Introduction

At every stage historical development society, pedagogy as a science reflected the state of education, training and upbringing of the younger generation.

The development of pedagogy as a science took place in line with philosophy (knowledge about man and society). Only in the 16th-17th centuries. pedagogy becomes an independent science. Within the framework of philosophy, they mainly considered the view of the world and the place of man in it, the relationship between man and society. Pedagogy as a private science focused on the following problems:

• -- Human;
• -- personality and society;
• - upbringing, education, training;
• - ideals of education;
• - the ideal of the individual in society.

Pedagogy becomes the science of education, the process of enlightenment and self-education of the individual.

Functions of pedagogical science

Pedagogical science performs the same functions as any other scientific discipline: description, explanation and prediction of phenomena in the area of ​​reality that she studies. These functions are interconnected. Thus, a prerequisite for prediction (prognostic function) is the explanation of the state of affairs by searching for patterns from which this situation follows in given conditions. An explanation, for example, of the ineffectiveness of a particular teaching method can be given on the basis of a description of facts when its use did not lead to students mastering specific educational material.

However, pedagogical science, the object of which lies in the social and humanitarian sphere, has its own specifics. Although the process of obtaining pedagogical knowledge is subject to general laws scientific knowledge and the introduction of precise, rigorous research methods into this process is necessary; the nature and results of pedagogical research are largely determined by the influence of the attitudes of value-based practical consciousness, as is always the case in the social and humanitarian field. Therefore, it is not possible to build pedagogical science entirely on the model of natural science disciplines. The predictive function of pedagogical theory, unlike, for example, theory in physics, is not only that it makes it possible to foresee how the process (in this case pedagogical) will proceed “on its own”, without our intervention. It is important not only to capture the “self-motion” of an object and, on this basis, to predict how this particular pedagogical system we are studying will behave. It is also necessary to show how this system can be transformed and improved. The task will be twofold: not only to study, but also to design. Therefore, it is necessary to make some addition to the list of functions of science already mentioned. Let's look at this issue in more detail.

The process of obtaining knowledge in pedagogy that reflects reality in theoretical or empirical knowledge, is not fundamentally different from what happens in sciences such as physics, chemistry or, for example, history. But pedagogical reality cannot be limited to only an objective reflection of what is being studied, even the most reliable one. She is required to influence pedagogical reality, transform it, and improve it. Therefore, it combines two functions that in other scientific fields are usually divided between different disciplines: scientific-theoretical and constructive-technical (normative, regulatory). The scientific-theoretical function is inherent in such fundamental sciences as physics, chemistry, biology, constructive-technical - technical sciences, medicine, etc. In pedagogy, these functions are combined. Pedagogy cannot be characterized only as a theoretical or only as an applied science. On the one hand, it describes and explains pedagogical phenomena, on the other, it indicates how to teach and educate. Implementing a scientific-theoretical function, the researcher reflects pedagogical reality as it is, as an existing thing. As a result, knowledge is obtained about the success or failure of teachers’ work using new textbooks, about the difficulties that students experience when studying educational materials certain type, about the composition, functions and structure of educational content, etc.

Carrying out the constructive and technical function, the researcher reflects pedagogical reality as it should be. This is knowledge about what should be done - about how to plan, implement and improve pedagogical activities in accordance with the goals of the educational process and the conditions in which it takes place. This includes the principles of teaching individual subjects, pedagogical rules, methodological recommendations, etc.

The functions of pedagogical science are divided into theoretical and technological functions.

The theoretical function of pedagogy is represented at three levels:

• -- descriptive - explanatory;
• -- diagnostic;
• -- prognostic.

The first level is implemented in the study of advanced pedagogical experience (descriptive level).

The second level allows us to identify the state of pedagogical phenomena, the effectiveness of the activities of the teacher and students, and determine the conditions and factors that ensure them (diagnostic level).

The third level is implemented in experimental studies of pedagogical reality, which makes it possible to create on their basis models for transforming this reality (predictive level).

The technological function of pedagogy is related to:

• -- with the development of teaching materials (curricula, programs, textbooks and teaching aids, methodological recommendations), which allows you to design a plan pedagogical activity(projective level);
• -- with the introduction of the achievements of pedagogical science into educational practice with the aim of transforming it (transformational level);
• -- with assessment of the impact of the results scientific research to the practice of training and education, allowing for reflection and adjustment of interaction scientific theory and practical activity (reflective level).

Based on these functions, the main tasks of pedagogy are:

analysis current state and forecasting the development of education in the future;

development of theoretical and methodological foundations of education;

identification of patterns of training, personality development and management of pedagogical systems;

determination of the content of education in specific conditions;

development of educational standards;

development of new methods, means, forms, systems of training and education;

study and generalization of practice, experience of teaching activities, scientific analysis of pedagogical innovations;

implementation of scientific research results into teaching practice;

studying the history of the development of education and pedagogical thought.

Object, subject and functions of pedagogy

In the views of scientists on pedagogy, both in the past and in the present, there are three approaches (concepts).

Representatives of the first of them believe that pedagogy is an interdisciplinary field human knowledge. However, this approach actually denies pedagogy as an independent theoretical science, i.e. as an area of ​​reflection of pedagogical phenomena. In pedagogy, in this case, a variety of complex objects of reality are represented (space, politics, socialization, development, etc.).

Other scientists assign pedagogy the role of an applied discipline, the function of which is to indirectly use knowledge borrowed from other sciences (psychology, natural science, sociology, etc.) and adapted to solve problems arising in the field of education or upbringing.

So, at first glance, the object of scientific pedagogy is the student, pupil and, in general, any person who is being taught and educated. However, in this case, both pedagogy and psychology study mental reality (the human psyche), and pedagogy is only the applied part of psychology, its “practical application”. This approach explains attempts to replace pedagogy with psychopedagogy.

Supporters of the second concept, like the first, actually deny the right of pedagogy to its subject and, consequently, its own theoretical knowledge, replacing it with a set of provisions taken from other sciences. This circumstance has a negative impact on teaching practice. None of the sciences related to pedagogy studies pedagogical reality holistically and specifically. With this approach, a holistic fundamental basis for the functioning and transformation of teaching practice cannot be developed. The content of such pedagogy is a set of fragmentary ideas about individual aspects of pedagogical phenomena.

Productive for science and practice, according to V.V. Kraevsky, is only the third concept, according to which pedagogy is a relatively independent discipline that has its own object and subject of study.

Object of pedagogy. A. S. Makarenko, a scientist and practitioner who can hardly be accused of promoting “childless” pedagogy, in 1922 formulated an idea about the specificity of the object of pedagogical science. He wrote that many consider the child to be the object of pedagogical research, but this is incorrect. Object of study scientific pedagogy is " pedagogical fact(phenomenon)". At the same time, the child and the person are not excluded from the researcher’s attention. On the contrary, being one of the sciences about man, pedagogy studies purposeful activities for the development and formation of his personality.

Therefore, as your object pedagogy does not have the individual, his psyche (this is the object of psychology), but system of pedagogical phenomena related to its development. That's why object of pedagogy are those phenomena of reality that determine the development of the human individual in the process of purposeful activity of society. These phenomena are called education. It is that part objective world which is studied by pedagogy.

Subject of pedagogy. Education is studied not only by pedagogy. It is studied by philosophy, sociology, psychology, economics and other sciences. So, for example, an economist, studying the level of real capabilities of the “labor resources” produced by the education system, tries to determine the costs of their training. A sociologist wants to know whether the education system is preparing people who can adapt to the social environment and contribute to scientific and technological progress and social change. The philosopher, in turn, using a broader approach, asks the question of the goals and general purpose of education - what they are today and what they should be in the future. modern world. A psychologist studies the psychological aspects of education as a pedagogical process. A political scientist seeks to determine the effectiveness of state educational policy at a particular stage of social development, etc.

The contribution of numerous sciences to the study of education as a social phenomenon is undoubtedly valuable and necessary, but these sciences do not address the essential aspects of education related to the everyday processes of human growth and development, the interaction of teachers and students in the process of this development and the corresponding institutional structure. And this is quite legitimate, since the study of these aspects determines that part of the object (education) that should be studied by a special science - pedagogy.

Subject of pedagogy– this is education as a real holistic pedagogical process, purposefully organized in special social institutions(family, educational and cultural institutions). Pedagogy in this case is a science that studies the essence, patterns, trends and prospects for the development of the pedagogical process (education) as a factor and means of human development throughout his life. On this basis, pedagogy develops theory and technology its organization, forms and methods of improving the activities of the teacher (pedagogical activity) and various types of activities of students, as well as strategies and methods of their interactions.

Functions pedagogical science. The functions of pedagogy as a science are determined by its subject. This theoretical and technological functions which it carries out in organic unity.

The theoretical function of pedagogy is realized on three levels:

- descriptive, or explanatory - the study of advanced and innovative pedagogical experience;

- diagnostic– identifying the state of pedagogical phenomena, the success or effectiveness of the activities of the teacher and students, establishing the conditions and reasons that ensure them;

- prognostic– experimental studies of pedagogical reality and the construction on their basis of models for transforming this reality.

Prognostic level theoretical function is associated with revealing the essence of pedagogical phenomena, finding deep-seated phenomena in the pedagogical process, and scientific justification for the proposed changes. At this level, theories of training and education, models of pedagogical systems that are ahead of educational practice are created.

Technological function Pedagogy also offers three levels of implementation:

- projective associated with the development of appropriate teaching materials (curricula, programs, textbooks and teaching aids, pedagogical recommendations), embodying theoretical concepts and defining the “normative or regulatory” (V.V. Kraevsky), plan of pedagogical activity, its content and nature;

- transformative, aimed at introducing the achievements of pedagogical science into educational practice with the aim of its improvement and reconstruction;

- reflective, involving an assessment of the impact of scientific research results on the practice of teaching and education and subsequent correction in the interaction of scientific theory and practical activity.

The tasks facing the school changed significantly at different stages of the development of society. This explains the periodic shift of emphasis from teaching to upbringing and vice versa. However public policy in the field of education almost always underestimated the dialectical unity of teaching and upbringing, the integrity of the developing personality. Just as it is impossible to teach without exerting an educational influence, so it is impossible to solve educational problems without equipping students with sufficient complex system knowledge, skills and abilities. Progressive thinkers of all times and peoples have never opposed teaching and upbringing. Moreover, they viewed the teacher, first of all, as an educator.

All nations and at all times have had outstanding teachers. Thus, the Chinese called Confucius the Great Teacher. One of the legends about this thinker describes his conversation with a student: “This country is vast and densely populated. What is she lacking, teacher? - the student turns to him. “Enrich her,” the teacher replies. “But she’s already rich. How can we enrich it?” - asks the student. "Teach her!" - exclaims the teacher.

A man of difficult and enviable fate, the Czech humanist teacher Jan Amos Comenius was the first to develop pedagogy as an independent branch of theoretical knowledge. Comenius dreamed of giving his people the collected wisdom of the world. He wrote dozens of school textbooks and over 260 pedagogical works. And today every teacher, using the words “lesson”, “class”, “vacation”, “training”, etc., does not always know that they all entered the school along with the name of the great Czech teacher.

Ya.A. Comenius asserted a new, progressive view of the teacher. This profession was “excellent for him, like no other under the sun.” He compared the teacher with a gardener who lovingly grows plants in the garden, with an architect who carefully builds knowledge into every corner of a human being, with a sculptor who carefully hews and polishes the minds and souls of people, with a commander who energetically leads an offensive against barbarism and ignorance.

Swiss educator Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi spent all his savings on creating orphanages. He dedicated his life to orphans, trying to make childhood a school of joy and creative work. On his grave there is a monument with an inscription that ends with the words: “Everything is for others, nothing for yourself.”

The great teacher of Russia was Konstantin Dmitrievich Ushinsky, the father of Russian teachers. The textbooks he created have had a circulation unprecedented in history. For example, “Native Word” was reprinted 167 times. His legacy consists of 11 volumes, and his pedagogical works still have scientific value today. He described the social significance of the teaching profession as follows: “An educator who stands on a level with modern move education, feels like a living, active member of a great organism fighting the ignorance and vices of mankind, a mediator between everything that was noble and lofty in the past history of people, and the new generation, the keeper of the holy covenants of people who fought for the truth and for good,” and his work, “modest in appearance, is one of the greatest cases in history. States are based on this matter and entire generations live on it.”

Searches for Russian theorists and practitioners of the 20s. XX century largely prepared the innovative pedagogy of Anton Semenovich Makarenko. Despite the establishment in education, as in everything else in the country, in the 30s. command-administrative management methods, he contrasted them with pedagogy, humanistic in essence, optimistic in spirit, imbued with faith in the creative powers and capabilities of man. The theoretical heritage and experience of A. S. Makarenko have gained worldwide recognition. Of particular importance is the work created by A.S. Makarenko’s theory of the children’s collective, which organically includes a method of individualizing upbringing that is subtle in its instrumentation and unique in its methods and techniques of implementation. He believed that the work of a teacher is the most difficult, “perhaps the most responsible and requires from the individual not only the greatest stress, but also great forces, great abilities."

Pedagogy as a science

Pedagogy got its name from the Greek word good-dagogos (paid - child, gogos - lead), which means child rearing or child science .

In the views of scientists on pedagogy, both in the past and in the present tense, there are three concepts.

Interdisciplinary area of ​​human knowledge. However, this approach actually denies pedagogy as an independent theoretical science, i.e. as an area of ​​reflection of pedagogical phenomena. In pedagogy, in this case, a variety of complex objects of reality are represented (space, culture, politics, etc.).

Other scholars assign a role to pedagogy applied discipline , the function of which is the indirect use of knowledge borrowed from other sciences (psychology, natural science, sociology, etc.) and adapted to solve problems arising in the field of education or upbringing. With this approach, a holistic fundamental basis for the functioning and transformation of teaching practice cannot be developed. The content of such pedagogy is a set of fragmentary ideas about individual aspects of pedagogical phenomena.

Productive for science and practice, according to V.V. Kraevsky, is only the third concept, according to which pedagogy is relative independent discipline , which has its own object and subject of study.

An object- "pedagogical fact (phenomenon) ". Being one of the sciences about man, pedagogy studies purposeful activities for the development and formation of his personality.

The object of pedagogy is those phenomena of reality that determine the development of the human individual in the process of purposeful activity of society. These phenomena are called education. It is that part of the objective world that pedagogy studies.

Subject of pedagogy- this is education as a real holistic pedagogical process, purposefully organized in special social institutions (family, educational and cultural institutions). Pedagogy in this case is a science that studies the essence, patterns, trends and prospects for the development of the pedagogical process (education) as a factor and means of human development throughout his life. On this basis, pedagogy develops the theory and technology of its organization, forms and methods of improving the activities of the teacher (pedagogical activity) and various types of student activities, as well as strategies and methods of their interaction.

Functions of pedagogical science determined by its subject. This theoretical And technological functions that it realizes in organic unity.

Theoretical function pedagogy is implemented at three levels:

descriptive or explanatory - study of advanced and innovative pedagogical experience;

diagnostic - identifying the state of pedagogical phenomena, the success or effectiveness of the activities of the teacher and students, establishing the conditions and reasons that ensure them;

prognostic - experimental studies of pedagogical reality and the construction on their basis of models for transforming this reality. Prognostic the level of theoretical function is associated with revealing the essence of pedagogical phenomena, finding deep phenomena in the pedagogical process, and scientific justification for the proposed changes. At this level, theories of training and education, models of pedagogical systems that are ahead of educational practice are created.

Technological function Pedagogy also offers three levels of implementation:

projective , associated with the development of appropriate methodological materials (curricula, programs, textbooks and teaching aids, pedagogical recommendations), embodying theoretical concepts and defining the “normative or regulatory” (V.V. Kraevsky) plan of pedagogical activity, its content and nature;

transformative, aimed at introducing the achievements of pedagogical science into educational practice with the aim of its improvement and reconstruction;

reflective and corrective , which involves assessing the impact of scientific research results on the practice of teaching and education and subsequent correction in the interaction of scientific theory and practical activity.

At each stage of the historical development of society, pedagogy as a science reflected the state of education, training and upbringing of the younger generation.

Pedagogy developed in line with philosophical knowledge as a science of man and society, but in the 16th-17th centuries. it branches off from philosophy, becoming an independent science, meaning the science of the laws of education, the transfer of experience from one generation to another, the science of the process of upbringing and teaching not only children, but also adults. Common to philosophy and pedagogy were a system of views on the world and the place of man in it, on the place of man in society. Pedagogy as a private science of philosophy focused only on the problems of man, the individual and society, upbringing, education and training, the ideal of education, the ideal of the individual in society.

It has become the science of education, the process of enlightenment and self-education of the individual.

The subject of pedagogy is education as a consciously organized process (V.E. Gmurman), taking place in the family and society, in the state, in certain natural, social, economic, spiritual and moral conditions.

Pedagogy is based on the study of the pedagogical process, in accordance with which methods, techniques and techniques for the pedagogical activities of educators and students are created.

Pedagogy studies the activities of both the child and the teacher, studies the pedagogical process of transferring knowledge, skills and abilities to youth by the adult generation. The older generation passes on their experience to the younger ones public relations, scientific knowledge, moral standards.

The functions of pedagogy are its practical and theoretical orientation.
The theory of pedagogy explains to society and people the process and laws of upbringing and training, education and enlightenment.

The theory of pedagogy is aimed at substantiating the processes of teaching and upbringing, to give practical recommendations teachers on how to improve their professional work. In this way, pedagogy helps society to develop, improve, and move forward.

The practical function of pedagogy is to equip practicing teachers with scientific and theoretical justifications for teaching and upbringing methods.

The system of pedagogical sciences includes: general pedagogy, didactics, theory of education, school science, history of pedagogy, defectology, etc.

General pedagogy is theoretical system pedagogical sciences. Study of pedagogical knowledge, theory and practice, methods and functions, the place of pedagogy among other sciences, the relationship of pedagogy with other sciences.

Didactics (learning theory) is part of general pedagogy, which studies the learning process itself as a means of upbringing and development and how learning affects the upbringing, development and education of a child. Learning consists of two interrelated phenomena - teaching professional activity adults and learning - specially organized children's activities.

Didactics develops GOALS, content, principles, methods and means of teaching. It determines the direction of private methods and is therefore closely related to various sciences. Each technique has its own specifics.

Teaching methods, manuals, textbooks and programs are developed on the basis of didactics various types educational institutions.

The theory of education studies the process of development of the individual, his beliefs, analyzes the specific process of education, its patterns and prospects. The theory of education is focused on the study of education processes in the course of educational, labor, social, gaming, artistic and sports activities, as well as the organization of interpersonal communication; studying methods of personality education. Intelligence, manifestation of will, character, feelings, needs, motives and interests are taken into account.

The theory of education analyzes the connection between individual areas of education: labor, moral, mental, legal, aesthetic and physical. The theory of education examines the process of raising an integral personality.

School studies are part of general pedagogy. Explores issues of management of public education, organization of the educational process, the work of individual schools and teaching teams; examines the content and methods of organizing school management. Reflects the process of managing the public education system; from the side of state plans, it develops scientific principles for organizing school affairs.

The history of pedagogy, as part of general pedagogy, explores the emergence and development of the practice of teaching and upbringing, various pedagogical theories and concepts, methods of teaching and upbringing in different times and among different peoples.

Analyzes and summarizes the accumulated valuable pedagogical experience in educating the younger generation. This experience is important for modern teaching, as it will help improve modern teaching practice.

L.N. Tolstoy also wrote that it is impossible to understand pedagogy without knowledge of the history of pedagogy.
Comparative pedagogy deals with the study of trends and patterns of teaching and education among different peoples in various countries. Knowledge of comparative pedagogy makes it possible to use the positive experience of different schools and nations to improve one’s own.

Preschool pedagogy covers issues of training and education of preschool children.

Defectology stands out as a special pedagogy that determines work with children with physical and mental disabilities. Deaf pedagogy - pedagogy for the deaf and hard of hearing, typhlopedagogy - for the blind and visually impaired, oligophrenopedagogy - for the mentally retarded, as well as the science of speech disorders and ways to overcome them - speech therapy.

Higher education pedagogy stands out separately and is part of adult pedagogy. It reflects the specifics of educational and educational tasks in working with university students.

There are other scientific subdivisions: family pedagogy, professional (work) pedagogy, military pedagogy and correctional labor. Each of these areas has its own characteristics.

At each stage of the historical development of society, pedagogy as a science reflected the state of its education, training and upbringing. For centuries, new experiences and new generalizations have been introduced into the science of education. Pedagogy developed thanks to improved experience and the practice of progressive schools and teachers.

The education of the younger generation existed at the very first stages of the development of civilization.

From the monument “Book of Prophecies” we learn about priestly schools ancient people Maya, from the most ancient treatises of Japanese sages - on the upbringing of a Japanese girl, on family education in ancient China from the philosophy of Confucius.

In ancient times, even within the framework of philosophical knowledge, society put forward the ideal of education. In the Inca state (IX-XV centuries), considering themselves “sons of the Sun,” the priests taught the people of the Earth to “live a life worthy of a person.” This is their social consciousness, ideology and philosophy of life.

Buddhism is based on the existence of the individual, his suffering, liberation from suffering, and tolerance. The ideal of a person in Ancient India (V-VI centuries BC) is the ideal of kindness. The basis of his upbringing is knowledge of the psychology of the individual, since the main thing is a free personality, its independence from the world around it.

Contents of education in ancient india deserves special attention. Many discoveries attributed to Greek and European scientists relate to ancient Indian teachings. For example, mathematics. Numerals called Arabic were known in ancient India. The same applies to medicine and astronomy. Textbooks were dictionaries on various knowledges. The first Primer contained a set of Laws, according to which they taught reading and writing.

The ideal man of the ancient Chinese thinker and philosopher Confucius (551-479 BC) had to coordinate his behavior with the requirements of society. His principle: “What you don’t wish for yourself, don’t do to others” was the basis of his upbringing. He first developed the concept ideal person and raising a child in a family: “honor your parents,” “don’t abandon them,” “be respectful,” “don’t express annoyance at them.” A good father must give his son an education, a profession and instill rules of behavior.

During the heyday of Athens, wandering philosophers - sophists - were teachers of eloquence. For a fee, they taught young people to make speeches, conduct political conversations, persuade and argue, which required knowledge of logic and philosophy. The conversations of the sophists were devoted to issues of law and ethics. The main thing in a person’s life, they believed, is knowledge, and what a person learns is true in life. The Sophists first raised the question of the importance of education.

The Greek philosopher Socrates believed that the highest virtue of man is knowledge, and his immoral behavior is the result of ignorance.

The Socratic method of education is a method of self-knowledge; it is a call to analyze a person’s actions and draw conclusions for self-education. The Socratic method of teaching is to encourage students to find the answers themselves through questions and answers.

The idea of ​​harmonious personality development comes from Socrates’ student Plato (472-348 BC). From him the idea of ​​raising children in state educational institutions and state regulation of childbirth came to us. From Plato, through the Middle Ages, through the “modern times,” came the school curriculum, which in Plato’s time received the name “seven liberal arts” (grammar, rhetoric, dialectics, arithmetic, geometry, astronomy, music).

From the greatest philosopher of Greece, Aristotle (384-322 BC), scientists adopted the idea of ​​​​developing human abilities inherent in nature, the main goal of education.

Democritus (c. 460-370 BC) emphasized knowledge of human nature, his nature-conforming education, which should be based on Work, as the main thing in education.

The work of Quintilian (c. 35 - c. 96 AD) “Instruction to the Orator” marked the beginning of the teaching of oratory.

Medieval pedagogy for almost 12 centuries was determined by the dogmas of theology. We learn about education and training in medieval Kievan Rus from chronicles, literary and historical monuments, from various “Words” and “Teachings” that have come down to our times.

The scientific approach in pedagogy to the problems of teaching and upbringing begins with John Amos Comenius (1502-1670) and his book “The Great Didactics” (1654), where the principles, methods and forms of teaching were first formulated. Comenius clearly formulated the goals of mental, moral and religious education. In particular, justifying the purpose of education as a person’s knowledge of himself and the world around him, self-government and honoring God.

New time. French philosophy and English economic thought put forward the ideal of educating a new man. John Locke (1632-1704) writes about the education of a gentleman, a man who knows how to do business. A patriot and a citizen, a sensible person - this is how K. Helvetius (1715-1771) imagined the ideal of education.

Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778) sets the goal of education - to educate “not a judge, not a soldier, not a priest, but a human being.”

Thus, although pedagogy has become an independent science, this independence is relative, since both pedagogy and philosophy, studying man, are in constant interrelation.

Utopian socialists (Thomas More, T. Companella, R. Owen, A. Saint-Simon, C. Fourier) put forward as the ideal of education the formation of a comprehensively developed personality, the formation of which requires a combination of learning with productive labor and universal equal education.

In the programs of schools of the New Age, and European countries And in Russia, along with religious ones, issues of secular and real education are put forward.

Eighteenth century - Age of Enlightenment. In Russia, the reforms of Peter I in the field of education are the era of the creation of a secular school, the creation of a democratic professional school. I. Pososhkov, F. Saltykov, V.N. Tatishchev considered universal education of the people necessary for the development of Russia. A network of closed class educational institutions was developed. Essentially, this is an attempt to “create a new breed of people.” By opening “Orphanages” and the Smolny Institute for Noble Maidens, I.I. Betskaya and Catherine II tried to bring this idea to life.

On the pedagogical theory and practice of European countries of the 19th century. influenced by the works of I. G. Pestalozzi (1746-1827), I. Herbart (1776-1841), ADisterverg (1790-1866), and in Russia the pedagogical views and educational activities of the Decembrists and revolutionary democrats.

In the 19th century in Russia pedagogical thought from general issues system and content of education addresses specific problems of folk and national school, educational teaching and teacher preparation, to discipline and the quality of the lesson, to assessment, encouragement and punishment and the workload of students during training. It was given great importance educational function of religion.

In the middle of the 19th century. N.I. Pirogov’s article “School and Life” became the subject of discussion among the pedagogical community about the importance of connecting education with the requirements of society.

The Yasnaya Polyana school of L.N. Tolstoy was a kind of educational experiment creative personality among peasant children.

In the second half of the 19th century. In connection with the expansion of the network of private educational institutions and parochial schools, women's and out-of-school education, problems of home and religious education are being raised, and discussions are unfolding about the priorities of classical or real education. Activation social activities in the field of social education system was reflected in the development of pedagogy as a social science.

An event in the history of domestic pedagogy was the articles and books by K.D. Ushinsky on the scientific status of pedagogy. He gave pedagogy a definition of science, formulated the subject and research, thereby closing the debate: the science or art of pedagogy. Contrary to the denial of the scientific significance of pedagogy and its definition only as an applied science, Ushinsky attached great importance to the development of pedagogical theory and practice in their unity. He considered the education of personality depending on knowledge of the human sciences: anatomy, physiology, pathology, psychology, logic, philology, geography, political economy and history. Ushinsky argued: “If pedagogy wants to educate a person in all respects, then it must know him in all respects.” He put psychology in first place among the sciences listed above.

Followers of K.D. Ushinsky successfully experimented and developed domestic pedagogy. M.M.Monaseina studied the process of personality development, P.FLesgaft - physical and family education, Kh.D.Alchevskaya considered the methodology of teaching adults, V.Ya.Stoyunin, N.F.Bunakov, V.I.Vodovozov and others contributed great contribution to the development of the theory of domestic pedagogy.

At the beginning of the 20th century. The socio-pedagogical movement raises the problems of free education and family pedagogy (K.N. Ventzel), environmental pedagogy (S.T. Shatsky) and social pedagogy.

The post-October period of development of pedagogy in Russia - the period of creation new school, new system education, where the primary problems were the pedagogy of the team, the education of the individual in the team, the education of a comprehensively developed personality - the builder of a new society.

By studying a person, pedagogy generalizes the accumulated experience of relationships between people in the history of mankind: a person’s relationships in the family and in society, attitudes towards loved ones and towards oneself.

Each science uses its own concepts. Certain concepts also exist in pedagogy. The concept of formation is the process of development, the formation of personality in the specific conditions of society.

Enlightenment is the dissemination of scientific knowledge among the people about the world, about man. For Russia, the century of enlightenment - the 18th and then the 19th centuries - manifests itself in the desire to enlighten everyone and raise the culture of the people. For enlightenment in the 20th century. characterized by the dissemination of the broadest knowledge in the fields of economics, law and justice, music, art and pedagogy.

“Education” is literally “shaping the image” of a person’s thoughts and actions in society. This is the process of acquiring knowledge, skills and abilities. The main way to obtain education is studying in various educational institutions.

Let us pay attention to the definition of education by the forgotten Russian teacher Sergei Iosifovich Gessen (1887-1950). He viewed education as a personal culture, a process of introducing a person to the values ​​of science, art, religion, morality, law, and economics. This, he believed, was the basis for personal development.

The scientist noted that “genuine education does not consist in transmitting the cultural content that constitutes the peculiarity of the educational generation, but only in communicating to it that movement, continuing which it could develop its own new cultural content.”

Hessen formulates the goals of education as a hierarchy of goals and objectives. And the primary thing in them is the formation of a personality, a creative personality, capable of scientific thinking. He pays attention to social factors, which influence the personality, considering the main thing in the formation of the personality is its ability to act and the desire to acquire cultural values.

Education is the process of influencing a person in order to form a personality, develop its physical, mental and moral qualities in accordance with the requirements of life.

Learning is a two-way process of learning and teaching. The process of transferring and assimilating knowledge, skills, methods cognitive activity. In learning the child learns the world, and teaching is the teacher’s guidance of the process of cognitive and educational activities child.

“Education system” represents existing general and special education. General is primary and secondary education, which provides the knowledge, skills and abilities necessary for every person. Special education (secondary, higher) provides the knowledge, skills and abilities necessary for a worker in a certain profession.

The pedagogical process is the education of the individual in the unity of teaching and upbringing, the so-called “teaching and educational process.” More often, this term refers to a school where interaction occurs between teacher and student, director and teachers, educators, teaching staff, parents, the public, and industries surrounding the school. The pedagogical process represents the unity of development, training and education of the individual, the contradictions and patterns of each element.

In the views of scientists on pedagogy, both in the past and in the present, there are three approaches (concepts).

Representatives of the first of them believe that pedagogy is an interdisciplinary field of human knowledge. However, this approach actually denies pedagogy as an independent theoretical science, i.e. as an area of ​​reflection of pedagogical phenomena. In pedagogy, in this case, a variety of complex objects of reality are represented (space, politics, socialization, development, etc.).

Other scientists assign pedagogy the role of an applied discipline, the function of which is to indirectly use knowledge borrowed from other sciences (psychology, natural science, sociology, etc.) and adapted to solve problems arising in the field of education or upbringing.

So, at first glance, the object of scientific pedagogy is the student, pupil and, in general, any person who is being taught and educated. However, in this case, both pedagogy and psychology study mental reality (the human psyche), and pedagogy is only the applied part of psychology, its “practical application”. This approach explains attempts to replace pedagogy with psychopedagogy.

Supporters of the second concept, like the first, actually deny the right of pedagogy to its subject and, consequently, its own theoretical knowledge, replacing it with a set of provisions taken from other sciences. This circumstance has a negative impact on teaching practice. None of the sciences related to pedagogy studies pedagogical reality holistically and specifically. With this approach, a holistic fundamental basis for the functioning and transformation of teaching practice cannot be developed. The content of such pedagogy is a set of fragmentary ideas about individual aspects of pedagogical phenomena.

According to V.V. Kraevsky, only the third concept is productive for science and practice, according to which pedagogy is a relatively independent discipline that has its own object and subject of study.

Object of pedagogy. A. S. Makarenko, a scientist and practitioner who can hardly be accused of promoting “childless” pedagogy, in 1922 formulated an idea about the specifics of the object of pedagogical science. He wrote that many consider the child to be the object of pedagogical research, but this is incorrect. The object of research in scientific pedagogy is the “pedagogical fact (phenomenon).” At the same time, the child and the person are not excluded from the researcher’s attention. On the contrary, being one of the sciences about man, pedagogy studies purposeful activities for the development and formation of his personality.

Consequently, as its object, pedagogy does not have the individual, his psyche (this is the object of psychology), but a system of pedagogical phenomena associated with his development. Therefore, the objects of pedagogy are those phenomena of reality that determine the development of the human individual in the process of purposeful activity of society. These phenomena are called education. It is that part of the objective world that pedagogy studies.

Subject of pedagogy. Education is studied not only by pedagogy. It is studied by philosophy, sociology, psychology, economics and other sciences. So, for example, an economist, studying the level of real capabilities of the “labor resources” produced by the education system, tries to determine the costs of their training. A sociologist wants to know whether the education system is preparing people who can adapt to the social environment and contribute to scientific and technological progress and social change. The philosopher, in turn, using a broader approach, asks the question of the goals and general purpose of education - what they are today and what they should be in the modern world. A psychologist studies the psychological aspects of education as a pedagogical process. A political scientist seeks to determine the effectiveness of state educational policy at a particular stage of social development, etc.

The contribution of numerous sciences to the study of education as a social phenomenon is undoubtedly valuable and necessary, but these sciences do not address the essential aspects of education related to the everyday processes of human growth and development, the interaction of teachers and students in the process of this development and the corresponding institutional structure. And this is quite legitimate, since the study of these aspects determines that part of the object (education) that should be studied by a special science - pedagogy.

The subject of pedagogy is education as a real holistic pedagogical process, purposefully organized in special social institutions (family, educational and cultural institutions). Pedagogy in this case is a science that studies the essence, patterns, trends and prospects for the development of the pedagogical process (education) as a factor and means of human development throughout his life.

On this basis, pedagogy develops the theory and technology of its organization, forms and methods of improving the activities of the teacher (pedagogical activity) and various types of student activities, as well as strategies and methods of their interaction.

Functions of pedagogical science. The functions of pedagogy as a science are determined by its subject. These are theoretical and technological functions that it carries out in organic unity.

The theoretical function of pedagogy is implemented at three levels:

Descriptive, or explanatory - the study of advanced and innovative pedagogical experience;

Diagnostic - identifying the state of pedagogical phenomena, the success or effectiveness of the activities of the teacher and students, establishing the conditions and reasons that ensure them;

Prognostic - experimental studies of pedagogical reality and the construction on their basis of models for transforming this reality.

The prognostic level of the theoretical function is associated with revealing the essence of pedagogical phenomena, finding deep phenomena in the pedagogical process, and scientific substantiation of the proposed changes. At this level, theories of training and education, models of pedagogical systems that are ahead of educational practice are created.

The technological function of pedagogy also offers three levels of implementation:

Projective, associated with the development of appropriate teaching materials (curricula, programs, textbooks and teaching aids, pedagogical recommendations), embodying theoretical concepts and defining the “normative or regulatory” (V.V. Kraevsky) plan of pedagogical activity, its content and character;

Transformative, aimed at introducing the achievements of pedagogical science into educational practice with the aim of its improvement and reconstruction;

Reflexive, involving an assessment of the impact of scientific research results on the practice of teaching and education and subsequent correction in the interaction of scientific theory and practical activity.