.

Razin was betrayed by his own chieftains

Bestial cruelty of the nobility

It is noteworthy with what bitterness the massacres of the rebels were carried out. More than 11,000 people were executed in Arzamas alone. The Cossack leaders were quartered, and the already mentioned Alyona Arzamasskaya was completely burned alive.

The reasons for the defeat of the rebels are simple to the point of banality: spontaneity and low organization, the fragmentation of the actions of the peasants and a poor understanding of their own tasks and ultimate goals, in addition to the abolition of serfdom.

In the 1660s, Alexei Mikhailovich ordered the issue of copper money, which should have become equal in value to silver. As a result, the distribution of coppers throughout the country depreciated the money. The result was the Copper Riot of 1662.

An angry mob stormed into the king's residence

Almost all the ignorant strata of the urban population rebelled: artisans, small traders, peasants and the poor. They refused to accept copper money and ransacked the yards of those who were involved in minting copper coins. The crowd broke into the village of Kolomenskoye, the residence of the king at that time. Frightened, the king went out to the people and promised to condemn the "traitors". And at that very time, an army was coming from Moscow to the tsar to help. The rebellion was suppressed, but copper money was also withdrawn from circulation.

A major uprising of archers broke out in 1682 in Moscow and went down in history as Khovanshchina. The people were dissatisfied with the fact that the boyars seized power and put the young, ten-year-old Peter on the throne. A fair question arose, how would the younger brother rule instead of Ivan, the elder brother? As a result, Princess Sophia actually ruled.

The rebels were outraged that instead of the elder brother, the younger would be king

A stone monument was erected on Red Square - a monument to the victory of the rebels. Their representatives controlled the work of the Boyar Duma and orders. Streltsy and soldiers were sure that the class of servicemen on the instrument should be on a par with the nobility in the state. But they allowed themselves to be deceived, bribed with privileges. The uprising ended in peace with the government of Princess Sophia, who promised to observe justice and fairness in the country.

Having ascended the throne, the young Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich (reigned: 1645 - 1676) was faced with the fact that the treasury was constantly short of money. The government, led by the boyar Boris Morozov, proposed reforms to replenish the treasury. In particular, the “lesson years” were canceled (after which the runaway peasant became free), the “white” settlements (belonging to feudal lords and not taxed) were liquidated, but most importantly, indirect taxes were introduced. Including the tax on the import of salt.

The rebels killed the tsar's associates and plundered Morozov's yard

Salt was needed by people not so much as a seasoning, but as a preservative. Without it, it was impossible to prepare food for the winter: fish, vegetables, mushrooms, lard. And at the same time, thousands of pounds of fish rotted on the Volga without salt. Not only the poor were dissatisfied, but also merchants who suffered losses. The treasury was still not replenished.

As a result of general dissatisfaction with the current situation in 1648, the Salt Riot took place in Moscow. People close to the king were killed. The courtyard of the boyar Morozov, who was considered the main culprit of the increase in the tax on salt, was plundered. The king was afraid. He dismissed the boyar Morozov and exiled him. The revolt in the capital began to subside.

As the reasons for the next streltsy rebellion, dissatisfaction with the conditions of insufficient salaries, isolation from families, and the appointment of foreign officers to senior military positions are called. However, the rebellion was not only economic and social, but also political in nature: according to many testimonies and testimonies, the archers planned to enthrone Princess Sophia, who was the regent for the young Peter and Ivan. The compromise government of Sofya Alekseevna suited the archers, who personified the interests of the city dwellers.

Peter I severely punished the archers, and tonsured Princess Sophia as a nun

With the beginning of the uprising, Peter I had to urgently return to Russia - the tsar was then in Europe with the Great Embassy. The tsar brutally dealt with the rebels - the young tsar had hatred for the archers from childhood, from the Khovanshchina itself. The rioters were hanged on the ramparts in Moscow, many were executed on the chopping blocks. Tsarevna Sofya Alekseevna Peter I considered the instigator of a riot. There was no direct evidence, but for him she personified all the past he hated. Sophia was forcibly forced to take a haircut as a nun. So from Princess Sophia of the Romanov family, she turned into the nun Susanna.

Introduction

The 17th CENTURY still remains largely unappreciated, despite the efforts of many eminent scientists who studied and popularized it. It did not become a milestone in the history of the Russian state, occupying a niche between the events of the Time of Troubles and the Petrine reforms. Meanwhile, it is one of the most interesting periods national history.

Since the time of Ivan III, Rus' considered itself a state that embodied truly Divine orders on earth, and with understandable (after the Mongols, fights with Lithuania and the Commonwealth) distrust, looking at European technical and scientific achievements.

At the beginning of the 17th century, faced with the unrighteous Latin countries, she was forced to recognize, at least, their equality with herself. The turn towards Europe was not easy for the country and largely depended on the strengthening of the central government and the development of the state apparatus. It was at this time that absolutism began to take shape in Russia. It took shape under the undivided domination of the feudal-serf system. The autocracy, strengthening its positions, maneuvered between the groupings of the ruling class, which, in a moment of danger, rallied around the throne, which contributed to the strengthening of the throne and the centralization of government. Russia's gradual transition to absolutism is clearly visible in various areas of the country's political life, both external and of a deeper nature.

The very change in the title of the autocrat testified to this: instead of "sovereign", the king and Grand Duke of all Rus', after 1654 they wrote: "By God's Grace, the great sovereign, tsar and grand prince of all Great, and Small, and White Rus' and autocrat." In this formulation, the Divine origin of royal power and its unlimited character were especially emphasized. Two chapters of the Code of 1649, adopted under Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich (1645-1676), were specifically devoted to protecting the prestige of the royal power, determining punishments for damaging the honor of the autocrat.

The son of Mikhail Fedorovich Romanov, Alexei, who earned the nickname "The Quietest", was brought up in the tower by the boyar Morozov. He was a well-read man with a literary gift. He tried to compose poetry, published an excellent instruction on falconry, was strong in the epistolary genre. Sensitive, but not refined, he quickly fell into anger, but did not hide evil for a long time, trying to caress the wronged in vain. Alexey Mikhailovich also loved charity, to the point that pilgrims, holy fools, and wanderers lived in the palace on full support. The king was a zealous master and a deeply religious person, he loved reading and stories, he did not remain indifferent to beauty in all its manifestations. However, throughout his life, Alexei Mikhailovich easily succumbed to other people's influence (Morozov, Nikon, Mstislavsky), did not know how to work hard and regularly, was indecisive, and sometimes weak-willed, which he tried to compensate for with great lust for power.

Evidence of the strengthening of the autocracy was the decline in the significance of Zemsky Sobors. Not so far away was the time of their heyday, when the shattered power tried to rely on the authority of representative institutions. However, already the Zemsky Sobor of 1653, which decided on the reunification of Ukraine with Russia, became the last council of the full composition. The very reunification of the Slavic lands was an important milestone in the history of the Russian state. It marked not only its strengthening, but also wider contacts with the West through the newly annexed lands.

Now the strengthened autocracy no longer needed class-representative props. Zemsky Sobors were replaced by the Boyar Duma and other institutions. However, there were also significant changes in the Duma itself. First of all, its composition was changing: nobles and clerks were gaining more and more power in it. The number of members of this body also increased sharply, by the end of the century it consisted of 94 people, which made its work quite difficult. Already Alexei Mikhailovich had to create a narrower body within the Boyar Duma for the prompt resolution of pressing issues.

Changes also took place in the order system, which flourished in the 17th century. It was complex, multi-layered and difficult to explain in terms of the functions of this or that order. According to their purpose, the latter were divided into permanent and temporary, and those, in turn, into personally sovereign, patriarchal, palace and state. Throughout the 17th century there were about 80 orders, the functions of which often overlapped, which did not contribute to the clarity and professionalism of management. During this time, the number of officials in them also increased sharply: in the middle of the century there were 837 clerks, at the end? 2739. To control their activities, it was necessary to create an "Order of Secret Affairs", but this did little to improve the situation.

One of the most important and well-known events of the government of Alexei Mikhailovich was the adoption of the Code of 1649. It consists of 25 chapters, almost a thousand articles and covers all areas of public life. This is a code of laws, compiled from former Russian regulations with the addition of Byzantine and Lithuanian laws. However, the Code was not a collection of old material, it contains many new provisions, and the old ones were significantly revised.

The Code canceled the fixed summer for the investigation of the fugitives. Thus, the peasants were finally attached to the land. It forbade the clergy to acquire estates, which sharply limited the possibility of expanding the monastic land ownership. The Code consolidated and isolated the townspeople, turning them into a closed class. Now it was impossible to leave the settlement, but outsiders, alien to the taxable urban population, could not enter the settlement.

Most of these changes took place against the backdrop of an intensification of the struggle between various strata of Russian society. "Rebellion" of the 17th century expressed itself not only in them, but also in the ideological crisis that hit the country in the 1650s. It began with attempts by the church "top" to restore the unity of the content of sacred books and rituals. Back in 1640, a circle of zealots of ancient piety was formed in Moscow, which included future ideological opponents Nikon and Avvakum. They tried to resist the arbitrary reduction of church services and the penetration of secular principles into the spiritual life of society, to fight the vices that had spread among the priests.

The dispute within the Circle unfolded over the models on which it was necessary to make changes in the sacred texts. For some, these were ancient Russian handwritten books, for others, their Greek originals. Both those and other sources turned out to be faulty: in Russian books there were no two identical texts (scribal errors, inattention to the original), Greek texts were subject to changes after the fall of Byzantium and the conclusion of a union between the Byzantine and Catholic churches. At the heart of the overdue conflict lay not only purely church affairs, but also the fundamental choice between the Byzantine and ancient Russian heritage, and, ultimately, the relationship between Russia and Europe. Having become patriarch in 1652, Nikon energetically set about church reform, relying on Greek books to carry it out. He was opposed by a group that insisted on the "purity" of Russian texts, which was headed by Archpriest Avvakum.

1. Causes of "Rebellion" of the 17th century

The most important reasons for such a scale of social conflicts, unprecedented before in Russia, were the development of serfdom, the strengthening of state taxes and duties.

The "Cathedral Code" of 1649 legally formalized serfdom. The strengthening of feudal oppression met with fierce resistance from the peasants and the lower classes of the urban population, which was expressed, first of all, in powerful peasant urban uprisings (1648,1650,1662, 1670-1671). The class struggle was also reflected in the largest religious movement in Russia in the 17th century. - schism of the Russian Orthodox Church.

Decree of 1607

Legislative measures against fugitive peasants ended with a decree on March 9, 1607, which for the first time tried to remove peasant escapes from the area of ​​civil offenses prosecuted on the private initiative of the victim, turning them into a criminal offense, into a matter of state order: the search for and return of fugitive peasants, regardless of the claims of landowners he imposed on the regional administration, under pain of heavy responsibility, for failure to fulfill this new duty for it, and for the reception of fugitives, previously unpunished, he appointed a large fine in favor of the treasury in favor of the treasury of 10 rubles for each yard or for a lone peasant, in addition to remuneration, and instigated to escape in addition to the monetary penalty, he was also subjected to a commercial penalty (whip). However, this decree also allowed the limitation period for claims against fugitive peasants, only extended to 15 years. On the other hand, he directly recognized the personal, and not the land, attachment of the landowning peasants: those of them who 15 years before the decree were recorded in land inventories, in cadastral books of 1592-1593, were instructed "to be behind those for whom they were written." However, the decree either failed, or was understood only in the sense of prohibiting peasant escapes and exports, and not as abolishing the legal exit of peasants. Peasant orders and after that were made on the same terms; the very assumption of a 15-year statute of limitations for the fugitives supported the character of purely civil relations behind the peasant land contracts. The decree was issued when the Troubles flared up, undoubtedly interfering with its action. It tightened the knot of obligatory relations between peasants and masters, when all the foundations of the state order were shaken, when the taxing and unfree classes threw off their old obligations and were even less embarrassed by new ones. The century in Russian history acquired a reputation as "rebellious". Indeed, it began with the Troubles, the middle of it was marked by urban uprisings, the last third - by the uprising of Stepan Razin.

2. Revolts of the 17th century

"Salt Riot"

In 1646, a duty was introduced on salt, which significantly increased its price. Meanwhile, salt in the XVII century. was one of the most important products - the main preservative that allowed the storage of meat and fish. Following the salt, these products themselves have risen in price. Their sales fell, unsold goods began to deteriorate. This caused discontent, both consumers and merchants. Growth in government revenues was less than expected as salt smuggling developed. Already at the end of 1647, the "salt" tax was abolished. In an effort to compensate for the losses, the government cut the salaries of service people "according to the instrument", that is, archers and gunners. General discontent continued to grow.

June 1648 in Moscow there was a so-called "salt" riot. The crowd stopped the carriage of the tsar, who was returning from pilgrimage, and demanded that the head of the Zemsky order, Leonty Pleshcheev, be replaced. Pleshcheev's servants tried to disperse the audience, which only provoked even more bitterness. On June 2, pogroms of boyar estates began in Moscow. The clerk Nazarei Chistoy, whom Muscovites considered the inspirer of the salt tax, was killed. The rebels demanded that the closest associate of the tsar, boyar Morozov, who actually led the entire state apparatus, and the head of the Pushkar order, boyar Trakhaniotov, be handed over for reprisal. Not having the strength to suppress the uprising, in which, along with the townspeople, the servicemen "according to the instrument" participated, the tsar relented, ordering the extradition of Pleshcheev and Trakhaniotov, who were immediately killed. Morozov, his tutor and brother-in-law (the tsar and Morozov were married to sisters) Aleksey Mikhailovich “prayed” from the rebels and sent him into exile to the Kirillo-Belozersky monastery.

The government announced the cessation of collecting arrears, convened the Zemsky Sobor, which met the most important demands of the townspeople to ban the transition to the "white settlements" and the nobles - to introduce an indefinite investigation of the fugitives. Thus, the government satisfied all the demands of the rebels, which indicates the relative weakness of the state apparatus (primarily repressive) at that time.

Uprisings in other cities

Following the Salt Riot, urban uprisings swept through other cities: Veliky Ustyug, Kursk, Kozlov, Pskov, Novgorod.

The strongest were the uprisings in Pskov and Novgorod, caused by a rise in the price of bread due to its deliveries to Sweden. The urban poor, who were threatened by famine, expelled the governor, defeated the courts of wealthy merchants and seized power. In the summer of 1650, both uprisings were suppressed by government troops, however, they managed to enter Pskov only due to discord among the rebels.

"Copper Riot"

In 1662, a major uprising again took place in Moscow, which went down in history as the "Copper Riot". It was caused by an attempt by the government to replenish the treasury, devastated by a difficult long war with Poland (1654-1667) and Sweden (1656-58). In order to compensate for the huge costs, the government put copper money into circulation, equating it with silver in price. At the same time, taxes were collected silver coin, and goods were ordered to be sold for copper money. The salaries of servicemen were also paid in copper. Copper money was not trusted, especially since they were often forged. Not wanting to trade for copper money, the peasants stopped bringing food to Moscow, which caused prices to skyrocket. Copper money depreciated: if in 1661 two copper rubles were given for a silver ruble, then in 1662 - eight copper ones.

July 1662 a riot followed. Some of the townspeople rushed to smash the boyar estates, while others moved to the village of Kolomenskoye near Moscow, where the tsar was in those days. Alexei Mikhailovich promised the rebels to come to Moscow and sort things out. The crowd seemed to calm down. But in the meantime, new groups of rebels appeared in Kolomenskoye - those who had previously broken the courtyards of the boyars in the capital. They demanded that the tsar extradite the boyars most hated by the people and threatened that if the sovereign “does not give them back those boyars for good”, then they “will begin to have them themselves, according to their custom.”

However, during the negotiations, archers called by the tsar had already arrived in Kolomenskoye, who fell on the unarmed crowd and drove it to the river. Over 100 people drowned, many were hacked or captured, and the rest fled. By royal order, 150 rebels were hanged, the rest were beaten with a whip and branded with iron.

Unlike the "salt", "copper" rebellion was brutally suppressed, as the government managed to keep the archers on its side and use them against the townspeople.

Rebellion of Stepan Razin

The largest popular performance of the second half of the XVII century. happened on the Don and on the Volga.

The population of the Don was the Cossacks. The Cossacks were not engaged in agriculture. Their main occupations were hunting, fishing, cattle breeding and raids on the possessions of neighboring Turkey, the Crimea and Persia. For guard service to protect the southern borders of the state, the Cossacks received royal salaries in bread, money and gunpowder. The government also put up with the fact that runaway peasants and townspeople found shelter on the Don. The principle “no extradition from the Don” was in effect.

In the middle of the XVII century. equality no longer existed in the Cossack environment. The elite of the wealthy (“home-loving”) Cossacks stood out, who owned the best fisheries, herds of horses, who received the best share in the booty and the royal salary. Poor ("goat-like") Cossacks worked for the homely.

In the 40s. 17th century the Cossacks lost access to the Azov and Black Seas, as the Turks fortified the fortress of Azov. This prompted the Cossacks to move their campaigns for prey to the Volga and the Caspian Sea. The robbery of Russian and Persian merchant caravans caused great damage to trade with Persia and the entire economy of the Lower Volga region. Simultaneously with the influx of fugitives from Russia, the hostility of the Cossacks to the Moscow boyars and clerks also grew.

Already in 1666, a detachment of Cossacks under the command of Ataman Vasily Us invaded Russia from the Upper Don, reached almost Tula, destroying noble estates on its way. Only the threat of a meeting with a large government army forced Mustache to turn back. Numerous serfs who joined him went with him to the Don. The speech of Vasily Us showed that the Cossacks are ready at any moment to oppose the existing order and authorities.

In 1667, a detachment of a thousand Cossacks went to the Caspian Sea on a campaign "for zipuns", that is, for prey. At the head of this detachment was ataman Stepan Timofeevich Razin - a native of the homely Cossacks, strong-willed, intelligent and mercilessly cruel. Razin's detachment during 1667-1669 robbed Russian and Persian merchant caravans, attacked coastal Persian cities. With rich booty, the Razintsy returned to Astrakhan, and from there to the Don. The Zipun Campaign was purely predatory. However, its meaning is wider. It was in this campaign that the core of the Razin army was formed, and the generous distribution of alms to the common people brought unprecedented popularity to the ataman.

In the spring of 1670, Razin began a new campaign. This time, he decided to go against the "traitor boyars". Without resistance, Tsaritsyn was captured, the inhabitants of which gladly opened the gates to the Cossacks. The archers sent against Razin from Astrakhan went over to his side. Their example was followed by the rest of the Astrakhan garrison. The resisting voevoda and the Astrakhan nobles were killed.

After that, Razin headed up the Volga. Along the way, he sent out "charming letters", calling on the common people to beat the boyars, governors, nobles and clerks. To attract supporters, Razin spread a rumor that Tsarevich Alexei Alekseevich (actually already deceased) and Patriarch Nikon were in his army. The main participants in the uprising were Cossacks, peasants, serfs, townspeople and workers. The cities of the Volga region surrendered without resistance. In all the captured cities, Razin introduced management along the lines of the Cossack circle.

Failure awaited Razin only near Simbirsk, the siege of which dragged on. Meanwhile, the government sent a 60,000-strong army to suppress the uprising. On October 3, 1670, near Simbirsk, the government army under the command of the governor Yuri Baryatinsky inflicted a severe defeat on the Razints. Razin was wounded and fled to the Don, to the Kagalnitsky town, from which he began his campaign a year ago. He hoped to re-gather his supporters. However, the thrifty Cossacks, led by the military ataman Kornila Yakovlev, realizing that Razin's actions could bring royal wrath on all the Cossacks, seized him and handed him over to the government governors.

Razin was tortured and in the summer of 1671 he was executed on Bolotnaya Square in Moscow along with his brother Frol. The participants in the uprising were subjected to cruel persecution and executions.

The main reasons for the defeat of the Razin uprising were its spontaneity and low organization, the fragmentation of the actions of the peasants, as a rule, limited to the destruction of the estate of their own master, the lack of clearly conscious goals for the rebels. Even if the Razintsy managed to win and capture Moscow (this did not happen in Russia, but in other countries, for example, in China, the rebellious peasants managed to take power several times), they would not be able to create a new just society. After all, the only example of such a just society in their minds was the Cossack circle. But the whole country cannot exist due to the seizure and division of other people's property. Any state needs a system of government, an army, taxes. Therefore, the victory of the rebels would inevitably be followed by a new social differentiation. The victory of the unorganized peasant and Cossack masses would inevitably lead to great sacrifices and would cause significant damage to Russian culture and the development of the Russian state

There is no unity in historical science on the question of whether Razin's uprising should be considered a peasant-Cossack uprising or a peasant war. IN Soviet time the name "peasant war" was used, in the pre-revolutionary period it was about an uprising. IN last years again, the definition of "rebellion" is predominant.

Speaking of the Razin uprising, it should be noted that most of the major uprisings began on the outskirts, since, on the one hand, many fugitives accumulated there, not burdened with a large economy and ready for decisive action, and on the other hand, the power there was much weaker than in the center of the country.

Uprising in the Solovetsky Monastery.

Nikon comes from the family of the Mordovian peasant Mina, in the world - Nikita Minin. He became patriarch in 1652. Nikon, distinguished by his uncompromising, resolute character, had tremendous influence on Alexei Mikhailovich, who called him his "sobin (special) friend."

The centralization of the Russian state required the unification of church rules and rituals.

The most important ritual changes were: baptism with not two, but three fingers, replacement prostrations half-length, three-time singing of "Hallelujah" instead of two times, the movement of believers in the church past the altar not in the direction of the sun, but against it. The name of Christ began to be written in a different way - “Jesus” instead of “Jesus”. Some changes were made to the rules of worship and icon painting. All books and icons painted according to old models were to be destroyed.

For believers, this was a serious departure from the traditional canon. After all, a prayer uttered not according to the rules is not only ineffective - it is blasphemous! The most stubborn and consistent opponents of Nikon were the "zealots of ancient piety" (previously the patriarch himself was a member of this circle). They accused him of introducing "Latinism", because the Greek Church since the time of the Florentine Union of 1439 was considered "spoiled" in Russia. Moreover, Greek liturgical books were printed not in Turkish Constantinople, but in Catholic Venice.

Nikon's opponents - the "Old Believers" - refused to recognize the reforms he had carried out. At church councils in 1654 and 1656. Nikon's opponents were accused of schism, excommunicated and exiled.

The most prominent supporter of the schism was Archpriest Avvakum, a talented publicist and preacher. The former court priest, a member of the circle of "zealots of ancient piety" survived a difficult exile, suffering, the death of children, but did not abandon the fanatical opposition to "Nikonianism" and its defender - the king. After a 14-year imprisonment in an "earth prison", Avvakum was burned alive for "blasphemy against the royal house." The most famous work of Old Believer literature was the "Life" of Avvakum, written by himself.

church cathedral 1666/1667 cursed the Old Believers. Severe persecution of dissenters began. Supporters of the split were hiding in the hard-to-reach forests of the North, the Volga region, and the Urals. Here they created sketes, continuing to pray in the old way. Often, in the event of the approach of the royal punitive detachments, they staged a "burn" - self-immolation.

The monks of the Solovetsky Monastery did not accept Nikon's reforms. Until 1676, the rebellious monastery withstood the siege of the tsarist troops. The rebels, believing that Alexei Mikhailovich had become a servant of the Antichrist, abandoned the traditional Orthodox prayer for the tsar.

The reasons for the fanatical stubbornness of the schismatics were rooted, first of all, in their belief that Nikonianism was a product of Satan. However, this confidence itself was fed by certain social reasons.

The bulk of the schismatics were peasants who left for sketes not only for the right faith, but also for freedom, from the lordly and monastic requisitions.

The ideology of the split, which was based on the rejection of everything new, the fundamental rejection of any foreign influence, secular education, was extremely conservative.

All uprisings of the 17th century. were spontaneous. The participants in the events acted under the influence of desperation and the desire to capture prey.

rebellious age Razin uprising

3. The development of the culture of the "Rebellious Age"

Painting.

The painting of this period in the art history literature of the last eighty years was regarded as a decline, as the decline of ancient Russian art, which seemed to have exhausted itself and faced the historical inevitability of giving way to the art of the New Age. The merits of individual works or whole phenomena of artistic life were determined only by the measure of their approximation to the realistic method, which had been established in the West since the Renaissance, and in our country since the time of Peter the Great's reforms. The main merit of the artists of this time was considered to be the inclusion in the art of everyday scenes, containing at least a hint of a reflection of reality, as well as the decorative qualities of fresco paintings. Paintings of the 17th century denied in the depth of content, in the absence of figurative characteristics. Against the backdrop of the turbulent events of the "rebellious" century art it seemed like a quiet backwater, where no noise from the street could be heard, and the artists were only worried about disputes about how to write - “light-like” (life-like) or “dark-like”.

icon painting

The artistic heritage of the Solovetsky Monastery is attracting more and more attention from researchers. It is known that Solovki had its own icon-painting workshop, which since 1615 was located in a special stone chamber - this circumstance, in our opinion, testifies to the great importance attached to its activities. One of the important, but still little studied, is the problem of the formation and development of the traditions of local Solovetsky icon painting, the definition of its peculiar features. Of particular importance in this regard is the identification and study of works created directly in the monastery icon-painting workshop, since at present, in the surviving complex of Solovetsky monuments of ancient Russian painting, works by local masters are sometimes lost among the icons painted for the monastery in other picturesque centers.

Folk art

Anti-church sentiments and the social protest of the masses were directly reflected in oral folk art. Such proverbs as “there is no prayer, but there is no benefit”, “someone is sick, but the priest is sick”, show a hostile and mocking attitude towards churchmen and church rites in the mass of the population. The condemnation of all gentlemen sounds in the proverbs in exactly the same way: “the gates to the boyar court are wide, but narrow from the courtyard”, “God punished the people - he sent the governor”, ​​etc.

Folklore reflected the consciousness of one's strength emerging among the people: "a man is naked, and he has a stake in his hands." Stepan Timofeevich Razin became the favorite hero of folk art, around the name of which numerous legends, songs, and legends have developed. In one of the reworked ancient epics, Razin turned out to be endowed with heroic features and stood next to Ilya Muromets, and in another epic, Ilya Muromets was already the captain on the ship of Stepan Razin.

Buffoons, bear guides, puppeteers with their beloved Petrushka roamed all over Russia. We saw them on the streets of the capital. Their bold and sharp, imbued with rude folk humor, denunciations of secular and spiritual masters strongly attracted the people and just as much disturbed the feudal elites of society. Patriarch Joasaph called the folk theater "satanic games", Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich sent a decree to the cities in 1648 - not to let buffoons, disperse "disgrace" (spectacles), and "hari" (masks) and "demonic buzzing vessels" to break and burn , naughty ones to beat with batogs - but nothing helped.

Literature

The spread of literacy among the townspeople, as well as the creation of a significant layer of educated clerks, contributed to the penetration of democratic elements into literature. A fictional character appeared in literature, now belonging not to the feudal elite, but to servicemen or townspeople, and even to "naked and not rich." Increased attention to human personality, to its individual characteristics, to the experiences, actions of an individual.

One of the brightest phenomena in the history of Russian literature was the emergence of democratic satire, the object of which was not only secular gentlemen and rulers, but the church and clergymen. This reflected the "rebellious time." Democratic satire, which came out of the popular, mostly urban, environment, appealing to a wide layer of literate people in the same environment, had a great influence on it. Already in the first half of the century, the “Tale of the Chicken and the Fox” spread, in which the hypocrisy and money-grubbing of the clergy was ridiculed. Popular was the "Service to the tavern", parodying the ritual church service and denounced the widespread "tavern ruin" arranged by the treasury. The parody "Kalyazinsky petition" contained a sharp mockery of the drunkenness and promiscuity of the monks and the arbitrariness of the monastic rulers. A manifestation of religious free-thinking was the "Tale of the Mothman", where it was "proved" that all the "saints" themselves were sinners, therefore the "mothman" has the same reason to be in paradise as the Apostle Peter and other "saints".

A new phenomenon in literature was the emergence of versification. A native of the Belarusian lands, Simeon Polotsky (Samuil Efimovich Sitnianovich) translated the psalter into verse, which served for a long time a manual for teaching children to read and write, and also composed a lot of pompous, with many allegories of poems, glorifying the kings Alexei Mikhailovich and Fyodor Alekseevich. At the end of the century, poets Sylvester Medvedev and Karion Istomin worked in the same direction.

applied arts

There was also a strong desire for decorativeness in this area. This finds its expression in the appearance of rich "salaries" of icons, where silver, gold with precious stones close almost the entire image, leaving only the "faces" and hands open (this is how Andrei Rublev's "Trinity" was closed in the 17th century). Jewelry art has created many magnificent works of art- household items of the feudal nobility, cult items, etc. Sewing became just as magnificent, adorned with precious stones.

Woodcarving, which penetrated everywhere - from the royal chambers to peasant and townsman huts and household utensils, was widely spread and highly artistically developed. Carved platbands and cornices, carving decoration of porches, the originality of carving techniques in different areas constitute one of the characteristic features Russian artistic culture of the 17th century.

Many of the best carvers were assembled at the Armory to carry out government orders. Here, partly under the influence of Belarusian craftsmen, techniques of a special, monumental manner of carving, rich in decorative elements, were developed. Finely crafted wooden carved iconostases in the most significant temples were covered with gold, creating the illusion of metal (gold) casting. Royal, patriarchal, episcopal “places” in cathedrals, backs of chairs in palaces, carriages and other items were trimmed with magnificent figured carving.

Sculpture developed extremely slowly and was still represented by folk wood carvings and high reliefs of works of applied art.

The development of Russian culture in the 17th century. reflected the most important process of the formation of the Russian nation. The beginning of the destruction of the medieval religious-feudal ideology and the establishment of secular principles in spiritual culture are associated with it. Despite the opposition of churchmen, who were afraid of the penetration of “Latinism” into Russia, in the 17th century. expanded cultural ties with Western Europe. However, all these new cultural trends touched only the top of society. The bulk of the population remained illiterate and superstitious. For further development Russian culture, the country needed more decisive and broad transformations, which were later carried out by Peter I.

Conclusion

"Rebellious Age" is a common name of the 17th century Russian chronicle. The title is associated with the countless internal conflicts that troubled the Capital Kingdom from the end of the 16th century to the beginning of the 18th century. Because of this period, the Russian government experienced two full-scale civil struggles (the Troubles of 1603-1619; the war with the Don leaders S. Razin and V. Us 1666-1671), a lot of uprisings of the bourgeois, even in Moscow itself, " rebellious age ”, peasant riots, revolts of the Cossacks, as well as archers, the actions of countless impostors, a church schism.

The "rebelliousness" of the century had a lot of circumstances. Among them in the main place is the legalization of serfdom. It should also be called the dynastic crisis, connected with the cessation at the end of the 16th century. the Rurik dynasty, the opposition of the government to the intensified Cossack freemen, the advent of royal power to the rights of the estates. With extreme relapses of the "rebellious age" (streltsy uprisings, the battle with the Cossacks of K. Bulavin, etc.) at the end of the 17th - the beginning of the 18th centuries. met Peter I. His fierce, relying on renewed military force, public indignation was suppressed for some time.

century was the beginning of a new period in the field of culture. Changes took place in the socio-economic and political life of Russian society, which caused a revival of the socio-political thought of the advanced part of the people. The revitalization of urban life, the development of industry, crafts and trade greatly increased the role of the townspeople, their craving for knowledge and enlightenment. The situation of the "rebellious age", decisive actions against the oppressors strengthened people's faith in their own strength, awakened in them a craving for a new and meaningful existence. The schism further weakened the influence of the church. Russian art took the first steps to become secular, free in its expression. This was also facilitated by the expansion of ties with the West. Along with the Greek-Slavic enlightenment, Western-Latin culture came to Russia, which was previously rejected by the Orthodox Church. But Russian culture remained fundamentally feudal, accessible only to the upper stratum of the ruling class. The centers of culture themselves were formed in the most major cities with industry, craft, trade, and, above all, in Moscow, at the royal court. The social protest of the broad masses of the people against the dominance of the feudal lords was reflected in folklore. Proverbs and sayings occupied one of the central places in it.

In the 17th century came new stage in the development of the Russian language. The central regions, headed by Moscow, played a leading role in it. The Moscow dialect became dominant, turning into a common Great Russian language. Great importance was attached to education and enlightenment. In Moscow in the 80s of the 17th century. about 24% of the townspeople were literate.

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