Great apes and man - similarities and differences. Types and signs of modern great apes. Representatives of great apes Great apes living on earth

Great apes, or ( Hominoidae) is a superfamily of primates, which includes 24 species. Although people are Hominoidea, the term "ape" does not apply to humans and describes non-human primates.

Classification

Great apes are classified in the following taxonomic hierarchy:

• Domain: ;
• Kingdom: ;
• Type: ;
• Class: ;
• Squad: ;
• Superfamily: Hominoids.

The term great ape refers to a group of primates that includes the families: hominids (chimpanzees, gorillas, orangutans) and gibbons. scientific name Hominoidea refers to apes (chimpanzees, gorillas, orangutans, gibbons) as well as humans (i.e. ignoring the fact that humans prefer not to call themselves apes).

The gibbon family is the most diverse, it has 16 species. Another family - hominids - is less diverse and includes: chimpanzees (2 species), gorillas (2 species), orangutans (3 species) and humans (1 species).

Evolution

The record is incomplete, but scientists believe that ancient hominoids diverged from marmosets between 29 and 34 million years ago. The first modern hominoids appeared about 25 million years ago. Gibbons were the first group to split off from other groups, about 18 million years ago, followed by a lineage of orangutans (about 14 million years ago), and gorillas (about 7 million years ago).

The most recent split occurred between humans and chimpanzees about 5 million years ago. The closest living relatives of hominoids are the Old World monkeys, or marmosets.

Environment and habitat

Hominoids live throughout the West and Central, as well as in the Southeast. Orangutans are found only in Asia, chimpanzees inhabit West and Central Africa, gorillas are common in Central Africa, and gibbons live in Southeast Asia.

Description

Most hominoids, with the exception of humans and gorillas, are skilled as well as flexible climbers. Gibbons are the most agile arboreal primates of all hominids. They can jump up branches, moving quickly and efficiently through trees.

Compared to other primates, hominoids have a lower center of gravity, a shortened spine relative to their body length, a broad pelvis, and broad chest. Their overall build gives them a more upright posture than other primates. Their shoulder blades are on their backs, allowing for a wide range of motion. Hominoids also do not have a tail. Together, these characteristics give hominoids a better balance than their closest living relatives, the Old World monkeys. Hominoids are therefore more stable when standing on two legs or swinging their limbs and hanging from tree branches.

Hominoids are very intelligent and able to solve problems. Chimpanzees and orangutans make and use simple tools. Scientists studying orangutans in captivity have noted the ability of these primates to use sign language, solve puzzles and recognize symbols.

Nutrition

The diet of hominoids includes leaves, seeds, nuts, fruits, and a limited number of animals. Most species but fruits are the preferred food. Chimpanzees and orangutans primarily eat fruits. When fruit is scarce at certain times of the year or in certain regions, gorillas feed on shoots and leaves, often bamboo. Gorillas are well adapted to chewing and digesting such a low-nutrient food, but these primates still prefer fruit when available. Hominoid teeth are similar to those of Old World monkeys, although they are especially large in gorillas.

reproduction

Gestation in hominoids lasts from 7 to 9 months and leads to the birth of one offspring or, more rarely, two. Cubs are born helpless and require care for a long time. Compared to most other mammals, hominoids have a surprisingly long period of breastfeeding. In most species, full maturity occurs at the age of 8-13 years. As a result, females typically give birth only once every few years.

Behavior

Like most primates, hominoids form social groups, the structure of which varies depending on the species. Gibbons form monogamous pairs. Orangutans are an exception social norm primates, they lead a solitary life.

Chimpanzees form groups that can number from 40 to 100 individuals. Large groups of chimpanzees break up into smaller groups when fruit becomes less available. If small groups of dominant male chimpanzees leave to feed, the females often copulate with other males in their group.

Gorillas live in groups of 5 to 10 or more individuals, however they stay together regardless of the presence of fruit. When fruit fruits are hard to come by, they resort to eating leaves and shoots. Since the gorillas stay together, the male is able to monopolize the females in his group. This fact is associated with more in gorillas than in chimpanzees. In both chimpanzees and gorillas, groups include at least one dominant male, with females leaving the group at adulthood.

Threats

Many species of hominoids are endangered due to destruction, poaching and hunting for bushmeat and skins. Both species of chimpanzee are endangered. Gorillas are on the verge of extinction. Eleven out of sixteen gibbon species are becoming extinct.

Representatives of two families of primates Hylobatidae (gibbons, or small apes) and Pongidae (higher, or actually, apes: orangutans, gorillas and chimpanzees). Both groups, together with people, are included in the superfamily ... ... Collier Encyclopedia

Same as pongids... Big Encyclopedic Dictionary

Hominoids, anthropoids (Hominoidea, Anthropomorphidae), superfamily of narrow-nosed monkeys. It is believed that at the origins of the development of Ch. was a parapithecus from the Oligocene of Egypt. In the Miocene, numerous and various Ch. inhabited Europe, India, Africa. 3 family:… … Biological encyclopedic dictionary

Same as pongids. * * * ANTI-NOSED MONKEYS ANTI-NOSED MONKEYS, a group of higher narrow-nosed monkeys (see ANTI-NOSED MONKEYS), the most highly developed among the monkeys of the Old World; includes gibbons, orangutans, chimpanzees, and gorillas. encyclopedic Dictionary

great apes- žmoginės beždžionės statusas T sritis zoologija | vardynas taksono rangas šeima apibrėžtis Šeimoje 4 gentys. Kūno masė - 5 300 kg, kūno ilgis - 45 180 cm. atitikmenys: lot. Pongidae anthropoid apes vok. Menschenaffen rus. higher narrow-nosed ... ... Žinduolių pavadinimų žodynas

great apes- the same as pongids, large apes, a family of narrow-nosed monkeys of the order of primates, includes three genera: gorilla, orangutan, chimpanzee ... Beginnings modern natural science

- (characteristic see. narrow-nosed monkeys) embrace three living genera: the orangutan (Simia), the chimpanzee (Troglodytes s. Antropopithecus) and the gorilla (Gorilla). Some also include gibbons (see. Narrow-nosed monkeys). Orang living on ... ... Encyclopedic Dictionary F.A. Brockhaus and I.A. Efron

Or anthropoids (Anthropomorphidae), group higher primates. Together with the family of hominids, they form the superfamily of humanoid primates (Hominoidea). According to the most common system, Ch. include 2 families: Gibbons, or ... ... Great Soviet Encyclopedia

Same as pongids... Natural science. encyclopedic Dictionary

great apes- zool. A family of monkeys that includes the gorilla, orangutan, chimpanzee... Dictionary of many expressions

Books

• Great apes, . A long study of monkeys made it possible to learn a lot about their life, developed intellect about the ability to speak. Scientists have learned about the origin of aesthetic feeling by seeing how they draw ...
• Great apes, Drescher W.. Why do chimpanzees do the "rain dance" and why can't apes reach parrot vocabulary? Why do monkeys dig into each other's fur, and why do chimpanzees sleep in trees? For what…
• What did the "talking" monkeys talk about: Are higher animals capable of operating with symbols? , Z. A. Zorina. The book describes the results of experiments of the last third of the twentieth century, proving the ability great apes and some other higher vertebrates to master the simplest analogues ...

Modern anthropoid apes - chimpanzees, gorillas, orangutans, gibbons - represent forms about 10-15 million years ago that deviated from the line of development common with humans.

Starting from the early Miocene (i.e., from about 22 million years BC), the first group of higher apes, Proconsul, appeared on Earth. This was a whole group of African apes. They were tree and forest dwellers with a unique locomotion system. The group has been around for quite some time. Early forms of these monkeys were probably the ancestors of all modern hominoids.

A number of researchers at the base of the phylogenetic tree going to man put DRIOPITEKOV, which include several species of ancient anthropomorphic monkeys, very close to African higher apes, partly to orangutans. At the same time, in some features, individual forms of driopithecus are more similar to humans than any of the living anthropomorphic monkeys. Approximately 15 million years ago, a group of driopithecus species split into two branches - one led to great apes (pongid), and the other to hominids.

The next step (new bunch of shapes) were:

RAMAPITEKI. The remains of the large Ramopitek monkey have been found in various parts of the world: in the foothills of the Himalayas - in India, Southeast Africa, the Middle East and Central Europe. These monkeys were intermediate in tooth structure between humans and modern great apes.

The dating of these finds refers to approximately the same age - 8-14 million years ago.

At this time, the climate of the Earth noticeably changes: in general it becomes a little colder, and in tropical zone- dry. In place of forests, sparse forests and savannahs began to appear. A new ecological niche has emerged, apparently not yet occupied by anyone. It was at this time that the Ramopithecus "came out of the forest." The immediate reasons for this exit could be either the search for food or the escape from stronger predators. In the open space, a physical restructuring of the monkey was required. The advantage was given to those individuals that could hold out longer on two legs - in a straightened position. In tall grass for looking out for prey and enemies, this position of the body is undoubtedly more advantageous. And some ramopithecus rose to their feet.

Ramapithecus are a large and fairly numerous group of species. At some point, thought to have happened about 10-8 million years ago, few species or populations of one species must have begun to use primitive, unworked tools (such as sticks and stones) on a regular and consistent basis. This caused the emergence of a new bunch of humanoid creatures (Australopithecines).

Australopithecus - the basis of the line that came to HOMO. (from Latin australis - southern, pithecus - monkey). There are 2 to 4 types of australopithecines.

Findings of this creature are noted mainly in South Africa.

The period during which they lived is quite long - 8 million-750-500 thousand years ago.

The size of these animals was quite large - their weight was approximately 20-65 kg, height - 100-150 cm.

They walked on short legs with a straightened body position. The proportions of the torso and limbs have changed. The gluteal muscles were powerfully developed. The position of the occipital foramen was similar to that of a person, which also indicates a straightened position of the body.

In Australopithecus, there is a significant similarity with humans in the structure of the teeth and dental system: the teeth are arranged in the form of a wide arc, like in humans, the fangs are small (unlike all monkeys), which indicates that the functions of attack and defense have passed to the hands .

The mass of the brain was 450 - 550 g, which on average exceeds the mass of the brain of the largest anthropoid orbesian (460 g). In this case, it should be taken into account that the mass of the gorilla is much larger than the mass of the Australopithecus. There was no convexity in the posterior part of the temporal region in Australopithecus, i.e. the structure of the brain is rather primitive.

Australopithecus lived in the open spaces of the savannas. During excavations, bones are often found along with the remains of Australopithecus small baboons with traces of strong splitting blows. They used sticks, stones and bones of ungulates as a percussion instrument. Perhaps the development of fire has begun.

They used sticks, bones, stones as hunting tools,

Omnivorous, hunting small prey.

Perhaps they were capable of primitive processing of tools.

Several types

Factors of evolution - biological

In general, Australopithecus were closer to humans than modern great apes. This similarity, however, is more expressed in the structure of the dental system and the type of locomotion than in the structure of the brain.

Topic 10. THE APPEARANCE OF THE KIND HOMO

SKILLED MAN

In 1959, on the slope of Ngoro-Ngoro (In Africa), the English anthropologist R. Leakey found bones, along with the remains of one of the Australopithecus, and the following year, the skull of a creature much closer to humans.

3 - 1.7 Ma

The mass of the brain is about 650 g. much higher than that of Australopithecus. The first toe is not laid aside, which indicates that the morphological rearrangements associated with bipedalism have been completed. The terminal phalanges are as short and flat as in humans.

Coarse pebble tools and axes were found together.

Pebble culture

The first kind of MAN

The first dwellings were wind-breaking walls without roofs.

The factor of evolution is biological.

ARCHANTROPS 1 or more species of Homo erectus

Some kind of branch of Australopithecus - Homo Habilis. The ability to produce tools of labor arose and developed, which was closely connected with the further development of the brain. Probably, in the same period there was a wide development of fire. All this gave such advantages that 2 - 2.5 million years ago, the rapid spread of Homo habilis began in Africa, the Mediterranean, and Asia.

Settling, they formed isolated forms - about 10 of them are

to superspecies Homo erectus

Lifestyle: They were distinguished by their developed tool activity.

chopped, hewn on 2 sides,

could butcher slaughtered animals

scrapers, pointed

hunted buffalo, rhinos, deer, rodents (big game hunting appeared)

caves and primitive stone shelters

supported the fire

high infant mortality

must have had primitive speech. Brain mass 750 g

Factors of evolution - natural selection + social

Appearance

Significant features that differ from the human brain, although the mass of the brain is 800-1000 cm.

150-160 cm, there were also larger ones.

Homo Erectus Pithecanthropus - (Java 1 million - 400 thousand)

Sinanthropus (China 450 -300 thousand)

Heidelberg man (Northern Europe 400 thousand)

Atlantrop (Algeria)

Telanthropus (South Africa, most ancient)

By the time of existence, the telanthropus (the most ancient) coincides with the late Australopithecus and Homo habilis. Moreover, it is assumed that the telanthropus successfully hunted both Homo habilis and Australopithecus.

So, 5-3.5 million years ago, the development of one of the Australopithecus branches led to the emergence of HOMO HABILIS, and as a result of the emergence of adaptations of fundamental importance (the development of fire and the production of tools), it subsequently led to a new outbreak of morphogenesis and the creation of a complex of forms HOMO ERECTUS. These progressive forms spread widely throughout the warm zone of Africa, Europe and Asia and evolved in several different directions. The most promising directions were the continued expansion of the brain, the development of a social way of life, the manufacture of tools and the expansion of the use of fire.

Natural biological selection prevailed, associated with a tough intraspecific struggle for existence. After a period of maximum flourishing 600-400 thousand years ago, these forms quickly disappeared, giving rise to a new group of forms, PALEANTHROPS or NEANDERTHALS.

NEANDERTHALS

the immediate ancestors of Homo sapiens.

In more than 400 places in Europe, Africa, Asia and Indonesia, traces of the existence of those who lived 240 - 50 thousand years ago were found.

They occupied an intermediate position between the archanthropes and the fossil forms of Homo sapiens.

Appearance - 155-165 cm

the mass of the brain is 1300-1500, the departments associated with logical thinking are developed. The proportions are close to modern man.

Lifestyle

There are remains of bonfires and bones of large animals at the sites. Tools are more perfect than processed pebbles.

Neanderthals are a heterogeneous group

Findings older in age are more progressive morphologically in skeleton than later forms.

All this can be explained if we assume that one of the progressive branches of the archanthropes quickly supplanted its ancestors. This form broke up into 2 main races.

Late Neanderthals with more primitive brains and more physical power.

Early Neanderthals - a smaller brow ridge, thinner jawbones, a high forehead, and a prominently developed chin. It was they who embarked on the path leading from the horde to society. This evolutionary path led to the emergence of Homo sapiens 50-40 thousand years ago.

Clothing - sewn from skins

built dwellings

got fire

buried the dead

concern for members of society

Factors of evolution: natural selection + social factors

MAN REASONABLE

Two perspectives on origin

1 arose in several places from different ancestral forms

2 monocentrism hypothesis

THE HYPOTHESIS OF WIDE MONOCENTRISM I I I ROGINSKY

Man of the modern type arose somewhere in the east of the Mediterranean and in Asia Minor. It is here that the most complete intermediate forms between Neanderthals and fossil forms of Homo sapiens are found. Numerous intermediate between paleanthropes and non-anthropes are also on SE Europe. In those days there were dense forests. Here, apparently, the last step towards sapiens was made.

The appearance finally approached the appearance of modern man. Significant changes in the structure of the brain, a large development of the frontal lobes and areas associated with the development of speech and complex constructive activity.

After that, a wide resettlement of non-anthropes began on the planet. They mixed with the Neanderthals. Settlement led to a sharp change in the primitive culture of the Neanderthals by a much more developed culture of the Cro-Magnons.

Topic 11

CRO-MAGNON - a man of the modern type.

from 100 thousand years

1600 smz brain

chin protrusion (speech)

no brow ridges

use horn, bone, there is pottery

tribal society

construction of dwellings

art, religion

domesticate animals, grow plants

Factors of evolution - social

Uniting the efforts of individuals and strengthening sociality

Selection directed to the emergence of the ability to put the interests of the tribe above all.

At the heart of the emergence of Homo sapiens as a species are altruistic inclinations that determined the advantage of their owners in the conditions of collective life.

THE MAIN STAGES OF THE DEVELOPMENT OF AN APPROPRIATE HUMAN

Without considering in detail the history of mankind, we emphasize 3 main points in its development

1 Unprecedented spiritual and mental development: Only a reasonable person has reached such an understanding of nature, such a level of self-knowledge (according to the philosophical definition, a person is a matter that knows itself), which made possible the emergence of art.

2 Greatest Achievements evolution were the discoveries that led to the neolithic revolution

Neolithic revolution - domestication of animals and domestication of plants. These events were the largest on the path of Homo sapiens mastery of the environment.

3 Scientific and technological revolution

The role of labor The main features of man: the development of the central nervous system, the hand as an organ capable of producing various movements inaccessible to the monkey, speech as a means of communication and the very creation of society - all this is the result of the labor process. In itself, the emergence of the human race (Skillful Man) stands out precisely on the basis of labor activity. Not just using a stick, a stone as a tool. But it is precisely the production of various tools that is the line separating man from humanoid ancestors. All further human development is connected with the improvement of the production process.

Topic 12. FEATURES OF THE PRESENT STAGE OF HUMAN EVOLUTION

With the emergence of man as a social being, the biological factors of evolution weaken their effect, and social factors acquire a leading role in the development of mankind. However, man himself remains a being living according to biological laws. (Nutrition, reproduction, life span, genetics). Natural selection ceases to be an evolutionary leader factor and remains in the form of a force that performs a certain stabilizing role.

The only evolutionary factor that remains important in human society is the mutation process. . Newly emerging mutations - genetic combinatorics - lead to the maintenance of the uniqueness of each individual. In conditions of weakening natural selection the mutation process is very dangerous.

Approximately 1 person in 4000 carries a newly emerging albinism mutation, with the same frequency occurs a hemophilia mutation. Newly emerging mutations constantly change the genotypic composition of the population of certain regions, enriching it with new features. Mutations are extremely dangerous in conditions of weakening the action of natural selection. The birth of handicapped children, the general decline in the viability of individuals carrying harmful, up to semi-lethal genes, are real dangers at the present stage of the development of society.

Evolutionary factors practically not involved in evolutionary process:

Violation of isolation barriers - interrupts the action of isolation as a factor of evolution.

Absence of population waves. Now this is a very rare phenomenon, in contrast to the earlier period of evolution, when epidemics raged that reduced individual populations by several times.

There is only cultural evolution, with virtually no change in the physical form of man.

SOMATIC ANTHRPOLOGY

(MORPHOLOGY OF THE HUMAN)

Topic 13. General tasks of somatic morphology.

In a narrow sense, human morphology is one of the sections of anthropology that studies the patterns of variability in the structure of the human body, its organs and parts, as well as the analysis of the influence of external conditions of life and work on the characteristics of its physical type .. Variability is individual, age, gender, geographic, etc. .d.

As a branch of anthropological science, morphology is not only of independent importance, but is very important for the development of the problem of anthropogenesis and racial science.

It is impossible to correctly illuminate the degree of similarity and differences between the racial types of mankind, to understand the relationship between modern man and his fossil ancestors, to solve the problems of hominin phylogeny without knowing the patterns of individual and age variability in modern man.

In a broader sense, human morphology is the science of the shape and structure of the human body, while considering different levels of organization of its constituent structures (from organismal to subcellular) in connection with their functions and history of development.

Each person is morphologically unique, but certain types can be distinguished among individual variants, that is, generalized variants of variability.

The variability of the body structure is established with various kinds of comparisons: interpopulation, intrapopulation, and individual. Variability is both geographical and historical. In the latter case, the variability of structures depends on the genotypic features that arise during migrations and mixings of the population, as well as on changes in environmental conditions. Often, morphological rearrangements are cyclical, for example, brachyfalization (the skull, as it were, is compressed in the fronto-occipital direction) is replaced by debrachycaphalization, and gracialization (a more refined skeletal structure) is replaced by maturization.

People differ from each other in the most different aspects both biological and social. Human genetics is at the very center of the problems of variability, since genes are the material substratum of the heredity of variability. We have not yet reached the highest precision of research that would allow us to compare genes as such, however, we are able to analyze proteins as direct gene products. Behind last years many biochemical variations of beoks, which have a hereditary nature, have been discovered. The inheritance of most traits in humans is still impossible to analyze using the mathematical apparatus of evolutionary genetics. Usually, not one gene, but many genes are involved in the manifestation of these traits, and vice versa, the same gene is responsible for several traits. These features include, in particular, body size and skin color, studied by classical anthropology.

The dimensions and shape of the body are examined using the methods of ANTHROPOMETRY - MEASUREMENTS, characterizing the features of the body and its organs.

Anthropologists, who are mainly interested in the problems of evolution, attach great importance skeletal measurements, but soft tissue measurements, especially body fat, are also important.

In principle, there is nothing easier than making some measurements with a ruler, centimeter or compass, but in order to obtain reliable and comparable results, it is necessary to develop a measurement technique in detail.

Basic anthropometric characteristics.

Body length, torso and limb length, shoulder width, pelvis diameter (Distance between the most lateral points on the iliac crests), bispinal diameter (distance between the anterior superior iliac bones ((ilium - spoon-shaped bone - pelvis))).

Circular measurements: at the level of the chest, abdomen, hips.

Main index (transverse-longitudinal index):

transverse diameter x 100 / longitudinal diameter.

SOMATIC AND FUNCTIONAL ANTHROPOLOGY

Topic 14 . Variety of forms and factors of human variability

"Human Morphology" / Ed. B. A. Nikityuk and V. A. Chtetsov, 1990

“Each person is morphologically unique, since the hereditary program implemented in his ontogenesis is unique, and the environmental conditions that control the implementation of the genotype into the phenotype are also specific. Among morphological individuals, certain types can be distinguished according to the principle of similarity, that is, generalized variants of variability.

The variability of the body structure is established by interpopulation, ionic, intrapopulation, and individual comparisons. It has both geographical (in connection with environmental conditions) and historical conditionality. In the latter case, the variability of structures, especially body size, depends on the genotypic features that arise during migrations and mixing of the population, and on changes in environmental conditions. Often, morphological changes in the body are cyclic in nature, regularly repeating themselves with a certain periodicity. So, the expansion of the human skull (brachycephalization) established by G. F. Debets according to paleoanthrological data is replaced by Lately return to the original form (debrachycephalization). Perhaps, in a similar way, in a person of the modern type, changes in the massiveness of the skeleton - gracialization and maturization alternated. With a certain cyclicity, the body size of newborns, the age of the onset of menstruation in girls, and some other signs change over time.

Confirmation of the wide morphological variability of the human body is the asymmetry (dyssymmetry) of the body structure, the uneven quantitative and qualitative expression of its structures on the right and left. An example would be the location of unpaired organs: the heart, liver, stomach, spleen, and others, shifted away from the median plane of the body. A person is characterized by the predominance of the right upper and left lower limbs - right-handedness and left-footedness.

Topic 15. Biological variability in modern human populations

By Harrison J. and others. "Human Biology". 1979:

“...Here we will consider the variability of modern man as a species. Differences in size and physique, in skin color and other features between the inhabitants of the main continents of the globe are well known and attracted the attention of anthropologists as early as the end of the 18th century; over the past 50 years, immunological and biochemical studies have revealed, in addition to these apparent differences, numerous invisible differences, which have greatly contributed to the study of human populations. Geographical differentiation, although the main one, is not the only theme of this part of the book. It can be expected that in complex communities there are biological differences between economic and other constituent elements. The study of such differences can be important, for example, for medicine.

People differ from each other in many different aspects and form a very diverse groups scattered across the globe. The description of these differences makes sense only if it leads to an understanding of how this regional differentiation is carried out and what it is. biological significance in the past and present. Paleontology and archeology provide the most direct and adequate information about the events of the past, and one can hope to create with their help a complete picture of the later phases of human evolution, but so far this information is fragmentary and far from complete. Archaeologists find, as a rule, only bones and teeth, and only rarely any other tissues. Therefore, the development of knowledge in this area is extremely slow and the material obtained is very limited. Archeology also gives us some information about variables of possible biological significance, such as the size of populations, their age and sex structure, climatic conditions, and the ways in which people obtained their livelihood.

Genetics is at the very center of evolutionary problems, since genes are the material substratum of the relationship that exists between generations, and phylogenetic changes depend on changes in the properties and frequencies of genes. The accuracy with which we can describe the genotype depends largely on the nature of the traits we have chosen to study. We have not yet reached the highest precision that would allow us to compare the structure of human genes on the basis of chemical analysis; nevertheless, the analysis of proteins as direct products of the action of genes has brought us noticeably closer to this ideal. Over the past two decades, using fairly simple biochemical methods, many hereditary variants of proteins have been discovered.

It is clear that such biochemical traits have a great attraction for those whose goal is to compare populations with precise methods at the level of genes, moreover, using the mathematical apparatus of evolutionary genetics to interpret the results. That is why in this part of the book a lot of space is devoted to biochemical genetics.

In humans, the inheritance of most traits (including mental abilities as assessed by standard tests, susceptibility to a number of diseases, and many others) cannot yet be analyzed in such precise biochemical terms. Usually, many genes are involved in determining these traits, and environmental conditions affect the variability of traits. These features include the size of the body and flower skin, studied by classical anthropology. This, of course, does not mean that similar signs and their variability are not of interest to researchers in human biology, however, their significance for evolutionary genetics is limited, since we cannot identify individual genes, about which in question. <...>(S. 229-230.)

People differ from each other in body structure and in numerous biochemical and physiological signs. We will without hesitation refer such variability to the region biological research carried out by the same methods that are used in the study of living things. But, in addition, people speak different languages, obey different laws, have different customs and beliefs, and vary greatly in the nature and scope of their activities. Undoubtedly, differences of a social nature may be as important for survival as the maintenance of normal physiological functions of the body; this should not be overlooked in an in-depth study of human biology. The extraordinary development of means of communication, technology and forms of social life is inherent only to man. The sheer complexity of the problem requires research in many areas that the animal biologist does not have to deal with, and which are not usually included in the field of biology.

Features of culture are transmitted from generation to generation due to training and living conditions in a certain social environment, and not according to the laws of biological heredity; they can change much faster than traits encoded in the genome and regulated by natural selection. However, the ability to master a language or cultural heritage society, of course, also depends on the characteristics of the brain, although we are still very far from understanding the neurological foundations of learning and memory. Genes determine the development and functional activity of brain structures; this is clearly evidenced by cases of mental retardation associated with certain mutations. Nevertheless, tissues that develop according to the "instructions" of the genome are not static, but have the ability to respond within certain limits, adapting to changes in the environment; apparently, this provision extends to the higher nervous activity of the organism. The maturation of mental faculties undoubtedly depends on the influence of the social environment; what a person learns depends on what he is taught, the accumulation of what knowledge is promoted. In analyzing the development of diverse cultures, authoritative researchers study the geographical and historical circumstances, and not the genetically determined variability of the mental abilities that play a role in the development of a culture. If this view is correct, then biology in the generally accepted sense of the word is not capable of providing a major contribution to the study of the cultural-sociological aspect of anthropology.<...>(S. 230-231.)

The marriage system determines the distribution of genes in the next generation. As we noted, in humans, the selection of married couples is limited by social and geographical barriers. In some societies, marriage or sexual intercourse between members of different ethnic groups, such as between "blacks" and "whites", is prohibited by law, while in others there are more or less serious obstacles to marriage between adherents of different religions. Even where law or custom imposes no such restrictions, people often prefer to marry members of their social background and are better able to do so. This behavior hinders the flow of genes between groups. Besides, different societies allow varying degrees of kinship between those who are married. Marriages between close relatives increase the likelihood that copies of genes from a common ancestor will fall into the SAME zygote. This affects the homozygosity of the population (albeit to a very small extent) and increases the frequency of rare recessive anomalies. Sociologists pay a great deal of attention to kinship relationships, however, placing the emphasis on the rules prescribed by society, and not on the real genetic consequences. This situation can serve as an illustrative example of the divergence of interests and lack of contacts between biologists and sociologists.

It is the problems of natural selection that draw our attention to the causes of differences in mortality and fertility. All densely populated areas of the globe until recently (and still in some developing countries) infectious diseases caused by viruses, bacteria and protozoa were the leading causes of death. Animal experiments have shown that genes influence susceptibility to these diseases; there is reason to believe that this applies to humans. The frequency of this or that disease in a certain area depends both on the characteristics of the climate and on such factors as the size and structure of a given society, the way settlements are located and built, the nature of nutrition, hygiene habits, and many other aspects of life. The choice of habitat and the transformation of the environment under the influence Agriculture can also affect the likelihood of disease and create favorable conditions For reproduction and spread of pathogens. HISTORY knows many examples of the spread of epidemics by armies and pilgrims; The massive deaths of American Indians and Pacific Islanders from infectious diseases introduced by colonial Europeans can serve as a sad example of the shadow sides of contacts between cultures. It is well known that malnutrition, especially in early childhood, dramatically increases mortality from infectious diseases. A large role here is played by the peculiarities of farming, the practice of feeding babies, 192 as well as various kinds of "taboo" in relation to certain types of food.

IN developed countries where diseases of old age are the main causes of death, differences in fertility are likely to represent more opportunities For selection actions than differences in mortality. Although in some countries the main influence on fertility is caused by infectious diseases, in others economic and religious factors that determine the regulation of fertility are more important. A biologist who studies the reproduction of offspring in humans can hardly ignore. difficult problems associated with cultural and social differences” (p. 232-233).

Great apes (anthropomorphids, or hominoids) belong to the superfamily of narrow-nosed primates. These, in particular, include two families: hominids and gibbons. The body structure of narrow-nosed primates is similar to that of humans. This similarity between humans and great apes is the main one, allowing them to be assigned to the same taxon.

Evolution

For the first time great apes appeared at the end of the Oligocene in the Old World. This was about thirty million years ago. Among the ancestors of these primates, the most famous are primitive gibbon-like individuals - propliopithecus, from the tropics of Egypt. It was from them that dryopithecus, gibbons and pliopithecus further arose. In the Miocene, there was a sharp increase in the number and diversity of species of the then existing great apes. In that era, there was an active resettlement of driopithecus and other hominoids throughout Europe and Asia. Among the Asian individuals were the predecessors of orangutans. In accordance with the data of molecular biology, man and great apes split into two trunks about 8-6 million years ago.

fossil finds

The oldest known humanoids are considered to be Rukwapithecus, Kamoyapithecus, Morotopithecus, Limnopithecus, Ugandapithecus and Ramapithecus. Some scientists are of the opinion that modern great apes are descendants of parapithecus. But this point of view has insufficient justification due to the scarcity of the remains of the latter. As a relic hominoid, this refers to a mythical creature - Bigfoot.

Description of primates

Great apes have a larger body than monkey-like individuals. Narrow-nosed primates do not have a tail, ischial calluses (only gibbons have small ones), and cheek pouches. A characteristic feature of hominoids is the way they move. Instead of moving on all limbs along the branches, they move under the branches mainly on their hands. This method movement is called brachiation. Adaptation to its use provoked some anatomical changes: more flexible and longer arms, flattened rib cage in an anterior-posterior direction. All great apes are able to stand up on their hind limbs, while freeing their front ones. All types of hominoids are characterized by a developed facial expression, the ability to think and analyze.

The difference between humans and apes

Narrow-nosed primates have significantly more hair, which covers almost the entire body, with the exception of small areas. Despite the similarity of man and great apes in structure, humans are not so strongly developed and have a much shorter length. At the same time, the legs of narrow-nosed primates are less developed, weaker and shorter. Great apes easily move through the trees. Often individuals swing on branches. During walking, as a rule, all limbs are used. Some individuals prefer the "walking on fists" method of movement. In this case, the body weight is transferred to the fingers, which are gathered into a fist. Differences between humans and great apes are also manifested in the level of intelligence. Despite the fact that narrow-nosed individuals are considered one of the most intelligent primates, their mental inclinations are not as developed as in humans. However, almost everyone has the ability to learn.

Habitat

Great apes inhabit the tropical forests of Asia and Africa. All existing species of primates are characterized by their habitat and lifestyle. Chimpanzees, for example, including pygmy ones, live on the ground and in trees. These representatives of primates are common in African forests of almost all types and in open savannahs. However, some species (bonobos, for example) are found only in humid tropics the Congo basin. Subspecies of the gorilla: eastern and western lowland - are more common in humid African forests, and representatives of the mountain species prefer a forest with a temperate climate. These primates rarely climb trees due to their massiveness and spend almost all the time on the ground. Gorillas live in groups, with the number of members constantly changing. Orangutans, on the other hand, are usually solitary. They inhabit marshy and moist forests, perfectly climb trees, move from branch to branch somewhat slowly, but quite deftly. Their arms are very long - reaching to the very ankles.

Speech

Since ancient times, people have sought to establish contact with animals. Many scientists have dealt with the teaching of great apes speech. However, the work did not give the expected results. Primates can only make single sounds that bear little resemblance to words, and the vocabulary as a whole is very limited, especially in comparison with talking parrots. The point is that in oral cavity narrow-nosed primates lack certain sound-forming elements in the organs corresponding to human ones. This explains the inability of individuals to develop the skills of pronunciation of modulated sounds. The expression of their emotions is carried out by monkeys in different ways. So, for example, a call to pay attention to them - with the sound "uh", passionate desire is manifested by puffing, a threat or fear - by a piercing, sharp cry. One individual recognizes the mood of another, looks at the expression of emotions, adopting certain manifestations. To transmit any information, facial expressions, gestures, posture act as the main mechanisms. With this in mind, the researchers tried to start talking to the monkeys with the help that deaf people use. Young monkeys quickly learn signs. After a fairly short period, people got the opportunity to talk with animals.

Perception of beauty

The researchers, not without pleasure, noted that the monkeys are very fond of drawing. In this case, the primates will act quite carefully. If you give a monkey paper, a brush and paints, then in the process of depicting something, he will try not to go beyond the edge of the sheet. In addition, animals quite skillfully divide the paper plane into several parts. Many scientists consider the paintings of primates to be strikingly dynamic, rhythmic, full of harmony both in color and in form. More than once it was possible to show the work of animals at art exhibitions. Researchers of primate behavior note that monkeys have an aesthetic sense, although it manifests itself in a rudimentary form. For example, while observing animals living in the wild, they saw how individuals sat at the forest edge during sunset and watched in fascination.

The smartest, most developed monkeys are anthropoids. There are 4 species: orangutans, gorillas, chimpanzees and pygmy chimpanzees, or bonobos. Chimpanzees and bonobos are very similar to each other, while the other two species are completely different from chimps and from each other. But, nevertheless, all great apes have much in common. These monkeys do not have a tail, the structure of the hands is similar to that of a human, the volume of the brain is very large, and its surface is dotted with furrows and convolutions, which indicates high intelligence these animals. Great apes, like humans, have 4 blood groups, and bonobo blood can even be transfused to a person with the corresponding blood type - this indicates their “blood” relationship with people.

Both the chimpanzee and the gorilla live in Africa, the continent considered the cradle of mankind, while the orangutan, our most distant relative among the great apes, lives in Asia.

THE SOCIAL LIFE OF THE CHIMPANSEE

Chimpanzees live in groups of 20 on average. The group, headed by one male leader, includes males and females of all ages. A group of chimpanzees lives in a territory that males protect from invading neighbors.

In places where food is plentiful, chimpanzees are sedentary, but if food is scarce, they roam widely in search of food. It happens that the living space of several groups intersect, then they temporarily unite, and in all disputes, the group that has more males and is therefore stronger has the advantage. permanent couples chimpanzees do not form, and all adult males are free to choose a mate from among adult females, both of their own and of a neighboring, joined group.

After an 8-month pregnancy, a single completely helpless cub is born to a female chimpanzee. Up to a year, the mother carries the child on her stomach, then the baby independently moves to her back. For 9 years, mother and child are almost inseparable. Mothers teach their cubs everything they know how to do, introduce them to the world around them and to other members of the group. Sometimes older babies are sent to a "kindergarten", where they frolic with their peers under the supervision of several adult females. By the age of 13, chimpanzees become adults, independent members of the group, and young males are gradually included in the struggle for leadership.

Chimpanzees are quite aggressive animals. Quarrels often occur within the group, developing into bloody fights, sometimes with a fatal outcome. A wide range of gestures, facial expressions and sounds, with which they show displeasure or approval, help monkeys build relationships with each other. Monkeys express friendly feelings by touching each other's wool.

Chimpanzees forage both on the ground and in the trees, feeling quite confident everywhere. In addition to plant foods, their diet includes insects and small animals. Moreover, hungry monkeys as a whole community can go hunting and get, for example, a gazelle.

SMART HEAD AND SKILLED HANDS

During the hunt, monkeys are able to throw stones at their prey, a hail of stones awaits a predator, such as a leopard, who dared to hunt monkeys. In order not to get wet when crossing a stream, chimpanzees can make a bridge out of sticks, use leaves as umbrellas, fly swatters, fans, and even as toilet paper.

MONSTERS OR GOOD GIANTS?

It is not difficult to imagine the feelings of a person who first saw a gorilla in the wild - a humanoid giant who frightens the alien with menacing cries, beats his chest with his fists, breaks and uproots young trees. Such meetings with forest monsters gave rise to legends about the fiends, whose superhuman strength is fraught with a serious danger to the human race. The emergence of such legends caused the ruthless extermination of gorillas. It is not known what human fear and ignorance would have led to if scientists had not taken under their protection these huge monkeys, about which they knew almost nothing at that time.

It turned out that the "monstrous" gorillas are peaceful vegetarians, eating exclusively plant food In addition, they are almost non-aggressive and use their strength only in defense. To avoid bloodshed, male gorillas try to scare off the enemy - be it another male or a person. That's when all means of intimidation come into play: screaming, roaring, beating your chest with your fists and breaking branches.

Gorillas live in small groups, usually 5-10 animals, including 1-2 young males, several females with cubs of different ages, and the head of the group is an older male, who is easily distinguished by the silver-gray coat on his back. The male gorilla reaches puberty by the age of 14 and instead of black hair, a light stripe appears on his back. An adult male is huge: with a height of about 180 cm, it can weigh up to 300 kg. The eldest of the silver-backed males becomes the head of the family group, and care for all its members falls on his powerful shoulders. The leader gives signals to wake up in the morning and go to sleep in the evening, chooses a path in the forest that the whole group will follow in search of food, maintains order and peace in the family. He also protects his wards from all the dangers that the rainforest is fraught with.

Cubs in the group are raised by females - their mothers. But, if suddenly the kids become orphans, it is the silver-backed patriarch who will take them under his protection, will carry them on himself, sleep next to them and watch their games. Protecting the cubs, the leader can enter into a duel with a leopard and even with armed poachers.

Often, capturing a baby gorilla costs not only the life of its mother, but also the life of the head of the group. Having lost their leader and deprived of protection and guardianship, helpless females and young animals may well die if some single male does not take care of the orphaned family.

JUST LIKE PEOPLE

The routine of gorilla life is very similar to that of humans. At sunrise, at the signal of the leader, the whole group wakes up and begins to search for food. After dinner, the family rests, digesting what they have eaten. Young males sleep in the distance, females with cubs - closer to the leader, teenagers frolic next to them - each has its own place. At night, gorillas build nest-beds from branches and leaves. Nests are usually located on the ground. Only light young animals can afford to climb low into a tree and make a bed there.

Cubs enjoy special love in the family. Toddlers spend most of their time with their mother, but the whole group is involved in their upbringing, and adults are patient with the pranks of young people. Gorillas mature slowly, only twice as fast as human children. Newborns are completely helpless and need maternal care, only by 4-5 months they can move on all fours, and by eight they can walk upright. Further maturation goes faster, surrounded by relatives, young gorillas quickly learn everything. At the age of 7, females become completely adults, males mature by 10-12 years, and at 14 years their back becomes silvery. The silverback male often leaves the group and lives alone for a long time until he manages to create a new family.

THE MAIN ENEMY IS MAN

Huge and strong gorillas have few enemies in nature. Even the largest predator in the African forests, the leopard, rarely dares to attack a gorilla. But, like all animals, forest giants are powerless against traps, snares and poachers' guns, which produce cubs for livestock traders, skulls and hands of adult males for lovers of exotic souvenirs and meat for gourmets, fans of African cuisine. And although the strictest measures are taken to protect these rare animals, gorillas continue to be killed, because sometimes poaching is the only form of income available to the local population.

"FOOD PEOPLE"

"Orangutan" - translated from Malay - means "forest man". This is the name of the great apes that live in the jungles of the islands of Kalimantan and Sumatra. Orangutans - amazing creatures and in many ways differ from other great apes. Firstly, orangutans lead an arboreal lifestyle and, despite their considerable weight (70-100 kg), they climb trees perfectly at a height of up to 20 m and do not like to descend to the ground. It is clear that such heavy animals cannot jump from branch to branch, but they are able to climb confidently and quickly. Orangutans feed almost all day long, eating fruits and leaves, as well as bird eggs and chicks. In the evening, orangutans build nests, each their own, and settle down there for the night. They sleep, holding on to a branch with one paw, so as not to fall in a dream. Every night these monkeys settle down in a new place and rebuild their bed. Unlike gorillas and chimpanzees, orangutans rarely form groups, preferring to live alone or in pairs (female - male, mother - cubs), but sometimes a pair of adult animals and several cubs of different ages form a family group.

A female orangutan gives birth to one cub, which the mother takes care of for almost 7 years, until he becomes quite an adult. Until the age of 3, a small orangutan feeds almost exclusively on mother's milk, and only then does the mother begin to accustom him to solid food. Chewing the leaves, she makes a vegetable puree for her child. Preparing the baby for adult life, his mother teaches him to climb trees and build nests. Baby orangutans are very affectionate and playful, and the whole learning process is perceived by them as an entertaining game. Orangutans are very smart, in captivity they learn to use tools and even make them themselves. But in nature, these monkeys rarely use their abilities: the constant search for food does not leave them time to develop natural intelligence.

When asked what species of monkeys belong to the group of anthropoids, many people answer without hesitation: "chimpanzee, gorilla, orangutan." Those who are more knowledgeable in zoology also call the gibbon. But about the existence of our much more close relative, bonobo, or pygmy chimpanzee, few people know. And this despite the fact that the set of bonobo genes coincides with the set of human genes by 98%!

Orangutans and gorillas are able to determine from the image of an animal that it belongs to a certain class: they distinguish between mammals, birds, reptiles, insects and fish.

Orangutans and bonobos are able to plan their actions. Both types of monkeys saved up the necessary tools to receive this or that reward in the future. Analyzing a series of carefully designed experiments, the researchers concluded that the ability to foresee the future is not exclusively a human trait. This feature is most likely embedded in the thought patterns of animals.

Alexander Markov

Primates have evolved many new genes (mostly by doubling old ones), but very little is known about the functions of these genes and the details of their evolutionary history. One such gene, CDC14Bretro, appeared in a common ancestor of great apes as a result of the activity of retrotransposons. Later, in the common ancestor of gorilla, chimpanzee, and man, the gene underwent a rapid change under the influence of selection, changing its "profession" and "place of work."

Alexander Markov

The results of the study of the most ancient and most complete skeleton of an Australopithecus Afar cub have been published. The skeleton was discovered in December 2000 in eastern Ethiopia, around the same area where the famous Lucy was found in 1974, and belongs to a three-year-old girl who lived 3.3 million years ago. Apparently, the girl died during the flood and was immediately covered with sand, which ensured the exceptional safety of the bones. The study of the unique find confirmed that the Afar australopithecines were bipedal creatures with an almost human lower body, retaining many simian features in the structure of the arms and skull.

Of all the arguments proving that people are fundamentally different from animals, the most compelling concerns the ability of a person to understand the minds of others. Only people can not only perceive their experiences, but also realize that the thoughts and views of other people are different from their own. However, the results of the latest study published in Science suggest that monkeys are endowed with the same ability.

The formation of vocalizations (that is, sounds made) in newborn marmosets depends on whether they receive feedback from parents. At first glance, this result, of course, does not look like a sensational discovery. However, it is very important because it contradicts the traditional notion that the sound signals in primates are strictly innate and in no way dependent on experience and social environment. We set out to find out what the new results mean for understanding the nature of language, what scientists currently think about its origin, and why it is so difficult to teach monkeys to speak.

Western lowland gorilla Koko was born on July 4, 1971 at the San Francisco Zoo. At the age of one year, animal psychology student Francine Patterson began working with Koko, who began to teach her sign language. At the age of 19, the gorilla successfully passed the "mirror test", which determines the ability of animals to recognize themselves in the mirror (most gorillas and other animals are unable to do this). Patterson admitted that at the beginning of her training, she also believed that the gorilla unconsciously performs actions in order to receive a reward, but rethought this after Koko began to invent her own words. The ring became the "finger bracelet" and the mask was called the "eye cap". Koko was one of the few known animals that had pets - kittens, which she chose the name herself.

Researchers have unearthed ancient hammer stones in Ivory Coast. According to some signs, scientists have determined that these tools were used by chimpanzees. And if the conclusions of archaeologists are correct, we have the earliest famous example this behavior of monkeys.

For the first time, scientists have documented wild gorillas using simple tools (sticks) to measure the depth of a swamp.