There are an infinite number of creatures on Earth, and they, having a high reproductive potential, actively interact with the environment and ultimately represent in the aggregate a special, global development factor that transforms the upper shells of the Earth.
Living organisms are infinitely diverse, ubiquitous, reproduce in many generations, have selective biochemical activity and exceptionally high chemical activity compared to other components of nature.
The totality of organisms on the planet Vernadsky called living matter, which is characterized by the total mass, chemical composition and energy. Vernadsky wrote about the role of living organisms on Earth: “It can be said without exaggeration that the chemical state of the outer crust of our planet, the biosphere, is entirely under the influence of life, is determined by living organisms; there is no doubt that the energy that gives the biosphere its usual appearance is of cosmic origin. It comes from the Sun in the form of radiant energy. But it is living organisms, the totality of life, that transform this cosmic radiant energy into earthly, chemical energy and create the infinite diversity of our world. These are living organisms that, by their breathing, their nutrition, their metabolism, their death and decomposition, the constant use of their substance, and most importantly, the continuous change of generations lasting hundreds of millions of years, their birth, reproduction, give rise to one of the grandest planetary phenomena that does not exist anywhere else. except for the biosphere.
According to the scientist, the only correct approach to the biosphere as an integral global ecological system, which has a certain structure and stability, its inherent features of formation and development. Such an understanding of the biosphere is especially important now, when the technogenic impact of man on nature has reached an unprecedented scale and is capable of causing planetary changes in the human environment.
Within the biosphere, almost every chemical element passes through a chain of living organisms and is included in the system of biogeochemical transformations. So, all the planet's oxygen - a product of photosynthesis - is renewed every 2000 years, and carbon dioxide - after 300 years.
Biochemical processes in organisms are also complex chains of reactions organized into cycles. Their reproduction in inanimate nature would require huge energy costs, while in living organisms they proceed through protein catalysts - enzymes that lower the activation energy of molecules by several orders of magnitude. Since living beings draw materials and energy for metabolic reactions in the environment, they transform the environment by the very fact that they live. Vernadsky emphasized that living matter carries out gigantic geological and chemical work in the biosphere, completely transforming the upper shells of the Earth during its existence.
More than 99% of the energy entering the Earth's surface is solar radiation, this energy is wasted in the vast majority of physical and chemical processes in the hydrosphere, atmosphere and lithosphere: the movement of air and water masses, evaporation, redistribution of substances, absorption and release of gases, etc.
On Earth, there is only one process in which the energy of solar radiation is not only spent and redistributed, but also bound, sometimes stored for a very long time - this is the creation of organic matter in the process of synthesis. Thus, by burning coal in furnaces, we release and use solar energy stored by vegetation hundreds of millions of years ago.
Thus, the main planetary function of living matter on Earth is to bind and store solar energy, which then goes to support many other geochemical processes in the biosphere.
Vernadsky considered the biochemical function of the biosphere as a universal manifestation of life on Earth. No single species of organisms could fulfill this role. To ensure the diversity of forms of biogenic migration of chemical elements, it was necessary to develop a certain complex of organisms. This gives rise to the problem of the evolution of the biosphere as a single whole in the process of the historical and geological development of our planet.
Thus, the modern biosphere is the result of a long historical development Total organic world in its interaction with inanimate nature. Thanks to this, a complex network of interrelated processes and phenomena arose in the biosphere; due to the interaction of abiotic and biotic factors, the biosphere is in constant motion and development. It has undergone a significant evolution since the appearance of man, that is, over the past 2 million years. However, if initially, in terms of its impact on nature, man could be considered only as one of the secondary factors, then with the development of civilization and the growth of its technical equipment, his role became comparable to the action of powerful geological processes. This circumstance makes us take seriously the possible long-term consequences of both industrial and environmental human activities.
As a result of technogenic activity of mankind, the Earth's biosphere is radically transformed and becomes, according to Vernadsky's definition, the noosphere - the "sphere of reason". Noosphere - new geological phenomenon on our planet, in it man for the first time becomes the largest geological force. The noosphere is the world of reasonable, scientifically based actions on a global scale.
Of course, one can hardly expect that the era of the noosphere will arise spontaneously on Earth. By itself, only the process of degradation can develop. And it is already underway, and on the territory of Russia as well. Pollution of the atmosphere, water and soil in many of our cities and regions is many times higher than the norms that are safe for human health. Wastewater treatment plant industrial enterprises and agricultural facilities, as well as in sewer systems, are often in a pre-emergency state. Increasing violations of their normal functioning lead to disasters.
The Russian scientist N. Moiseev urgently warned about a global ecological catastrophe due to uncontrolled and unrestricted growth in production and consumption in industrialized countries. In a generalized form, his warning can be stated as follows: if in the near future humanity does not radically change its behavior on a planetary scale in relation to nature and in relationships at the personal, interethnic and interstate levels, then by the middle of the twenty-first century. on Earth, such environmental conditions may arise under which the human race cannot exist.
Of particular concern is the fact that the biosphere has not yet responded to the significant increase - by 20-21% - in the share of carbon dioxide in the planet's atmosphere that has occurred over the past hundred years. Since this gas serves as food for plant organisms, as a result of natural processes, the total volume of the Earth's biomass should have increased significantly. But for some reason this did not happen, and the absence of such a reaction is a formidable symptom.
Perhaps this indicates that the biosphere has already lost (or is beginning to lose) its inherent ability to compensate for the perturbations occurring in it, under the influence of which it can move into a new state unsuitable for human existence.
However, to the greatest regret, this very likely threat to all mankind has not yet become a subject of consideration either in the UN or in any other international organizations. And no government in the world, including ours, officially recognizes or denies the existence of such a threat. Politicians don't seem to notice it.
Corporations based in the countries of the "golden billion" have a vested interest in maintaining a world economic order in which 14% of the world's population consumes 86% of the world's natural resources.
The silence on the part of politicians about the inevitable catastrophic consequences of such sustainable development"for the fate of all mankind helps to maintain this ratio and deprives the disadvantaged majority of the inhabitants of the Earth of even a ghostly hope that someday this ratio will change.
It is possible that in some countries of absolute poverty, where about 60% of the world's population lives today, the average per capita annual income has increased by several tens of US dollars, and in countries of relative poverty, whose inhabitants make up more than a quarter of all mankind, by several hundred dollars. But they will not be able to overcome backwardness. In order to meet the effective demand of the "gold billionaires", transnational corporations will continue to pump out the best that they have from developing countries.
It is possible to stop the destructive impact of the current post-industrial system of social order on nature only with the development and phased implementation by all countries of a new socio-economic doctrine. Its defining principle should be the recognition of natural resources, water and air basins as a universal property. Through this principle, the inalienable right of every person to have access to natural benefits must be realized.
It is important to pay attention to the Earth Charter and the possibility of its adoption as an official UN document. "Charter (Declaration) of the Earth" contains fundamental principles to create a just, sustainable and peaceful global society in the 21st century. This document is a kind of analogue of the Declaration of Human Rights in the field of the environment. And of course new
an arms race, in particular, the continuation of large-scale experiments by the United States in the field of purposeful and powerful impact on the near-Earth environment by high-frequency radio waves, i.e., in fact, the creation of a geophysical weapon that carries a colossal potential danger to mankind, is completely incompatible with the Earth Charter.
Russia, as you know, in terms of its national natural wealth is more than 2 times superior to both the United States and Western Europe. But if Europe uses this wealth by 50%, then Russia - by only 2%.
Russia is able to make a significant contribution to the noospheric security of the planet, following the new eco-ethics of the 21st century. To do this, it will have to strengthen truly collective security not only at three levels (in the post-Soviet space of the CIS, in the expanded and modified format of NATO and the parameters of the "Shanghai Six"), but also at the global level.
The circulation of the main elements in the biosphere is the repeated participation of substances in the processes occurring in the atmosphere and hydrosphere, including those layers that are part of the planet's biosphere. Of particular importance are the cycles of oxygen, carbon, nitrogen, sulfur and phosphorus. The biogeochemical oxygen cycle is a planetary process that connects the atmosphere and hydrosphere with the earth's crust. The nodal links of the cycle are: the formation of free oxygen during photosynthesis in green plants, the consumption of oxygen for respiration by all living organisms, the oxidation of organic residues and inorganic substances(for example, fuel combustion) and other chemical transformations that lead to the formation of such oxidized compounds as carbon dioxide, water, and their subsequent involvement in a new cycle of photosynthetic transformations.

In the oxygen cycle, the active geochemical activity of living matter, its leading role in this cyclic process, is clearly manifested. Based on the mass of organic matter synthesized during the year (taking into account 15% spent on the respiration process), it can be concluded that the annual production of oxygen by the green vegetation of the planet is about 300 x 109 tons. Only a little more than 25% of this amount is released by land vegetation, the rest - by photosynthetic organisms of the World Ocean (free oxygen is present not only in the atmosphere, it is also found in a dissolved state in natural waters). The total volume of the waters of the World Ocean is 137 x 109 liters, and from 2 to 8 cm3 of oxygen is dissolved in 1 liter of water. Consequently, in the waters of the World Ocean is from 2.7 to 10.9 x 1012 tons
dissolved oxygen. Part of the organic matter is buried, as a result of which bound oxygen is removed from the annual cycle.

On land, in the process of photosynthesis, carbon dioxide is fixed by plants with the formation of organic substances and the release of oxygen. The remains of plants and animals are decomposed by microorganisms, as a result of which carbon is oxidized to carbon dioxide and re-enters the atmosphere. A similar cycle of carbon occurs in the aquatic environment. The carbon fixed by plants is consumed in a significant amount by animals, which, in turn, release it in the form of carbon dioxide during respiration.
The carbon cycle in the hydrosphere is a more complex process than in the atmosphere, since the age of this element in the form of carbon dioxide depends on the supply of oxygen to the upper layers of water both from the atmosphere and from the underlying thickness, since there is a constant exchange of carbon between land and the oceans . The removal of this element in the form of carbonate and organic compounds from land to the ocean predominates. The inflow of carbon from the World Ocean to land takes place in incomparably smaller quantities, and then only in the form of carbon dioxide diffusing into the atmosphere and then carried by air currents.
Microorganisms play an extremely important role in the nitrogen cycle: nitrogen fixers, nitrifiers, denitrifiers. All other organisms affect the nitrogen cycle only after it has been assimilated into their cells. Nitrogen is also fixed by purple and green photosynthetic bacteria, various soil bacteria.
In the biosphere as a whole, nitrogen fixation from the air averages 140-700 mg/m3 per year. This is mainly biological fixation, and only not a large number of nitrogen (on average, no more than 35 mg/m3 per year) is recorded as a result of electrical discharges and photochemical processes.
A high intensity of fixation was noted in some polluted lakes with many blue-green algae. In the ocean, where productivity is lower, nitrogen fixation per m3 is less than on land. However, the total amount of fixed nitrogen is quite significant and important for the global cycle.
Out of the huge supply of this element in the atmosphere and lithosphere, only fixed nitrogen takes part in the nitrogen cycle, assimilated by living organisms on land and in the ocean. The nitrogen cycle involves: biomass nitrogen, nitrogen of biological fixation by bacteria and living organisms, juvenile (volcanogenic) nitrogen, atmospheric (fixed during thunderstorms) and technogenic.
On vast areas where no human activity is carried out, plants take the nitrogen they need from the nitrogen introduced into the soil from the outside (nitrates with rain, ammonia from the air), from the nitrogen returned to the soil (the remains of animals, plants, animal excrement), as well as from various nitrogen fixing organisms.
The largest amount of nitrogen and ash elements is contained in the biosphere of forest vegetation; in almost all types of vegetation, the mass of ash elements is 2-3 times higher than the mass of nitrogen. The exception is tundra plants, in which the content of nitrogen and ash elements is approximately the same. The largest number of elements turning over during the year (i.e., the capacity of the biological cycle) is in wet tropical forests, then - in the black earth steppes and deciduous forests temperate climate (in oak forests).
The process of cyclic transformations of sulfur and its compounds is well developed in the biosphere.
The reservoir fund of sulfur is extensive in soil and sediments, smaller - in the atmosphere. The main role in the sulfur exchange fund is played by special microorganisms, each type of which performs a certain oxidation and reduction reaction; as a result, hydrogen sulfide moves from deep-sea sediments to the surface. On a global scale, the regulation of the sulfur cycle involves geochemical and meteorological processes (erosion, sedimentation, leaching, rain, adsorption, desorption, etc.), biological processes (biomass production and decomposition), the relationship of air, water and soil. Sulfate, like nitrate and phosphate, is the main, available form of sulfur, which is reduced by autotrophs and incorporated into proteins (sulfur is part of a number of amino acids).
The nitrogen and sulfur cycle is increasingly affected by industrial air pollution, and the burning of fossil fuels has significantly increased the content of volatile oxides of nitrogen (NO and M02) and sulfur (S02) in the air, especially in cities. Their concentration becomes dangerous for the biotic components of ecosystems.
The geochemical cycle of phosphorus differs to a greater extent from the cycles of carbon and nitrogen. The content of this element in the earth's crust is 0.093%. This is several tens of times more than nitrogen, but unlike the latter, phosphorus is not one of the main elements of the Earth's shells. Nevertheless, its geochemical cycle includes various migration routes in the earth's crust, an intense biological cycle, and migration in the hydrosphere.
Phosphorus is one of the main organogenic elements. Its organic compounds play an important role in the life processes of all plants and animals, are part of nucleic acids, complex proteins, membrane phospholipids, serve as the basis for bioenergetic processes. Phosphorus is concentrated in living matter, where its content is 10 times greater than in the earth's crust. On the land surface, an intensive cycle of phosphorus occurs in the "soil-plants-animals-soil" system. Due to the fact that mineral phosphorus compounds are hardly soluble and the element contained in them is almost inaccessible to plants, the latter mainly use its easily soluble forms formed during the decomposition of organic residues. The phosphorus cycle also occurs in the “land-World Ocean” system: phosphates are removed with river runoff, they interact with calcium, and phosphorites are formed, the deposits of which eventually come to the surface and are again included in migration processes.
Man must plan his economic activity taking into account the nature of natural processes. This should be done especially carefully in agriculture, grazing, water supply, and navigation. Plowing, application mineral fertilizers, pollution by oil and heavy metals impoverish soil fauna. Links of normal food chains and biogeochemical cycles are broken and even completely dropped out. The reaction of the soil to human intervention is unusually great.
The reserves of inorganic compounds necessary to maintain the vital activity of the organisms inhabiting them would suffice for a short time if these reserves were not renewed both during the life of the organisms and after their death. After all, society

forms a certain system with the inorganic medium, in which the flow of atoms, caused by the vital activity of organisms, forms a cycle.
The biogeocenoses of forest and grassy landscapes become the main mechanism for retaining solar energy and forming phytomass, which includes huge amounts of carbon, water, and common biophiles.
Subsoil resources are non-renewable resources. The use of these resources is possible only once (although some metals can serve as secondary raw materials), and it inevitably leads to the depletion of their reserves, these types of resources have finite reserves, and replenishing them on Earth is almost impossible due to the lack of conditions in which they arose many millions of years ago, or it happens very slowly.
Renewable resources include soil, vegetation, wildlife, and some mineral resources, for example, salts deposited in lakes and sea lagoons, they can be reproduced in natural processes and maintained in a certain constant quantity, determined by the level of their annual reproduction and consumption.
However, sometimes, when used wastefully, some types of renewable resources can become non-renewable or take too long to be renewed. For example, the composition of soils that increase fertility when they rational use, can deteriorate drastically with improper tillage practices, and the resulting erosion often physically destroys the topsoil. The same can be said about the resources of flora and fauna. With predatory use, the ability of biological systems to self-reproduce is violated, and then these resources become practically non-renewable.
Thanks to the unceasing functioning of the "atmosphere-soil-plants-animals-microorganisms" system, a biogeochemical circulation of many chemical elements and their compounds on land, in the atmosphere and inland waters has developed. Its total characteristics are comparable with the total river runoff of land, the total inflow of matter from the upper mantle into the planet's biosphere. That is why living matter on Earth has been a factor of geological significance for many millions of years.
Nature is fraught with unlimited possibilities to meet human needs. However, only by force scientific knowledge in the process of production activity, a person forces
natural resources serve to satisfy their needs.
Man used resources (primarily food, water, air) from the very beginning of his existence, but at first he did not make efforts to reproduce them. Resources determined the areas of early human settlement. The resources for the simple reproduction of a pre-industrial society are understood as the natural productive forces of traditional centuries-old forms of farming, which used mainly substances that did not undergo deep processing: stone, wood, natural fibers, etc. An industrial society is based on natural resources that are needed not so much for the maintenance of human life, but for the production of goods and services that meet the more developed needs of individuals and society as a whole. The vast majority of resources are spent in the process of expanded reproduction.

Biosphere, according to the teachings of academician V.I. Vernadsky, is the outer shell of the Earth, including all living matter and the area of ​​​​its distribution (habitat). The upper boundary of the biosphere is the protective ozone layer in the atmosphere at an altitude of 20-25 km, above which life is impossible due to exposure to ultraviolet radiation. The lower boundary of the biosphere is: the lithosphere to a depth of 3-5 km and the hydrosphere to a depth of 11-12 km (Fig. 1.3).

Components of the biosphere: atmosphere, hydrosphere, lithosphere - perform the most important functions to ensure life on Earth.

The biosphere arose about 4.5 billion years ago and has gone through several stages of evolutionary development: from the initial cycle of organic matter to the biological cycle - a continuous exchange of matter and energy between living organisms and the environment throughout the life of organisms and after their death.

The most important components of the biosphere are:

Living matter (plants, animals, microorganisms);

Biogenic substance of organic origin (coal, peat, soil humus, oil, chalk, limestone, etc.);

Inert matter (rocks of inorganic origin);

Bioinert substance (products of decay and processing of rocks by living organisms).

According to V.I. Vernadsky, living matter is the carrier of the free energy of the biosphere and is connected with inanimate matter by the biogenic migration of atoms. The dry matter biomass of living organisms on Earth, including about 500 thousand plant species and 1.5 million animal species, is extremely large and amounts to approximately 2.4232 * 10 12 tons. The annual increase in living matter on Earth is about 8.8 * 10 11 tons. A large number of elements of the upper part of the lithosphere, atmosphere and hydrosphere passed through these living organisms.

Important in the relationship of organisms is food— trophic factor(from Greek. trophy- food). Primary organic matter is created by green plants (producers - manufacturers) using solar energy. They consume carbon dioxide, water, salts and release oxygen.

Consumers (consumers) can be divided into two orders:

I - organisms that feed on plant foods;

II - organisms that feed on animal food.

decomposers(reducing agents) - organisms that feed on decaying organisms, bacteria and fungi. Here, the role of microorganisms is especially great, completely destroying organic residues and converting them into end products (mineral salts, carbon dioxide, water, simple organic substances) that enter the soil and are again consumed by plants.

All animals and plants are selective in the composition of food, depending on the need for certain mineral elements. Animals and plants are necessary environmental factors in relation to other animals and plants, they are mutually necessary.

Any organism is adapted to exist within a fairly narrow range of changes in environmental conditions, and the exit of environmental parameters beyond the established boundaries entails the suppression of the vital activity of this species or its death. The boundaries of the distribution of the organism (range) are determined by the observance of the necessary requirements of the given organism to the conditions (factors) of the environment. Each species occupies a place that is determined by its requirements for territory, food, reproduction and other bodily functions. This set of environmental parameters for the habitat of a species, the place it occupies in the biosphere, is called ecological niche. All factors in an ecological niche are interconnected: a change in one of them entails a change in others.

The ability of living organisms to adapt to environmental factors is characterized by ecological valence, or plasticity.

Living organisms are in constant interaction with the environment, consisting of many phenomena, conditions, elements that change in time and space, called environmental factors environment. These are any environmental conditions that have a long or short-term effect on living organisms, reacting to these influences with adaptive reactions. They are divided into abiotic(factors of inanimate nature) and biotic(life factors). The currently accepted version of the classification of environmental environmental factors is presented in tab. 1.2.

The characteristics of the main abiotic factors that must be taken into account when restoring architectural monuments are given in Annex 1.1. This is the composition of the atmosphere; the ratio of points of the 12-point seismic scale with the magnitude of earthquakes; seismic scale; wind scale.

Biotic environmental factors determine the relationships of organisms. In this case, these factors are called trophic, i.e. food.

Environmental factors under the influence of newly obtained chemicals that are not found in nature, and man-made components created by man, are greatly changed. Substances-pollutants appear, which leads to a violation of saprophytic (maintaining balance in the ecosystem) interaction in the natural environment. This is often accompanied by the death of animals, plants, leads to dysfunction, death of all living things and desertification of the earth. The predominant species in the microbiota are pathogenic microorganisms that can be attributed to biological pollutants. The composition of the atmosphere changes negatively, the aggressiveness of underground and ground waters increases. The planet is experiencing warming, ozone depletion, acid rains are becoming more frequent.

All of these factors affect not only living organisms (including humans), but also monuments, and neglecting even one of them can affect the quality of restoration and even lead to the death of the monument.

Living organisms in nature exist in the form populations - historically formed natural aggregates of individuals of a given species, connected by relationships and adaptation to the conditions of a certain area or other habitat (biotope). In natural natural conditions the number and density of the population are not accidental, they are determined by regulating (managing) environmental factors. The ability of the environment to support the normal functioning of an organism or population is called ecosy capacitystems.

Ecological system (ecosystem) is a set of interconnected and interdependent different species of organisms living together and the conditions for their existence. Connected in an ecosystem biocenosis(community of living organisms) and biotope(habitat). The main types of natural ecosystems on the globe are listed on rice. 1.4.

Academician V.N. Sukachev proposed the concept biogeocenosis(from Greek. bios- life, Gaia - Earth, cenosis - general) - a natural system of living organisms and their abiotic environment, connected by exchange - substances, energy and information. Now the terms "ecosystem" and "biogeocenosis" are considered to be almost synonymous.

The biogeocenosis includes:

Plant component (phytocenosis);

Animal component (zoocenosis);

Microorganisms (microbiocenosis);

Soil and soil-groundwater, in interaction with plant, animal components and microorganisms, forming an edaphotope;

The atmosphere, which, interacting with other components, forms a climatop;

Inanimate nature, which is an inert substance - an ecotope.

Thus, biogeocenosis is a spatially isolated, integral elementary unit of the biosphere, all components of which are closely interconnected. The main components of biogeocenosis are three groups of organisms - plants, animals and microbes, with the help of which substances move from one component to another, reflecting a well-known general pattern cycle of matter in nature.

Ecological components of biogeocenosis(or landscape, or environment-forming components) in ecology are considered as the main material and energy components of ecological systems. To them, according to N.F. Reimers (Figure 1.5.), include: energy, gas composition (atmosphere), water (liquid component), soil substrate, autotrophic producers (plants) and heterotrophic organisms (consumers and decomposers). Today, information is being added to this list of environmental components.

At the same time, all environmental components are natural resources, the quality of which determines the quality of human life, and anthropogenic disruption of interactions between them can reduce this quality.

In real ecosystems, the circulation is usually open, since some of the substances leave the ecosystem, and some comes from outside. But in general, the principle of circulation in nature is preserved. Simpler ecosystems are combined into a common planetary ecosystem (biosphere), in which the cycle of substances is fully manifested - life on Earth arose billions of years ago, and if there were no closed flow of substances necessary for life, their reserves would have been exhausted long ago and life would have ceased.

Human intervention negatively affects the cycle processes. For example, deforestation or disruption of the processes of assimilation of substances by plants as a result of pollution lead to a decrease in the intensity of carbon absorption. An excess of organic elements in water, arising under the action of industrial effluents, causes rotting of water bodies and an overuse of oxygen dissolved in water, which excludes the possibility of the development of aerobic (oxygen-consuming) bacteria here. By burning fossil fuels, fixing atmospheric nitrogen in products of production, binding phosphorus in synthetic detergents, a person disrupts the cycle of these elements.

The cycle of substances in nature implies a general consistency of place, time and speed of processes going on. different levels from the population to the biosphere. This consistency of natural phenomena is called ecological balance; This balance is mobile, dynamic.

In the ecological system (without human intervention), a balance is maintained that excludes the irreversible destruction of certain links in the trophic chains. Man in the process of his activity constantly affects the ecosystem as a whole, as well as its individual links. This can manifest itself in the form of the introduction of new components into the ecosystem, including pollutants, or the destruction of individual components (shooting of animals, deforestation, etc.). These impacts do not always and immediately lead to the disintegration of the entire system, the violation of its stability. But the preservation of the system does not mean that it has remained unchanged. The system is being transformed, and it is extremely difficult to assess the number and direction of the changes that have occurred.

As a result of human production activity, a new process of metabolism and energy exchange between nature and society has arisen (while maintaining biological exchange) - anthropogenic exchange, which significantly changes the planetary circulation of substances, sharply accelerating it. Anthropogenic exchange differs from the biotic circulation in its openness, it has an open character. At the input of anthropogenic exchange are natural resources, and at the output - production and household waste. The ecological imperfection of anthropogenic exchange lies in the fact that the coefficient of useful use of natural resources is, as a rule, extremely low, and production wastes pollute the natural environment. Moreover, many of them do not decompose to natural state. The scale and speed of anthropogenic exchange are increasing sharply, causing noticeable stress in the biosphere.

At the last stage of the development of the biosphere, human activity has become a powerful force, irreversibly and purposefully changing the natural environment. Formed biotechnosphere — a consequence of the social and scientific and technological development of mankind. The relationship between nature and man in many cases is unbalanced, leading to the oppression of the environment (in particular, the destruction of the architectural and historical environment), which can lead to degradation of the biosphere.

Formed by the builders new system can be called natural-technogenic (PTS). The process of its formation, if it is not corrected in accordance with the ecological components (in other words, in accordance with the laws of ecosystem development), as a rule, leads to a violation of the natural

interactions in the natural system, mainly due to the introduction of "alien" components into it, which can be perceived by the ecosystem as pollutants. The underestimation of these interactions in the implementation of construction activities is unacceptable, as it leads to a decrease in the quality of construction and worsens the quality of the living environment.

The environmentally unjustified activities of builders and restorers cause irreparable damage to the natural landscape and the information component of the ecosystem. As Prutsyn O.I. notes, the architectural and historical environment is being destroyed *: “The silhouette of spatial compositions, the harmonious subordination of the entire structure, the ensemble unity are being violated. The silhouette and proportionality achieved in the historical period must be fully preserved, because, thanks to the classical proportions, they can be easily combined with any upcoming development.

It should not be forgotten that the landscape is a comprehensive and timeless reality in which man existed in the pre-urban era. It was the impeccable sense of the landscape that was inherent in people in past centuries, when buildings merged with the natural environment. The architecture of the past and today is a school of mastery of architecture and urban planning in Rus'. Already since the XI century. city ​​authorities obligated developers to comply with urban planning rules and laws governing the relationship between architecture and nature. In Rus' since the XI century. the Byzantine "Law of Grad" was in force, recorded in the helmsman's books **. Among his provisions were, for example, the following: “Only then can a building be seen for real when it is located in a slender place. Before building, inspect the area carefully. Choose a place where the building does not interfere with nature.” Or such: “... we command that the one who renews the dilapidated courtyard does not take away the light from the neighbor and does not deprive him of their appearance, does not change the original image”; "... do not forcibly block the view of a neighbor if he directly sees the sea, standing in his yard." And today, in the construction and restoration activities, the “natural” logic should become fundamental.

At the stage of development of a reasonable attitude to the conservation of nature, a gradual transformation of the biotechnosphere into noosphere - the sphere of the mind, which, according to V.I. Vernadsky, is an inevitable and natural stage in the development of the biosphere.

Evidence of the beginning of such a transformation is the concept of "sustainable development", "sustainable construction", "sustainable restoration" adopted by the UN, which is directly related to the concept of "environmental sustainability". The latter implies the ability of an ecosystem to maintain its structure and functional features when exposed external factors. Often "environmental sustainability" is seen as synonymous with environmental sustainability.

Below are the main concepts and requirements related to the category of environmental sustainability. Their understanding is necessary to solve urgent problems of nature management in the areas of construction and restoration activities, create a comfortable living environment and determine the strategy for activities in the field of "sustainable development", "sustainable construction", "sustainable restoration".

* Prutsyn O., Rymashevsky B., Borusevich V. Architectural and historical environment. — M.: Stroyizdat, 1990.

** Alferova G.V. The Pilot Book as the Most Valuable Source of Ancient Russian Urban Art//Byzantine Timepiece, 1973. - V. 35.

Biosphere- the shell of the Earth, the composition, structure and energy of which is determined by the combined activity of living organisms.

global ecology- the doctrine of the biosphere of the Earth.

The biosphere covers part of the atmosphere up to altitude ozone shield (20-25 km), part of the lithosphere and the entire hydrosphere. The lower boundary drops on average 2-3 km on land and 1-2 km below the ocean floor.

In the biogeochemical aspect, it is the shell of the Earth within which life is widespread.

The term ʼʼbiosphereʼʼ was introduced by E. Suess (1875), who understood it as a thin film of life on the earth's surface, which largely determines the ʼʼface of the Earthʼʼ.

The holistic doctrine of the biosphere was developed by V.I. Vernadsky.

Basic properties of the biosphere according to V.I. Vernadsky:

1) integrity and organization of the biosphere;

2) ʼʼubiquityʼʼ of its living matter;

3) the presence in it of clear discrete formations.

He especially singled out the layer of the biosphere covered by life, where the bulk of organisms are concentrated: terrestrial, plankton and bottom film of life. The biosphere as a global system of life is formed by a combination of biogeocenoses.

The substance of the biosphere is complex and has several components:

1) the totality of living organisms - living matter;

2) a substance created and processed by living organisms, - nutrient(coal, bitumen, limestone);

3) inert substance, formed by processes in which living matter does not participate (solid, liquid, gaseous);

4) bio-inert, ĸᴏᴛᴏᴩᴏᴇ is created simultaneously by living organisms and inert processes (almost all the water of the biosphere, oil, soil);

5) a substance in the process of radioactive decay;

6) scattered atoms, which are continuously created from various types of terrestrial matter under the influence of cosmic radiation;

7) matter of cosmic origin, ĸᴏᴛᴏᴩᴏᴇ includes individual atoms and molecules entering the ionosphere from the electromagnetic field of the Sun, penetrating from outer space.

Living matter in the biosphere performs two main functions:

1) energy function: In order for the biosphere to exist and develop, it needs energy, of which it does not have its own sources. It can only consume energy from external sources. Such a main source for the biosphere is the Sun.

2) Environment-forming function. It is expressed in the corresponding biogeochemical functions, which indicate the participation of living organisms in the chemical processes of changing the material composition of the biosphere:

A) gas- absorption and emission of gases (for example, green plants absorb oxygen; bacteria restore nitrogen, hydrogen sulfide; animals and plants emit carbon dioxide).

b) concentration- organisms-concentrators accumulate nitrogen, phosphorus, silicon, calcium, magnesium in their bodies and skeletons.

V) redox- living matter oxidizes, for example, carbohydrates to carbon dioxide and restores it to carbohydrates.

G) biochemical functions are associated with the vital activity of living organisms - their nutrition, respiration, reproduction, death and subsequent destruction of bodies. As a result, a chemical transformation of living matter occurs, first into bioinert, and then, after dying, into inert.

e) biogeochemical functions associated with human activities

The biosphere is a grandiose equilibrium system with a continuous circulation of matter and energy. The development of the biosphere is determined by the flow of energy, the dominant source of which is the Sun. In the biosphere, the energy of solar radiation is consumed, transformed, bound. energy storage is organic matter. The flow of energy in the biosphere is made up of the energy of the Sun and internal energy Earth. At the same time, energy exchange covers all the components of the biosphere, including living matter.

All substances on planet Earth are in the process of biochemical circulation. There are two basic cycles: large (geological) and small (biotic).

· big cycle lasts for millions of years. Rocks are destroyed, weathered and carried by water flows into the World Ocean, where they form powerful marine strata.

· small circle, being part of a larger one, it occurs at the level of biogeocenosis and essentially consists in the fact that the nutrients of soil, water, air are accumulated in plants, spent on creating their mass and life processes in them.

Human intervention negatively affects the cycle processes. For example, the drainage of swamps, deforestation, or disruption of the assimilation of substances by plants as a result of pollution lead to a decrease in the intensity of carbon absorption. An excess of organic elements in water under the influence of industrial effluents causes rotting of water bodies and an overuse of oxygen dissolved in water, which prevents the development of aerobic (oxygen-consuming) bacteria. By burning fossil fuels, fixing atmospheric nitrogen in industrial products, binding phosphorus in detergents (synthetic detergents), a person disrupts the cycle of elements.

The rate of circulation of biogenic elements is quite high. The turnover time of atmospheric carbon is about 8 years. The total cycle time for nitrogen is estimated at more than 110 years, for oxygen - at 2500 years.

The circulation of substances in nature implies a general consistency of place, time and speed of processes at levels from the population to the biosphere. This consistency of natural phenomena is called ecological balance. This balance is dynamic and mobile.

In general, the principle of circulation in nature is preserved. Simpler ecosystems are united into a common planetary ecosystem - the ʼʼbiosphereʼʼ, in which the circulation of substances is fully manifested.

The productivity of the biosphere, according to some estimates, reaches 164 billion tons of dry organic matter per year. According to other estimates, 83 billion tons per year: 30 for the oceans and 53 for land biomes.

Although the ocean covers 0.7 of the total surface of the Earth, its contribution to the production of net products is only 40%. Forests, occupying only 0.1 of the area of ​​the continents, fix almost half of the total energy by its producers.

Cultivated lands have high primary productivity. But it is not commensurate with the total primary productivity of the forest. The high net primary productivity obtained by agronomists does not mean progress in the use of photosynthesis.

None of the shells that make up the biosphere can develop in isolation from the others. Any qualitative change in one of them adequately affects the other. The universal law of the balance of the biosphere is the basic principle of the existence of the entire organic and inorganic world.

The amount of biomass of living matter tends to a certain constancy. There is an approximate planetary balance between the production of living matter and its decomposition. The imbalance in this process is introduced not only (and not so much) by any natural catastrophic changes occurring on earth, but also economic activity of a person, which can not only be commensurate with catastrophically developing natural factors, but even exceed the level of their impact.

The loss of biomass volume during secondary productivity is associated with enormous energy costs for respiration, muscle energy, movement, etc. The longer the the food chain, the lower the secondary productivity. For example, it takes 80 kg of grass to produce 1 kg of beef, and 5 kg of meat is required to produce 1 kg of trout.

Mankind, people are part of the biosphere. Due to the ever-increasing production impact on the environment, man and society make significant disturbances in the biosphere. The biosphere gradually evolves into the noosphere.

concept noosphere was introduced by the French philosophers Edouard Leroy (1870-1954) and Teilhard de Chardin (1881-1955).

The Russian scientists V.I. came closest to understanding the noosphere. Vernadsky, K.E. Tsiolkovsky (1857-1935) and A.L. Chizhevsky (1897-1964).

There are narrow and broad concepts of the noosphere:

- In a narrow sense the only noospheric object that determines its development is man. At the same time, the noosphere is commonly understood as the highest stage in the development of the biosphere, when the natural and artificial environments are controlled under the influence and influence of reasonable human transformations.

If we accept that intelligent life in the Universe is by no means limited to its manifestation on Earth, then we come to broad concept of the noosphere when rational activity goes beyond the scope of only human activity. In this approach, intelligent and conscious activity extends to the entire Universe (Cosmic Mind), and the noosphere acts as the intelligent side of the Universe.

IN AND. Vernadsky emphasized that humanity is becoming a powerful geological force capable of producing global changes on the Earth. Due to this biosphere how the area of ​​active life turns into noosphere - the realm of the mind.

Before the advent of man, the equilibrium of the biosphere was determined five energy factors:

· solar radiation,

the force of gravity

the tectonic forces

the chemical energy

biogenic energy.

These five factors evolved along the geological time scale and shaped the natural environment over 3.5 billion years.

currently appeared new factor - world production energy(it develops not according to the geological, but according to the historical time scale; the preservation or irreversible violation of the mobile equilibrium in the biosphere depends on the organization of production).

In science, there is one of the most important principles - principle of joint co-evolution society and nature parallel, co-evolution or historical adaptation of nature and mankind, the utmost importance of the harmonious joint development of mankind and the biosphere (based on Vernadsky's noosphere theory).

The doctrine of the biosphere - the concept and types. Classification and features of the category "Teaching about the biosphere" 2017, 2018.

Introduction

The doctrine of the biosphere and noosphere was formed as a result of V.I. Vernadsky of the deepest analysis of all the phenomena of life in their mutual connection with each other and with the inert matter of the planet along the entire path of their historical development. Academician Vladimir Ivanovich Vernadsky - the great Russian scientist, naturalist and thinker, creator of new scientific disciplines, teachings about the biosphere, teachings about the transition of the biosphere into the noosphere. With the name of V.I. Vernadsky is connected with the entry into science of revolutionary scientific ideas, which were far ahead of their time and served as the basis for their fruitful development today. In 1945, shortly before his death, this largest scientist introduced outstanding contribution to the development of the modern picture of the world. In those years, his ideas about the transformation of the Earth's biosphere into a consciously organized and controlled human noosphere were not appreciated. But over time, when the phenomena he predicted began to grow with dizzying speed, the significance of the doctrine of the noosphere, of the organic unity of nature and society, that in the conditions of the increased technological power of people, nature can no longer exist and develop without conscious control of its life by humanity, became clear.

The concept of the biosphere - noosphere is the result of all the scientific work of the scientist, his worldview. It serves as a scientific foundation in the development of a number of modern global problems and above all problems human environment environment and reasonable use natural resources biosphere. Of particular value for philosophy is the result of the great work of V.I. Vernadsky on the ratio of the forms of motion of matter.

The doctrine of the biosphere and noosphere reflected his thoughts on the impact of the highest form of the movement of matter on the lower ones, on the subordination of the lower forms to the more developed ones. Forms of motion of matter, according to V.I. Vernadsky, are inextricably linked with space, time and leave their mark on these fundamental conditions of being. Thanks to the work of V.I. Vernadsky and further research of the questions posed by him, today every scientist, armed with geochemical and cosmochemical knowledge, sees the evolution of the Earth and the Cosmos as a historical process of development that embraces in interconnection all phenomena of living and inanimate nature. When they are considered together, a special position of the natural scientist arises in relation to the development of the phenomena of life. IN AND. Vernadsky gave the world a unique philosophical direction of universal human significance: active-evolutionary, noospheric, cosmic thought. The choice of this topic is due to the fact that I was interested in the restructuring of the picture of the world that is taking place today, which corresponds to the changes that are really taking place in the world.

The doctrine of the biosphere

The doctrine of the Earth's biosphere is one of the largest and most interesting generalizations of a scientist in the field of natural science. Vernadsky V.I. was a man of subtlety in matters of scientific ethics. Therefore, in his works, he points out that the term “biosphere” does not belong to him, but was first used in the early 19th century by Jean Baptiste Lamarck, and the Australian scientist Edward Suess put a certain geological meaning into it in 1875. But the complete doctrine associated with this term was created precisely by V.I. Vernadsky, investing in this term a completely different, much deeper meaning. The doctrine of the biosphere created by V.I. Vernadsky in 1926, considers “living organisms” as something whole and united”, “as a living substance, that is, the totality of all living organisms currently existing, numerically expressed in elementary chemical composition, in the weight of energy". For the totality of organisms inhabiting the Earth, he introduced the term "living matter", and the biosphere began to be called the entire environment in which this living matter is located, that is, the entire water shell of the Earth, since living organisms exist at the deepest depths of the World Ocean, the lower part of the atmosphere, in which insects, birds fly, people live, as well as the upper part of the solid shell of the Earth - the lithosphere, in which living bacteria in groundwater are found to a depth of about two kilometers, and man has penetrated to even greater depths with his mines. IN AND. Vernadsky defines the biosphere as one of the geospheres, which has been radically and irreversibly changed under the influence of living beings in their current and past life activity. According to Vernadsky, the biosphere includes the lower layers of the stratosphere, the entire troposphere, the upper part of the lithosphere, composed of sedimentary rocks, and the hydrosphere. Above earth's surface the biosphere rises to a height of about 23 km, and below the surface it extends to a depth of 12 km. In different layers of the stratosphere there are more or less thick deposits of coal, oil and gas.

No one doubts the vegetable origin of coals, however, there are discrepancies regarding oil and underground gas; some geologists do not consider them organic in origin. IN AND. Vernadsky considered both oil and underground gases to be the result of the vital activity of the living components of the biosphere. In the last decade, when studying oil, it was found that some living bacteria exist in oil, thus life penetrates into more or less deep layers of the stratosphere.

Thus, the concept of the biosphere is very voluminous in terms of the radial dimensions of this shell, very deep in terms of understanding the role of life in all parts of the biosphere in its broadest sense, and also historical, since the stratosphere can be considered as the result of the development of the biosphere throughout geological time. Every living organism in the biosphere - a natural object - is a living natural body. The living matter of the biosphere is the totality of living organisms living in it. In the biosphere there is a "film of life", in which the concentration of living matter is maximum. This is the surface of the land, soil and upper layers of the waters of the oceans.

Above and below it, the amount of living matter in the Earth's biosphere decreases sharply. Much attention in his works on the biosphere V.I. Vernadsky paid attention to the green living matter of plants, because only it is autotrophic, only it is capable of capturing the radiant energy of the Sun and using it to create primary organic compounds. Having considered the volume and energy coefficients of various vegetation groups, V.I. Vernadsky came to the conclusion that "the green expanses of the ocean are the main transformers of the solar energy of our planet." A significant part of the energy of "living matter" goes to the formation within the biosphere of new vadose minerals that are not known outside the biosphere, and part is buried in the form of organic matter itself, eventually forming deposits of brown and hard coal, oil shale, oil and gas. “We are dealing here,” writes V.I. Vernadsky, - with a new process - with a slow penetration into the planet of the radiant energy of the Sun, which reached the surface of the Earth. In this way, "living matter" changes the biosphere and the earth's crust. It continuously leaves in it a part of the chemical elements that have passed through it, creating huge thicknesses of unknown, in addition to it, vadose minerals or penetrating the inert matter of the biosphere with the finest dust of its remnants.

IN AND. Vernadsky believed that the earth's crust is mainly the remains of former biospheres, and even its granite-gneiss layer was formed as a result of metamorphism and remelting of rocks that once arose under the influence of living matter. He considered only basalts and other basic igneous rocks to be deep, not related in their genesis to the biosphere. Much attention is paid to the forms of presence of various chemical elements in the biosphere, the division of the "living matter" of the biosphere according to the sources of nutrition of organisms into auto-hetero and mycotrophic, the radiation of the field of stability of life or the limits of life, the features of life in the hydrosphere and on land, the geochemical cycles of the condensed life and living films of the hydrosphere. It was the geological and cosmic perspectives of considering the role of living matter on the planet that led V.I. Vernadsky to the conclusion about the enormous thickness of the biosphere (several kilometers) and the heterogeneity of its composition.

Limits of the biosphere

The biosphere is an organized, definite shell of the earth's crust, associated with life. The limits of the biosphere are determined, first of all, by the field of existence of life. From these definitions follow several very specific concepts that reveal the essence of the biosphere.

1. The biosphere is not just one of the existing shells of the Earth, like the lithosphere, hydrosphere, atmosphere. IN AND. Vernadsky extremely succinctly indicates its main difference - it is an organized shell. And in order to understand the essence of the biosphere, you need to understand how and by whom, it is organized, what is the organization of the biosphere.

2. The biosphere has certain limits; that is, some finite dimensions within which it can be isolated and scientifically studied. Consequently, having identified the main driving force behind the development of the biosphere - living matter - it is necessary to establish those spatial and temporal restrictions (limits) that are imposed on the activity of living matter.

3. The limits of the biosphere are associated with the field of existence of the living. But any field can be preserved and maintained only if certain physical or chemical parameters, indicators of its state, are preserved.

This means that some necessary and sufficient parameters must be established for the physical preservation of the "fields of life" in the biosphere and the biosphere itself. Over a billion years of existence of the biosphere, organization is created and maintained by the activity of living matter - the totality of all living organisms. The form of activity of the living, its biogeochemical work in the biosphere, consists in the implementation of irreversible and open cycles of matter and energy flows between the main structural components of the biospheric integrity: rocks, natural waters, gases, soils, vegetation, animals, microorganisms. This uninterrupted process of circular motion is one of the cornerstones of the doctrine of the biosphere and is called biochemical cyclicity. The study of biochemical cycles as non-closed cycles helps to penetrate more deeply into the essence of the processes of organization of the biospheric shell. Each subsequent state of the biosphere does not repeat the previous one. Involvement in migration cycles leads to continuous renewal of the biosphere, contributes to its progressive evolutionary development, the complication of living matter, and the increase in the diversity of living organisms. The question of the limits of the biosphere V.I. Vernadsky is associated with the preservation of the limits of life.

Ideas about them undergo fundamental changes literally with every new day in the development of science. Yesterday we were convinced that a boiling point of 100 C is impossible for the life of any living being. Today, all the new discoveries of the world are impressive. thermophilic organisms, found in volcanic vents, geysers and underwater changes, for some of them the centigrade temperature is “a bit cold” for normal cell division (reproduction), they live at a temperature of + 250C. There is information about the possibility of bacteria transferring the temperature of absolute zero (-273 C). The plasticity of life is great, but still its limits objectively exist, and they determine the limits of the development of the biosphere, its structure and functions.

The upper boundary of the biosphere covers the entire troposphere and is limited by the ozone layer (23-25 ​​km), which protects all life from the harmful effects of ultraviolet radiation as a kind of screen. The lower border is very indented; the biosphere includes the entire hydrosphere of the land and the World Ocean, on the continents it penetrates, on average, into the earth's crust to a depth of 16 km. Here it is conjugated with the area of ​​“former biospheres”, - so V.I. Vernadsky named the remaining remains of the biosphere of past geological periods.

This is the accumulation of limestone, coal, oil shale, residual rocks. Bygone biospheres are documented proof of the geologically eternal development of the biosphere. In a large geological cycle of the movement of matter, the fossil remains of the biospheres of the past come to the day surface, are destroyed, captured by living organisms in new biogenic cycles of circulation, then again leave it and descend into the deep horizons of the earth's crust, where they are metamorphosed, remelted, and where they are given away stored in them solar energy. This lasts for billions of years, as long as the biosphere exists. The age of the biosphere is approaching the geological age of the Earth as the plans of the solar system.

The doctrine of the biosphere was created by Academician V.I. Vernadsky - a brilliant Russian scientist, naturalist and philosopher of the twentieth century. This doctrine is based on the analysis of the development of living matter, due to evolution, as well as the transformations of the physical and chemical composition of the Earth, provoked by these changes. These processes were described in detail by Vernadsky in his work "Teaching about the Biosphere". For the first time, he presented a holistic picture of the world and outlined the role of living matter in it.

Academician Vernadsky explained why the appearance of the biosphere on our planet is an objective result of the development of the overall cosmic process. According to the scientist, it is important that in this case the biosphere should be regarded as an integral geological shell of the Earth, which consists of living and inanimate matter. characteristic features biosphere are physico-chemical and geometric heterogeneity. This heterogeneity of structure is the dominant factor due to which the biosphere is fundamentally different from the rest of the Earth's shells. Living matter is present in the entire biosphere, participates in its creation and at the same time continuously changes the biosphere. Despite the fact that the mass of all living matter on the planet is only one hundredth of a percent of the weight of the biosphere, according to geological criteria, living organisms are considered as powerful force, which determines all the processes occurring in it.

In the teachings of Vernadsky, it is pointed out that the Earth's biosphere - a thin shell that includes heterogeneous components (living and inanimate matter) - maintains all the processes occurring in it in a state of dynamic equilibrium. This is due to the constant cycles of atoms from inanimate matter to living matter and vice versa. Vernadsky in his work focuses on the geological role of living beings in the formation of the waters of the World Ocean, rocks, in the creation of the gas composition of the atmosphere as they are today.

Thus, the doctrine of the biosphere by V.I. Vernadsky is a philosophical and natural scientific generalization of the principles of the development of the Earth as an integral cosmic process and an explanation essential role, which was performed and is being performed by living matter on the planet.

The doctrine of the biosphere was created by Vernadsky back in the 20-30s of the twentieth century. It was both prophecy and theories about past events. Only at the present time have many experimental confirmations of the ideas of this scientist appeared. Based on the theses of Vernadsky's teaching, we can conclude that the biosphere is the active shell of the Earth, in which Team work of all living beings is expressed as a geochemical factor on a planetary scale. Our planet exists just like that. modern form because it has life on it.

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