30.09.2019

Thaw" in the spiritual sphere. Khrushchev thaw

What is a “thaw”, as with the light hand of Ilya Ehrenburg they began to call that period in the life of the country and literature, the beginning of which was the death of a tyrant, the mass release of innocent people from imprisonment, cautious criticism of the cult of personality, and the end was stamped in the October decree (1964) ) Plenum of the Central Committee of the CPSU, in the verdict in the case of the writers Sinyavsky and Daniel, in the decision on the entry of troops of the Warsaw Pact countries into Czechoslovakia. What was it? The historical, general social and general cultural significance of the thaw lies primarily in the fact that it destroyed the myth that had been planted for decades about spiritual solidity, about the ideological, ideological homogeneity of Soviet society and Soviet literature, when it seemed that there was a single overwhelming majority. The first cracks went through the monolith - and so deep that in the future, during the days and years of stagnation, they could only be covered over, disguised, declared either insignificant or non-existent, but not eliminated. It turned out that writers and artists differ from each other not only in "creative manners" and "level of skill", but also in civic positions, political convictions and aesthetic views.

And finally it was revealed that the literary struggle is only a reflection and expression of processes that are rapidly going on in society. After the literature of the thaw, many things became morally impossible for a self-respecting writer, for example, the romanticization of violence and hatred, attempts to construct an “ideal” hero, or the desire to “artistically” illustrate the thesis that the life of Soviet society knows conflict only between good and excellent. After the literature of the thaw, much became possible, sometimes even morally obligatory, and no later frosts were able to distract both real writers and real readers either from attention to the so-called “little” person, or from a critical perception of reality, or from a look at culture as something that opposes power and social routine. The activity of Alexander Tvardovsky as the editor-in-chief of the Novy Mir magazine, which gave the reader many new names and posed many new problems, was ambiguous in its spiritual impact on society. Many works by Anna Akhmatova, Mikhail Zoshchenko, Sergei Yesenin, Marina Tsvetaeva and others have returned to readers. The emergence of new creative unions contributed to the revival of the spiritual life of society.

The Union of Writers of the RSFSR, the Union of Artists of the RSFSR, the Union of Cinematographers of the USSR were formed. A new drama theater "Sovremennik" was opened in the capital. In the literature of the 50s, interest in a person, his spiritual values increased (D.A. Granin “I’m going into a thunderstorm”, Yu.P. German “My dear man”, etc.). The popularity of young poets - Yevtushenko, Okudzhava, Voznesensky - grew. Dudintsev's novel “Not by Bread Alone” received a wide response from the public, where the topic of illegal repressions was raised for the first time. However, this work received a negative assessment from the country's leaders. In the early 1960s, the exposure of the "ideological vacillation" of literary and artistic figures intensified. A disapproving assessment was received by Khutsiev's film "Zastava Ilyich". At the end of 1962, Khrushchev visited an exhibition of works by young artists in the Moscow Manege. In the work of some avant-garde artists, he saw a violation of the "laws of beauty" or simply "daub". The head of state considered his personal opinion in matters of art to be unconditional and the only correct one. At a later meeting with cultural figures, he harshly criticized the works of many talented artists, sculptors, and poets.

Even before the 20th Congress of the CPSU, journalistic and literary works appeared that marked the birth of a new trend in Soviet literature - renovationist. One of the first such works was V. Pomerantsev’s article “On Sincerity in Literature” published in Novy Mir in 1953, where he first raised the question that “writing honestly means not thinking about the expressions of tall faces and not high readers. The question of the vital necessity of the existence of various literary schools and trends was also raised here. New articles by V. Ovechkin, F. Abramov, M. Lifshitz, written in a new vein, as well as well-known works by I. Ehrenburg (“Thaw”), V. Panova (“The Seasons”), F Panferova (“Mother Volga River”), etc. In them, the authors departed from the traditional varnishing of the real life of people in a socialist society. For the first time in many years, the question was raised here about the destructiveness for the intelligentsia of the atmosphere that has developed in the country. However, the authorities recognized the publication of these works as "harmful" and removed A. Tvardovsky from the leadership of the journal.

In the course of the rehabilitation of the victims of political repression, the books of M. Koltsov, I. Babel, A. Vesely, I. Kataev and others were returned to the reader. Life itself raised the question of the need to change the style of the leadership of the Union of Writers and its relationship with the Central Committee of the CPSU. A. Fadeev's attempt to achieve this through the removal of ideological functions from the Ministry of Culture led to his disgrace, and then to his death. In his suicide letter, he noted that art in the USSR was “destroyed by the self-confidently ignorant leadership of the party,” and writers, even the most recognized ones, were reduced to the status of boys, destroyed, “ideologically scolded and called it party spirit.”

I see no possibility of continuing to live, because the art to which I gave my life has been ruined by the self-confidently ignorant leadership of the Party, and now it cannot be corrected. The best cadres of literature - in a number that the tsar's satraps could not even dream of - were physically exterminated or perished thanks to the criminal connivance of those in power; the best people literature died at a premature age; everything else, more or less capable of creating true values, died before reaching 40-50 years. Literature - this is the holy of holies - is given to be torn to pieces by bureaucrats and the most backward elements of the people ... V. Dudintsev (“Not by Bread Alone”), D. Granin (“Searchers”), E. Dorosh spoke about this in their works ("Village Diary"). The inability to act by repressive methods forced the party leadership to look for new methods of influencing the intelligentsia. Since 1957, meetings of the leadership of the Central Committee with figures of literature and art have become regular. The personal tastes of N. S. Khrushchev, who made numerous speeches at these meetings, acquired the character of official assessments. Such unceremonious interference did not find support not only among the majority of the participants in these meetings and the intelligentsia as a whole, but also among the broadest sections of the population.

In a letter addressed to Khrushchev, L. Semenova from Vladimir wrote: “You should not have spoken at this meeting. After all, you are not an expert in the field of art ... But the worst thing is that the assessment you expressed is accepted as mandatory due to your social position. And in art, decreeing even absolutely correct positions is harmful.” At these meetings, it was frankly said that, from the point of view of power, only those cultural workers are good who find an inexhaustible source in “the policy of the party, in its ideology.” creative inspiration". After the 20th Congress of the CPSU, ideological pressure was somewhat weakened in the field of musical art, painting, and cinematography. Responsibility for the "excesses" of previous years was assigned to Stalin, Beria, Zhdanov, Molotov, Malenkov and others. whole heart”, in which the previous assessments of D. Shostakovich, S. Prokofiev, A. Khachaturian, V. Shebalin, G. Popov, N. Myaskovsky and others were recognized as unsubstantiated and unfair. the stigma of representatives of the "anti-popular formalist direction." At the same time, in response to calls among the intelligentsia to cancel other decisions of the 40s. on ideological issues, it was stated that they "played a huge role in the development of artistic creativity along the path of socialist realism" and in their "basic content retain their relevance." This testified that, despite the appearance of new works in which sprouts of free thought made their way, on the whole, the policy of the “thaw” in spiritual life had quite definite boundaries. Talking about them on one of my recent meetings with writers, Khrushchev declared that what had been achieved in last years“does not mean at all that now, after the condemnation of the cult of personality, the time has come for self-development ... The Party has pursued and will consistently and firmly pursue ... the Leninist course, implacably opposing any ideological wavering.”

One of the clearest examples of the permissible limits of the “thaw” in the spiritual life was the “Pasternak case”. The publication in the West of his novel Doctor Zhivago, banned by the authorities, and the awarding of the Nobel Prize to him put the writer literally outside the law. In October 1958, he was expelled from the Writers' Union and forced to refuse the Nobel Prize in order to avoid expulsion from the country. Here is what a contemporary of those events, a representative of the intelligentsia, translator, children's writer M. N. Yakovleva writes about the persecution of Boris Pasternak after he was awarded the Nobel Prize for the novel Doctor Zhivago. “...Now one case clearly showed me - as well as everyone who reads newspapers - what a single person can come to in our time. I have in mind the case of the poet Pasternak, which was written about in all the newspapers and talked about more than once on the radio at the end of October and the beginning of November. ... He has hardly appeared in literature for 15 years; but in the 1920s everyone knew him, and he was one of the most popular poets. He always had a tendency to loneliness, to proud solitude; always he considered himself above the "crowd" and more and more retreated into his shell. Apparently, he completely broke away from our reality, lost touch with the era and with the people, and this is how it all ended. Wrote a novel, unacceptable for our Soviet magazines; sold it abroad; received the Nobel Prize for it / and it is clear to everyone that the prize was awarded to him mainly for the ideological orientation of his novel /. A whole epic began; enthusiasm, immoderate, from the journalists of the capitalist countries; indignation and curses / perhaps also immoderate and not just in everything / from our side; as a result, he was expelled from the Writers' Union, poured with mud from head to toe, called Judas the traitor, even offered to expel him from Soviet Union; he wrote a letter to Khrushchev asking him not to apply this measure to him. Now, they say, he is ill after such a shake-up.

Meanwhile, I am sure, as far as I know Pasternak, that he is not such a scoundrel, and not a counter-revolutionary, and not an enemy of his homeland; but he lost contact with her and, as a result, allowed himself to be tactless: he sold a novel rejected in the Union abroad. I don't think he's feeling very good right now." This suggests that not everyone was unambiguous about what was happening. Interesting is the fact that the author of this entry was herself repressed, and later rehabilitated. It is also important to note that the letter is addressed to a military man (censorship is possible). It is difficult to say whether the author supports the actions of the authorities, or is simply afraid to write too much ... But it can be definitely noted that she does not adhere to any side when analyzing the situation. And even from the analysis, it can be said that many understood that the actions of the Soviet leadership were at least inadequate. And the softness of the author in relation to the authorities can be explained by low awareness (if not fear). Official "limiters" also acted in other areas of culture. Not only writers and poets (A. Voznesensky, D. Granin, V. Dudintsev, E. Yevtushenko, S. Kirsanov, K. . Paustovsky and others), but also sculptors, artists, directors (E. Neizvestny, R. Falk, M. Khutsiev), philosophers, historians. All this had a restraining effect on the development of domestic literature and art, showed the limits and true meaning of the "thaw" in spiritual life, created a nervous atmosphere among creative workers, and gave rise to distrust of the party's policy in the field of culture. Architecture also developed in complex ways. Several high-rise buildings were built in Moscow, including the Moscow State University. M.V. Lomonosov. In those years, metro stations were also considered as a means of aesthetic education of people.

At the end of the 50s, with the transition to standard construction, “excesses” and elements of the palace style disappeared from architecture. In the fall of 1962, Khrushchev called for a revision of the Zhdanov resolutions on culture and for at least a partial abolition of censorship. A real shock for millions of people was the publication of the works of A.I. Everyday life Soviet people. In an effort to prevent the mass nature of anti-Stalinist publications, which hit not only Stalinism, but the entire totalitarian system, Khrushchev specifically in his speeches drew the attention of writers to the fact that "this is very dangerous topic and difficult material" and it is necessary to deal with it, "observing a sense of proportion." Khrushchev wanted to achieve the rehabilitation of prominent party figures who were repressed in 1936-1938: Bukharin, Zinoviev, Kamenev and others. However, he did not succeed in achieving everything, since at the end of 1962 the orthodox ideologists went on the offensive, and Khrushchev was forced to go on the defensive. His retreat was marked by a number of high-profile episodes: from the first clash with a group of abstract artists to a series of meetings between party leaders and representatives of culture. Then for the second time he was forced to publicly renounce most of his criticism of Stalin. This was his defeat. Completed the defeat of the Plenum of the Central Committee in June 1963, completely dedicated to the problems of ideology. It was stated that there was no peaceful coexistence of ideologies, there is not and cannot be. From that moment on, books that could not be published in the open press began to go from hand to hand in typewritten form. Thus was born "samizdat" - the first sign of the phenomenon that would later become known as dissidence. Since then, the pluralism of opinions has been doomed to disappear.

The period of some weakening of the rigid ideological control over the sphere of culture and changes in domestic and foreign policy, which began after the death of Stalin, entered the national history called "thaw". The concept of a “thaw” is widely used as a metaphor to describe the nature of changes in the spiritual climate of Soviet society after March 1953. In the autumn of this year, an article by critic V. Pomerantsev “On Sincerity in Literature” was published in the journal Novy Mir, put a person in the center of attention in literature, “raise the true theme of life, introduce conflicts into novels that occupy people in everyday life”. In 1954, as if in response to these reflections, the magazine published a story by I.G. Ehrenburg's "Thaw", which gave its name to a whole period in the political and cultural life of the country.

Khrushchev's report at the 20th Congress of the CPSU made a stunning impression on the whole country. He marked the boundary in the spiritual life of Soviet society for the time “before” and “after” the 20th Congress, divided people into supporters and opponents of the consistent exposure of the personality cult, into “renovationists” and “conservatives”. The criticism formulated by Khrushchev was perceived by many as a signal to rethink the previous stage of Russian history.

After the 20th Congress, direct ideological pressure on the sphere of culture from the party leadership began to weaken. The period of the “thaw” spanned about ten years, but the mentioned processes proceeded with varying degrees of intensity and were marked by numerous retreats from the liberalization of the regime (the first one took place already in the autumn of the same 1956, when Soviet troops crushed the uprising in Hungary). The return of thousands of the repressed who survived to this day from the camps and exiles was a harbinger of change. The mention of Stalin's name has almost disappeared from the press, his numerous images from public places, his works published in huge editions from bookstores and libraries. The renaming of cities, collective farms, factories, streets began. However, the exposure of the cult of personality raised the problem of the responsibility of the new leadership of the country, which was the direct successor of the previous regime, for the death of people and for the abuse of power. The question of how to live with the burden of responsibility for the past and how to change life, to prevent a repetition of the tragedy of mass repressions, enormous hardships and harsh dictates over all spheres of people's lives, has become the center of attention of the thinking part of society. A.T. Tvardovsky, published in the Soviet Union only during the years of perestroika, a confession-poem “about time and about himself”, “By the right of memory”, on behalf of the generation, shared these painful thoughts:

For a long time children became fathers, But we were all responsible for the universal father, And the judgment lasts for decades, And the end is not yet in sight. The literary platform in the USSR largely replaced free political debate, and in the absence of freedom of speech, literary works found themselves at the center of public discussions. During the years of the “thaw”, a large and interested readership formed in the country, declaring their right to independent assessments and to choose their likes and dislikes. A wide response was caused by the publication of the novel by V.D. Dudintsev "Not by Bread Alone" (1956) - books with a living, not stilted hero, a bearer of advanced views, a fighter against conservatism and inertia. In 1960-1965 I.G. Ehrenburg publishes in the "New World" with interruptions and large cuts made by censorship, a book of memoirs "People, Years, Life". She returned the names of the figures of the era of the “Russian avant-garde” and the world of Western culture of the 1920s that had been officially forgotten. A big event was the publication in 1962 on the pages of the same magazine of the story “One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich”, where A.I. Solzhenitsyn, on the basis of his own camp experience, reflected on the victims of Stalin's repressions.

The appearance in the open press of the first work of fiction about camp life was a political decision. The top leadership that sanctioned the publication (the story was published on Khrushchev's orders) recognized not only the very fact of repressions, but also the need to pay attention to this tragic page of Soviet life, which had not yet become history. Solzhenitsyn's two subsequent works (Matrenin Dvor and The Case at the Krechetovka Station, 1963) cemented the reputation of the magazine, which was directed by Tvardovsky, as a center of attraction for supporters of democratic undertakings. In the camp of critics of the "thaw" literature was (since 1961) the magazine "October", which became the mouthpiece of conservative political views. Around the magazines "Znamya" and "Young Guard" grouped supporters of appeal to national origins and traditional values. Such

search marked the work of the writer V.A. Soloukhin (“Vladimir country roads”, 1957) and artist I.S. Glazunov, who at that time became a famous illustrator of Russian classics. Disputes around the problems of literature, theater and cinema were a mirror of the moods that reigned in society. The opposition of cultural figures grouped around magazines indirectly reflected the struggle of opinions in the country's leadership around the ways of its further development.

"Thaw" prose and drama paid growing attention to the inner world and privacy person. At the turn of the 1960s. on the pages of "thick" magazines that had a readership of many millions, works by young writers about young contemporaries begin to appear. At the same time, there is a clear division into “village” (V.I. Belov, V.G. Rasputin, F.A. Abramov, early V.M. Shukshin) and “urban” (Yu.V. Trifonov, V.V. Lipatov) prose. Reflections on the attitude of a person in war, on the price of victory, became another important theme of art. The authors of such works were people who went through the war and rethink this experience from the standpoint of people who were in the thick of things (therefore, this literature is often called “lieutenant prose”). Yu.V. writes about the war. Bondarev, K.D. Vorobyov, V.V. Bykov, B.L. Vasiliev, G.Ya. Baklanov. K.M. Simonov creates the trilogy "The Living and the Dead" (1959-1971).

The best films of the first years of the “Thaw” also show the “human face” of the war (“The Cranes Are Flying” based on the play “Forever Alive” by V.S. Rozov, directed by M.K. Kalatozov, “The Ballad of a Soldier”, directed by G.N. Chukhrai, "The Fate of a Man" based on the story by M.A. Sholokhov, directed by S.F. Bondarchuk).

However, the attention of the authorities to the literary and artistic process as a mirror of public sentiment did not weaken. Censorship carefully sought out and destroyed any manifestations of dissent. During these years, V.S. Grossman, the author of "Stalingrad Essays" and the novel "For a Just Cause", is working on the epic "Life and Fate" - about the fate, victims and tragedy of the people plunged into the war. In 1960, the manuscript was rejected by the editors of the Znamya magazine and confiscated from the author by the state security agencies; according to the two copies preserved in the lists, the novel was published in the USSR only during the years of perestroika. Summing up the battle on the Volga, the author speaks of the “fragility and fragility of human existence” and the “value human personality", which "has been outlined in all its might." Philosophy and artistic means Grossman's dilogies (the novel "Life and Fate" was preceded by the novel "For a Just Cause" published in 1952 with cuts) are close to Tolstoy's "War and Peace". According to Grossman, battles are won by generals, but war is won only by the people.

“The battle of Stalingrad determined the outcome of the war, but the silent dispute between the victorious people and the victorious state continued. The fate of a person, his freedom depended on this dispute, ”the author of the novel wrote.

In the late 1950s literary samizdat arose. This was the name given to the editions of uncensored works of translated foreign and domestic authors. Through samizdat, a small part of the reading public got the opportunity to get acquainted with the works of both well-known and young authors that were not accepted for official publication. In samizdat copies, poems by M.I. Tsvetaeva, A.A. Akhmatova, N.S. Gumilyov, young contemporary poets.

Another source of acquaintance with uncensored creativity was "tamizdat" - works of domestic authors published abroad, then returning by roundabout ways to their homeland to their readers. This is exactly what happened with the novel by B.L. Pasternak "Doctor Zhivago", which since 1958 was distributed in samizdat lists in a narrow circle of interested readers. In the USSR, the novel was being prepared for publication in Novy Mir, but the book was banned as

"imbued with the spirit of rejection of the socialist revolution." In the center of the novel, which Pasternak considered a matter of life, is the fate of the intelligentsia in the whirlwind of events of revolutions and the Civil War. The writer, in his words, wanted to "give a historical image of Russia over the past forty-five years.", To express his views "on art, on the Gospel, on human life in history, and on many other things."

After the award to B.L. Pasternak in 1958 with the Nobel Prize in Literature "for outstanding services in modern lyric poetry and in the traditional field of great Russian prose" in the USSR, a campaign was launched to persecute the writer. At the same time, Khrushchev, as he later admitted, did not read the novel itself, just as the vast majority of indignant "readers" did not read it, since the book was not available to a wide audience. The authorities and the press were flooded with letters condemning the writer and calling for him to be deprived of Soviet citizenship; Many writers also took an active part in this campaign. Pasternak was expelled from the Writers' Union of the USSR.

The writer categorically rejected the demands of the authorities to leave the country, but was forced to refuse the prize. Organized by conservative forces in the top party leadership, the rout of the novel was supposed to clearly indicate the boundaries of “permissible” creativity. 153 Doctor Zhivago received world fame, and the "Pasternak case" and the new tightening of censorship marked the "beginning of the end" of expectations of political liberalization and became evidence of the fragility and reversibility of the changes that appeared after the 20th Congress, as it seemed, in relations between the authorities and the creative intelligentsia.

During these years, it became a practice to hold meetings of the leaders of the party and the state with representatives of the intelligentsia. In essence, little has changed in the state policy of managing culture, and Khrushchev did not fail to note at one of these meetings that he was a “Stalinist” in matters of art. “Moral support for the construction of communism” was seen as the main task artistic creativity. The circle of writers and artists close to the authorities was defined, they occupied leading positions in creative unions. The means of direct pressure on cultural figures were also used. During the anniversary exhibition of the Moscow organization of the Union of Artists in December 1962, Khrushchev attacked young painters and sculptors who worked outside the "understandable" realistic canons. After the Caribbean crisis, the top party leadership found it necessary to once again emphasize the impossibility of the peaceful coexistence of socialist and bourgeois ideology and point out the role that was assigned to culture in the education of the "builder of communism" after the adoption of the new program of the CPSU.

A campaign was launched in the press to criticize "ideologically alien influences" and "individualistic arbitrariness."

Particular importance was attached to these measures also because new artistic trends penetrated into the Soviet Union from the West, and along with them, ideas that were opposite to the official ideology, including political ones. The authorities simply had to take this process under control. In 1955, the first issue of the journal Foreign Literature was published, which published the works of "progressive" foreign authors. In 1956

154 in Moscow and Leningrad, an exhibition of paintings by P. Picasso was held - for the first time in the USSR, paintings by one of the most famous artists of the 20th century were shown. In 1957, the VI World Festival of Youth and Students was held in Moscow. The first acquaintance of Soviet youth with the youth culture of the West, with foreign fashion took place. Within the framework of the festival, exhibitions of contemporary Western art, practically unknown in the USSR, were organized. In 1958, the first International Competition named after V.I. P. I. Tchaikovsky. The victory of the young American pianist Van Cliburn became one of the landmark events of the Thaw.

In the Soviet Union itself, unofficial art was born. Groups of artists appeared who tried to move away from the rigid canons of socialist realism. One of these groups worked in the creative studio of E.M. Belyutin "New Reality", and it was the artists of this studio who came under fire from Khrushchev's criticism at the exhibition of the Moscow Union of Artists (along with representatives of the "left wing" of this organization and the sculptor E. Neizvestny).

Another group united artists and poets who gathered in an apartment in the Moscow suburb of Lianozovo. Representatives of "unofficial art" worked in Tarusa, a town located at a distance of more than 100 km from the capital, where some representatives of the creative intelligentsia returning from exile settled. Severe criticism for the notorious "formalism" and "lack of ideas" that unfolded in the press after the scandal at the exhibition in the Manege in 1962, drove these artists into the "underground" - into apartments (hence the phenomenon of "apartment exhibitions" and the name "other art" appeared). - underground from English Underground - dungeon).

Although the audience of samizdat and “other art” was mainly a limited circle of representatives of creative professions (humanitarian and scientific and technical intelligentsia, a small part of students), the influence of these “swallows of the thaw” on the spiritual climate of Soviet society cannot be underestimated. An alternative to the official censored art appeared and began to grow stronger, the right of the individual to a free creative search was asserted. The reaction of the authorities mainly came down to harsh criticism and "excommunication" of those who fell under the scope of criticism from the audience of readers, viewers and listeners. But there were serious exceptions to this rule: in 1964, a trial took place against the poet I.A. Brodsky, accused of "parasitism", as a result of which he was sent into exile.

Most of the socially active representatives of creative youth were far from open opposition to the existing government. The belief remained widespread that the logic of the historical development of the Soviet Union required an unconditional rejection of the Stalinist methods of political leadership and a return to the ideals of the revolution, to the consistent implementation of the principles of socialism (although, of course, there was no unanimity among the supporters of such views, and many considered Stalin to be Lenin's direct political successor). The representatives of the new generation who shared such sentiments are usually called the sixties. The term first appeared in the title of an article by S. Rassadin about young writers, their heroes and readers, published in Yunost magazine in December 1960. The members of the Sixties were united by a heightened sense of responsibility for the fate of the country and a conviction that the Soviet political system could be renewed. These moods were reflected in the painting of the so-called severe style - in the works of young artists about working days contemporaries, who are distinguished by restrained colors, close-ups, monumental images (V.E. Popkov, N.I. Andronov, T.T. Salakhov, etc.), in theatrical productions of young groups of Sovremennik and Taganka, and especially in poetry.

entered into adult life the first post-war generation considered itself a generation of pioneers, conquerors of unknown heights. Poetry with a major tone and vivid metaphors turned out to be a “co-author of the era”, and the young poets themselves (E.A. Yevtushenko, A.A. Voznesensky, R.I. Rozhdestvensky, B.A. Akhmadulina) were the same age as their first readers. They energetically, assertively addressed their contemporaries and contemporary topics. The poems seemed to be meant to be read aloud. They were read aloud - in student classrooms, in libraries, at stadiums. Evenings of poetry at the Polytechnical Museum in Moscow gathered full houses, and 14 thousand people came to poetry readings at the stadium in Luzhniki in 1962.

The liveliest interest of the youth audience in the poetic word determined the spiritual atmosphere of the turn of the 1960s. The heyday of "singing poetry" - author's song creativity has come. The confidential intonations of the songwriters reflected the desire of the new generation for communication, openness, and sincerity. Audience B.Sh. Okudzhava, Yu.I. Vizbora, Yu.Ch. Kim, A.A. Galich were young "physicists" and "lyricists" who argued furiously about the problems of scientific and technological progress that worried everyone and humanistic values. From the point of view of official culture, the author's song did not exist. Song evenings were held, as a rule, in apartments, in nature, in friendly companies of like-minded people. Such communication became a characteristic sign of the sixties.

Free communication spilled out beyond the cramped city apartment. The road has become an eloquent symbol of the era. The whole country seemed to be in motion. We went to the virgin lands, to the construction sites of the seven-year plan, on expeditions and exploration parties. The work of those who discover the unknown, conquer the heights - virgin lands, geologists, pilots, astronauts, builders - was perceived as a feat that has a place in civilian life.

They went and just traveled, went on long and short trips, preferring hard-to-reach places - taiga, tundra or mountains. The road was perceived as a space of freedom of spirit, freedom of communication, freedom of choice, not constrained, to paraphrase a popular song of those years, by worldly worries and everyday bustle.

But in the dispute between "physicists" and "lyricists", the victory, as it seemed, remained with those who represented scientific and technological progress. The years of the "thaw" were marked by breakthroughs in domestic science and outstanding achievements in design thought.

It is no coincidence that one of the most popular literary genres during this period was science fiction. The profession of a scientist was fanned by the romance of heroic deeds for the benefit of the country and mankind. Selfless service to science, talent and youth corresponded to the spirit of the times, the image of which is captured in the film about young physicists "Nine Days of One Year" (dir. M.M. Romm, 1961). The heroes of D.A. Granin. His novel Walking into a Thunderstorm (1962), about young physicists investigating atmospheric electricity, was very popular. Cybernetics was "rehabilitated". Soviet scientists (L.D. Landau, P.A. Cherenkov, I.M. Frank and I.E. Tamm, N.G. Basov and A.M. Prokhorov) received three Nobel Prizes in physics, which testified to the recognition contribution of Soviet science to world science at the most advanced frontiers of research.

New scientific centers appeared - Novosibirsk Academgorodok, Dubna, where the Institute of Nuclear Research worked, Protvino, Obninsk and Troitsk (physics), Zelenograd (computer engineering), Pushchino and Obolensk ( biological sciences). Thousands of young engineers and designers lived and worked in science cities. Scientific and social life was in full swing here. Exhibitions, concerts of the author's song were held, studio performances that did not go to the general public were staged.

Overcoming Stalinism in literature and art. The first post-Stalin decade was marked by serious changes in the spiritual life of society. The well-known Soviet writer I. Ehrenburg called this period a “thaw” that came after a long and harsh Stalinist “winter”. And at the same time, it was not a "spring" with its full-flowing and free "overflow" of thoughts and feelings, but a "thaw", which could again be followed by a "light frost".

Representatives of literature were the first to respond to the changes that began in society. Even before the XX Congress of the CPSU, works appeared that marked the birth of a new trend in Soviet literature - renovationist. One of the first such works was V. Pomerantsev’s article “On Sincerity in Literature”, published in Novy Mir in 1953, where he raised the question that “writing honestly means not thinking about the facial expressions of high and low readers ". The question of the vital necessity of the existence of various literary schools and trends was also raised here.

New articles by V. Ovechkin, F. Abramov, M. Lifshitz, written in a new vein, as well as well-known works by I. Ehrenburg (“The Thaw”), V. Panova (“The Seasons”), F. Panferov (“Mother Volga River”), etc. In them, the authors departed from varnishing the real life of people. For the first time, the question was raised about the destructiveness for the intelligentsia of the atmosphere that has developed in the country. However, the authorities recognized the publication of these works as "harmful" and removed A. Tvardovsky from the leadership of the journal.

Life itself raised the question of the need to change the style of leadership of the Union of Writers and its relationship with the Central Committee of the CPSU. A. Fadeev's attempts to achieve this led to his disgrace, and then to his death. In his suicide letter, he noted that art in the USSR was “destroyed by the self-confidently ignorant leadership of the party,” and writers, even the most recognized ones, were reduced to the status of boys, destroyed, “ideologically scolded and called it party spirit.” V. Dudintsev (“Not by Bread Alone”), D. Granin (“Searchers”), E. Dorosh (“Village Diary”) spoke about the same in their works.

The inability to act by repressive methods forced the party leadership to look for new methods of influencing the intelligentsia. Since 1957, meetings of the leadership of the Central Committee with figures of literature and art have become regular. The personal tastes of N. S. Khrushchev, who made numerous speeches at these meetings, acquired the character of official assessments. Such unceremonious interference did not find support not only among the majority of the participants in these meetings and among the intelligentsia as a whole, but also among the broadest sections of the population.

After the 20th Congress of the CPSU, ideological pressure was somewhat weakened in the field of musical art, painting, and cinematography. Responsibility for the "excesses" of previous years was assigned to Stalin, Beria, Zhdanov, Molotov, Malenkov and others.

At the same time, in response to calls among the intelligentsia to cancel other decisions of the 40s. on ideological issues, it was stated that they "played a huge role in the development of artistic creativity along the path of socialist realism" and in their "basic content retain their relevance." This testified that the policy of "thaw" in the spiritual life had quite definite limits. Speaking about them at one of his meetings with writers, Khrushchev declared that what has been achieved in recent years “does not mean at all that now, after the condemnation of the cult of personality, the time has come for self-development ... The Party has pursued and will consistently and firmly pursue ... the Leninist course , implacably opposing any ideological vacillations.

A real shock for many people was the publication of the works of A. I. Solzhenitsyn “One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich”, “Matryona Dvor”, which posed to the full extent the problems of overcoming the Stalinist legacy in the everyday life of Soviet people. In an effort to prevent the mass nature of anti-Stalinist publications, which hit not only Stalinism, but the entire totalitarian system, Khrushchev in his speeches drew the writer's attention to the fact that "this is a very dangerous topic and difficult material" and it is necessary to deal with it, "keeping a sense of proportion ". Official "limiters" also acted in other areas of culture. Not only writers and poets (A. Voznesensky, D. Granin, V. Dudintsev, E. Yevtushenko, S. Kirsanov , K. Paustovsky and others), but also sculptors, artists, directors (E. Neizvestny, R. Falk, M. Khutsiev), philosophers, historians.

Nevertheless, during these years, many literary works appeared (“The Fate of a Man” by M. Sholokhov, “Silence” by Y. Bondarev), films (“The Cranes Are Flying” by M. Kalatozov, “Clear Sky” by G. Chukhrai), paintings that received national recognition precisely because of its life-affirming power and optimism, based on the new course of the Soviet leadership.

The development of science. Party directives stimulated the development of domestic science. In 1956, the International Research Center was established in Dubna (Joint Institute for Nuclear Research). In 1957, the Siberian Branch of the USSR Academy of Sciences was formed with a wide network of institutes and laboratories. Other scientific centers were also created. Only in the system of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR for 1956 - 1958. 48 new research institutes were organized. Their geography also expanded (Ural, Kola Peninsula, Karelia, Yakutia). By 1959 there were about 3,200 scientific institutions in the country. The number of scientific workers in the country was approaching 300 thousand. major achievements domestic science of that time can be attributed to the creation of the most powerful synchrophasotron in the world (1957); launching the world's first nuclear-powered icebreaker "Lenin"; the launch into space of the first artificial Earth satellite (October 4, 1957); sending animals into space (November 1957); flights of satellites to the Moon; the first manned flight into space (April 12, 1961); access to the tracks of the world's first jet passenger liner Tu-104; the creation of high-speed passenger hydrofoil ships ("Rocket"), etc. Work was resumed in the field of genetics. As before, the priority scientific developments devoted to the interests of the military-industrial complex. Not only the largest scientists of the country worked for its needs (S. Korolev, M. Keldysh, A. Tupolev, V. Chelomey, A. Sakharov, I. Kurchatov, etc.), but also Soviet intelligence. Even the space program was just an "appendix" to the program to create delivery vehicles nuclear weapons.

Thus, the scientific and technological achievements of the "Khrushchev era" laid the foundation for achieving military-strategic parity with the United States in the future.

The development of education. Established in the 30s. The educational system needed to be updated. It had to correspond to the prospects for the development of science and technology, new technologies, and changes in the social and humanitarian sphere.

However, this was in conflict with the official policy of continuing the extensive development of the economy, which annually required hundreds of thousands of new workers to develop thousands of enterprises under construction throughout the country.

To solve this problem, education reform was largely conceived.

In December 1958, a law was adopted on its new structure, according to which, instead of the seven-year period, an obligatory eight-year polytechnic school was created. Young people received secondary education by graduating either from a school for working (rural) youth on the job, or technical schools that worked on the basis of an eight-year plan, or a three-year secondary labor general education school with industrial training.

For those wishing to continue their education at the university, a mandatory work experience was introduced.

Thus, the acuteness of the problem of the influx of labor force into production was temporarily removed. However, for business leaders, this created new problems with staff turnover and low levels of labor and technological discipline among young workers.

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Danilov A. A
D18 History of Russia, XX - beginning of the XXI century: Proc. for 9 cells. general education institutions / A. A. Danilov, L. G. Kosulina, A. V. Pyzhikov. - 10th ed. - M.: Education, 2003. - 400 p. : ill., maps. -IS

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The period of the Khrushchev thaw is the conventional name for the period in history that lasted from the mid-1950s to the mid-1960s. A feature of the period was a partial retreat from the totalitarian policies of the Stalin era. The Khrushchev thaw is the first attempt to understand the consequences of the Stalinist regime, which revealed the features of the socio-political policy of the Stalin era. The main event of this period is considered to be the 20th Congress of the CPSU, which criticized and condemned Stalin's personality cult and criticized the implementation of the repressive policy. February 1956 marked the beginning of a new era, which set itself the task of changing the socio-political life, changing the domestic and foreign policy of the state.

Khrushchev thaw events

The period of the Khrushchev thaw is characterized by the following events:

The process of rehabilitation of the victims of repressions began, the innocently convicted population was granted amnesty, the relatives of the “enemies of the people” became innocent.
The republics of the USSR received more political and legal rights.
The year 1957 was marked by the return of Chechens and Balkars to their lands, from which they had been evicted during Stalin's time in connection with the accusation of treason. But such a decision did not apply to the Volga Germans and Crimean Tatars.
Also, 1957 is famous for holding the International Festival of Youth and Students, which, in turn, speaks of the “opening of the iron curtain”, mitigation of censorship.
The result of these processes is the emergence of new public organizations. The trade union bodies are being reorganized: the staff of the top echelon of the trade union system has been reduced, the rights of primary organizations have been expanded.
Passports were issued to people living in the village, the collective farm.
Rapid development of light industry and agriculture.
Active construction of cities.
Improving the standard of living of the population.

One of the main achievements of the policy of 1953 - 1964. was the implementation of social reforms, which included the solution of the issue of pensions, an increase in the income of the population, the solution of the housing problem, the introduction of a five-day week. The period of the Khrushchev thaw was a difficult time in the history of the Soviet state. In such a short time (10 years) a lot of transformations and innovations have been carried out. The most important achievement was the exposure of the crimes of the Stalinist system, the population discovered the consequences of totalitarianism.

Results

So, the policy of the Khrushchev thaw was of a superficial nature, did not affect the foundations of the totalitarian system. The dominant one-party system with the application of the ideas of Marxism-Leninism was preserved. Nikita Sergeevich Khrushchev was not going to carry out complete de-Stalinization, because it meant the recognition of his own crimes. And since it was not possible to completely renounce the Stalinist era, Khrushchev's transformations did not take root for a long time. In 1964, a conspiracy against Khrushchev matured, and from this period begins new era in the history of the Soviet Union.

Overcoming Stalinism in literature and art, development of science, Soviet sport, development of education.

Overcoming Stalinism in Literature and Art.

The first post-Stalin decade was marked by serious changes in spiritual life. The well-known Soviet writer I. G. Ehrenburg called this period a “thaw” that came after a long and harsh Stalinist “winter”. And at the same time, it was not a "spring" with its full-flowing and free "overflow" of thoughts and feelings, but a "thaw", which could again be followed by a "light frost".

Representatives of literature were the first to respond to the changes that began in society. Even before the XX Congress of the CPSU, works appeared that marked the birth of a new trend in Soviet literature - renovationist. Its essence was to address the inner world of a person, his daily worries and problems, unresolved issues of the country's development. One of the first such works was V. Pomerantsev’s article “On Sincerity in Literature”, published in 1953 in the Novy Mir magazine, where he first raised the question that “writing honestly means not thinking about the expressions of tall and low readers. The question of the need for the existence of various literary schools and trends was also raised here.

The Novy Mir magazine published articles by V. Ovechkin (back in 1952), F. Abramov, and the well-known works of I. Ehrenburg (“Thaw”), V. Panova (“The Seasons”), F. Panferov ( "Volga-mother river"), etc. Their authors have moved away from the traditional varnishing of the real life of people. For the first time in many years, the question was raised about the perniciousness of the atmosphere that has developed in the country. However, the authorities recognized the publication of these works as "harmful" and removed A. Tvardovsky from the leadership of the journal.

Life itself raised the question of the need to change the style of leadership of the Union of Writers and its relations with the Central Committee of the CPSU. Attempts by the head of the Union of Writers A. A. Fadeev to achieve this led to his disgrace, and then to suicide. In his suicide letter, he noted that art in the USSR was “destroyed by the self-confidently ignorant leadership of the party,” and writers, even the most recognized ones, were reduced to the status of boys, destroyed, “ideologically scolded and called it party spirit.” V. Dudintsev (“Not by Bread Alone”), D. Granin (“Searchers”), E. Dorosh (“Village Diary”) spoke about the same in their works.

Space exploration, the development of the latest models of technology have made science fiction a favorite genre of readers. The novels and short stories by I. A. Efremov, A. P. Kazantsev, the brothers A. N. and B. N. Strugatsky and others opened the veil of the future for the reader, made it possible to turn to the inner world of a scientist, a person. The authorities were looking for new methods of influencing the intelligentsia. Since 1957, meetings of the leadership of the Central Committee with figures of literature and art have become regular. The personal tastes of Khrushchev, who spoke at these meetings with long-winded speeches, acquired the character of official assessments. The unceremonious intervention did not find support not only among the majority of the participants in these meetings and among the intelligentsia as a whole, but also among the broadest sections of the population.

In May 1958, the Central Committee of the CPSU issued a resolution “On Correcting Mistakes in Evaluating the Operas The Great Friendship”, “Bogdan Khmelnitsky” and “From the Heart”, in which the previous assessments of D. Shostakovich, S. Prokofiev, A. Khachaturian, V. Muradeli, V. Shebalin, G. Popov, N. Myaskovsky and others. rejected on ideological issues. It was confirmed that they "played a huge role in the development of artistic creativity along the path of socialist realism" and "remain relevant." The policy of "thaw" in the spiritual life, therefore, had quite definite boundaries.

From the speeches of N. S. Khrushchev to the figures of literature and art

It does not mean at all that now, after the condemnation of the cult of personality, the time has come for free flow, that the reins of government are supposedly weakened, the social ship is sailing at the behest of the waves and everyone can be self-willed, behave as he pleases. No. The Party has pursued and will continue to firmly pursue the Leninist course worked out by it, implacably opposing any ideological wavering.

One of the clearest examples of the permissible limits of the “thaw” was the “Pasternak case”. The publication in the West of his banned novel "Doctor Zhivago" and the awarding of the Nobel Prize to him put the writer literally outside the law. In October 1958 B. Pasternak was expelled from the Writers' Union. He was forced to refuse the Nobel Prize in order to avoid expulsion from the country. A real shock for millions of people was the publication of the works of A. I. Solzhenitsyn “One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich”, “Matryona Dvor”, which posed the problem of overcoming the Stalinist legacy in the everyday life of Soviet people.

In an effort to prevent the mass nature of anti-Stalinist publications, which hit not only Stalinism, but the entire totalitarian system, Khrushchev in his speeches drew the writers' attention to the fact that "this is a very dangerous topic and difficult material" and it is necessary to deal with it, "observing a sense of proportion ". Official "limiters" also acted in other areas of culture. Not only writers and poets (A. Voznesensky, D. Granin, V. Dudintsev, E. Yevtushenko, S. Kirsanov , K. Paustovsky and others), but also sculptors, artists, directors (E. Neizvestny, R. Falk, M. Khutsiev), philosophers, historians.

Nevertheless, many literary works appeared during these years (“The Fate of a Man” by M. Sholokhov, “Silence” by Y. Bondarev), films (“The Cranes Are Flying” by M. Kalatozov, “Forty-First”, “Ballad of a Soldier”, “Clean sky” by G. Chukhrai), paintings that have received nationwide recognition precisely because of their life-affirming power and optimism, appeal to the inner world and everyday life of a person.

Development of science.

Party directives, oriented towards the development of scientific and technological progress, stimulated the development of domestic science. In 1956, the International Research Center was opened in Dubna (Joint Institute for Nuclear Research). In 1957, the Siberian Branch of the USSR Academy of Sciences was formed with a wide network of institutes and laboratories. Other scientific centers were also created. Only in the system of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR for 1956-1958. 48 new research institutes were organized. Their geography also expanded (the Urals, the Kola Peninsula, Karelia, Yakutia). By 1959 there were about 3,200 scientific institutions in the country. The number of scientific workers in the country approached 300 thousand. The creation of the most powerful synchrophasotron in the world (1957) can be attributed to the largest achievements of domestic science of that time; launching the world's first nuclear-powered icebreaker "Lenin"; the launch of the first artificial Earth satellite into space (October 4, 1957), the sending of animals into space (November 1957), the first manned flight into space (April 12, 1961); access to the tracks of the world's first jet passenger liner Tu-104; the creation of high-speed passenger hydrofoil ships ("Rocket"), etc. Work was resumed in the field of genetics.

However, as before, priority in scientific development was given to the interests of the military-industrial complex. Not only the largest scientists of the country (S. Korolev, M. Keldysh, A. Tupolev, V. Chelomei, A. Sakharov, I. Kurchatov, etc.) worked for his needs, but also Soviet intelligence. Thus, the space program was only an “appendix” to the program for creating means of delivering nuclear weapons. Thus, the scientific and technological achievements of the "Khrushchev era" laid the foundation for achieving military-strategic parity with the United States in the future.

The years of the "thaw" were marked by the triumphant victories of Soviet athletes. Already the first participation of Soviet athletes in the Olympics in Helsinki (1952) was marked by 22 gold, 30 silver and 19 bronze medals. In the unofficial team standings, the USSR team scored the same number of points as the US team. The discus thrower N. Romashkova (Ponomareva) became the first gold medalist of the Olympics. The best athlete of the Melbourne Olympics (1956) was the Soviet runner V. Kuts, who became a two-time champion in the 5 and 10 km races. The gold medals of the Rome Olympics (1960) were awarded to P. Bolotnikov (running), sisters T. and I. Press (discus throwing, hurdling), V. Kapitonov (cycling), B. Shakhlin and L. Latynina (gymnastics) , Yu. Vlasov (weightlifting), V. Ivanov (rowing), etc.

Brilliant results and world fame were achieved at the Tokyo Olympics (1964): V. Brumel in the high jump, weightlifter L. Zhabotinsky, gymnast L. Latynina and others. These were the years of the triumph of the great Soviet football goalkeeper L. Yashin, who played for sports career of more than 800 matches (including 207 - without conceded goals) and became the silver medalist of the European Cup (1964) and the champion of the Olympic Games (1956).

The successes of Soviet athletes caused the unprecedented popularity of the competition, which created an important prerequisite for the development mass sports. Encouraging these sentiments, the country's leadership drew attention to the construction of stadiums and sports palaces, the mass opening of sports clubs and youth sports schools. This laid a good foundation for the future world victories of Soviet athletes.

Development of education.

As the foundations of industrial society were built in the USSR, the prevailing in the 30s. The education system needed to be updated. It had to correspond to the prospects for the development of science and technology, new technologies, and changes in the social and humanitarian sphere.

However, this was in conflict with the official policy of continuing the extensive development of the economy, which required new workers every year to master the enterprises under construction.

To solve this problem, education reform was largely conceived. In December 1958, a law was passed, according to which, instead of the seven-year plan, a mandatory eight-year period was created. polytechnic school. Young people received secondary education by graduating either from a school for working (rural) youth on the job, or technical schools that worked on the basis of an eight-year plan, or a three-year secondary labor general education school with industrial training. For those wishing to continue their education at the university, a mandatory work experience was introduced.

Thus, the acuteness of the problem of the influx of labor force into production was temporarily removed. However, for enterprises, this created new problems with staff turnover and a low level of labor and technological discipline among young workers.

Source of the article: A.A. Danilov's textbook "History of Russia". Grade 9

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