Plan.

Introduction pp.2-3

Chapter 1. History of the creation of international organizations. Kinds. Page 3-5

Chapter 2. Types and classification of international organizations. Page 5-9

Chapter 3. Modern international organizations. Pages 9-17

Conclusion. pp.17-19

Bibliography. p.20

Introduction .

This topic of the essay was chosen with the aim of studying the interaction of various states on international level, i.e. in what specific issues and directions does this interaction occur, at what level are issues related to mutual assistance and resolution of disputes between states resolved.

At present, during the period of rapid development of scientific and technological progress, the existence of states without their interaction is impossible. Their interaction can be carried out both through economic and political relations. In the modern world, it is with the help of international organizations that cooperation between states is carried out. International organizations not only regulate interstate relations, but also make decisions on global issues of our time.

This abstract shows the structure of modern international organizations and their classification. Today there are many pressing issues: ecology, issues of war and peace, the fight against AIDS and drug addiction. Thus, every international organization is called upon to resolve these issues.

In addition, this essay reflects the history of the emergence of international organizations, for the creation of which it was necessary for certain historical events to occur in the world that would lead humanity to the idea of ​​interaction. Historical knowledge of the creation of international organizations allows us to trace the entire complex path of interaction between states. Considering the issue from the historical side, one can understand on what principles they were based and how international relations were improved, and what humanity is striving for.

Chapter 1

International organizations arose in ancient times and improved as society developed.

IN ANCIENT GREECE In the 6th century BC, the first permanent international associations in the form of unions of cities and communities (for example, Lacedimian and Delian Symmacia), or religious and political unions of tribes and cities (for example, Delphic-Thermopylae amphictyony). Such associations were prototypes of future international organizations. Many scholars rightly emphasized that at that stage these alliances brought the Greek states closer together and softened their isolation.

The next stage in the development of international organizations was the creation of international economic and customs associations. One of the first such unions was the Hanseatic Trade League, which brought all of Northern Germany out of a state of medieval barbarism. This union was finally formalized in the 16th century. Lübeck was at the head of this association.

At the beginning of the 19th century, the German Customs Union was created. All states that entered this union were subject to the same laws regarding the import, export and transit of goods. All customs duties recognized as common and distributed among members of the union according to the number of people in the population

Experts who study the history of international organizations believe that the first intergovernmental organization in its classical understanding There was a Central Commission for Navigation on the Rhine, formed in 1831.

Already in the second half of the 19th century, international unions for measuring land were created (1864), the Universal Telegraph Union (1865), the Universal Postal Union (1874), the International Bureau of Weights and Measures (1875), International Union for the protection of international and artistic property and others. During this period, cooperation between states becomes more extensive, affecting ever larger areas of life. All organizations of this period had permanent bodies of fixed members and headquarters. Their competence was limited to discussing specialized problems.

The next important stage in the development of international organizations is the period after the First World War, when states began to create an international organization for maintaining peace and international security. So in 1919 The League of Nations was formed. The main bodies of the League of Nations were the meeting of all representatives of the League members, the council and the permanent secretariat.

Its main task was to maintain peace and prevent new wars. The League of Nations had to take all measures to maintain peace. If any member of the League resorted to war contrary to its obligations, the main members of the League were obliged to immediately break off all trade and financial relations with him, and the Council had to invite the various interested governments to send one or another contingent of troops.

The Charter of the League of Nations provided for various effective measures to maintain peace. It recognized the need to limit national armaments to the minimum necessary to ensure national security. The League Council had the task of selecting arms limitation plans for each state and submitting them to the interested governments.

But according to experts, the League of Nations was unable to cope with its main task: maintaining peace and peacefully resolving international conflicts. Those disagreements that arose between the members of the League resulted in failure to fulfill their obligations. She could not prevent the Second World War, as well as the attack of Japan on China, Italy on Ethiopia, Germany on Austria and Czechoslovakia, Italy on Spain, etc. And on April 18, 1946. The League of Nations was liquidated because the League of Nations did not fulfill its functions and at this historical stage ceased to exist.

Thus, the creation of international organizations and their development occurred in stages. Gradually, states realized the need for international cooperation in various spheres of life, which led to the exchange of inventions in the field of science, military technology, and art.

International organizations of the past have become the prototypes of modern international organizations, of which there are now a large number, and which play a large role in modern international relations.

April 25 marks the 65th anniversary of the day when delegates from 50 countries gathered in San Francisco for the United Nations conference on the creation of an international organization - the UN. During the conference, delegates prepared a charter of 111 articles, which was adopted on June 25.

The United Nations (UN) is an international organization of states created to maintain and strengthen international peace, security, development of cooperation between countries.

The name United Nations, proposed by United States President Franklin Roosevelt, was first used in the Declaration of the United Nations on January 1, 1942, when, during World War II, representatives of 26 states pledged on behalf of their governments to continue the joint struggle against the countries of the Nazi bloc.

The first contours of the UN were outlined at a conference in Washington at the Dumbarton Oaks mansion. In two series of meetings held from September 21 to October 7, 1944, the United States, Great Britain, the Soviet Union, and China agreed on the goals, structure, and functions of the world organization.

On February 11, 1945, after meetings in Yalta, the leaders of the United States, Great Britain and the USSR, Franklin Roosevelt, Winston Churchill and Joseph Stalin, declared their determination to establish “a universal international organization for the maintenance of peace and security.”

On April 25, 1945, representatives from 50 countries met in San Francisco at the United Nations Conference on the Establishment of an International Organization to develop the UN Charter.

Delegates from countries representing over 80% of the population gathered in San Francisco globe. The Conference was attended by 850 delegates, and together with their advisers, delegation staff and the Conference secretariat, the total number of persons taking part in the work of the Conference reached 3,500. In addition, there were more than 2,500 representatives of the press, radio and newsreels, as well as observers from various societies and organizations. The San Francisco Conference was not only one of the most important in history, but in all likelihood also the largest international gathering ever held.

The agenda of the Conference included proposals developed by representatives of China, the Soviet Union, Great Britain and the United States at Dumbarton Oaks, on the basis of which the delegates were to develop a Charter acceptable to all states.

The Charter was signed on June 26, 1945 by representatives of 50 countries. Poland, not represented at the Conference, signed it later and became the 51st founding state.

The UN has officially existed since October 24, 1945. - to this day the Charter was ratified by China, France, Soviet Union, Great Britain, the United States and most of the other signatory states. October 24 is celebrated annually as United Nations Day.

The preamble to the Charter speaks of the determination of the peoples of the United Nations to “save succeeding generations from the scourge of war.”

The purposes of the UN, as enshrined in its Charter, are the maintenance of international peace and security, the prevention and elimination of threats to peace, and the suppression of acts of aggression, the settlement or resolution by peaceful means of international disputes, the development of friendly relations between nations based on respect for the principle of equality and self-determination of peoples; implementation of international cooperation in economic, social, cultural and humanitarian fields, promotion and development of respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms for all, without distinction of race, gender, language and religion.

UN members have pledged to act in accordance with the following principles: sovereign equality of states; resolution of international disputes by peaceful means; refusal in international relations to threaten or use force against the territorial integrity or political independence of any state.

192 states of the world are members of the UN.

Main organs of the UN:
- The UN General Assembly (UNGA) is the main deliberative body, consisting of representatives of all UN member states (each of them has 1 vote).
- The UN Security Council operates constantly. According to the Charter, the Security Council is entrusted with primary responsibility for maintaining international peace and security. If all ways of peaceful resolution of the conflict have been used, the Security Council is competent to send observers or troops to maintain peace in conflict areas in order to ease tension and separate the troops of the warring parties.

Over the entire existence of the UN, UN peacekeeping forces have carried out about 40 peacekeeping operations.
- The UN Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC) is mandated to conduct research and report on international issues in the field of economic, social, culture, education, health, human rights, ecology, etc., give recommendations to the GA on any of them.
- The International Court of Justice, the main judicial body established in 1945, resolves legal disputes between states with their consent and provides advisory opinions on legal issues.
- The UN Secretariat was created to ensure proper conditions for the organization’s activities. The secretariat is headed by the main administrative executive UN - UN Secretary General (since January 1, 2007 - Ban Ki-moon (Korea).

The UN has a number of its own specialized agencies - international intergovernmental organizations on economic, social and humanitarian issues (UNESCO, WHO, FAO, IMF, ILO, UNIDO and others) associated with the UN, through ECOSOC, and international agreements. Most UN members are members of UN specialized agencies.

IN common system The UN also includes autonomous organizations, such as World trade Organization(WTO) and International agency on Atomic Energy (IAEA).

The official languages ​​of the UN and its organizations are English, Arabic, Spanish, Chinese, Russian and French.

The UN headquarters is located in New York.

The UN is a Nobel Peace Prize winner. In 2001, the award “For contribution to the creation of a more organized world and the strengthening of world peace” was awarded jointly to the organization and its Secretary General Kofi Annan. In 1988 Nobel Prize received peace Peacekeeping forces UN.

The material was prepared based on information from open sources

In what year was the International Railway Transport Committee founded?

In what year was the International Union created? railways?

18. Select from the proposed options the five main requirements of passengers using the services of JSC Russian Railways (only the correct ones are given):

Comfort, quality service and information support passenger transportation at the station and along the route

Providing personalized service

Reducing travel time for passengers

Possibility of booking and purchasing tickets remotely

Accuracy of departure, passage and arrival according to the schedule of passenger trains

Guarantee of preservation of life, health and personal property of passengers during transportation

Convenience of the passenger schedule;

Providing complete information about the route of any train

19. Select principles from the options provided work s-ts for passenger services:

Providing certification services,

The principle of complexity

The principle of service convenience

Technological principle

Economic,

Optional use of services by the client

Marketing,

The principle of technical compliance of the service

Compliance of the quality of transport services with the level of service

Logistic,

The principle of information return of service

The principle of service elasticity

The principle of hospitality.

20. ISO 9000 standards are being widely implemented everywhere at foreign and domestic enterprises in various industries, the main purpose of which is...

Make transparent and documented all stages of the production cycle related to the quality of products

- make all stages of quality management transparent and documented...

Streamline the process of certification of goods and services on a global scale

21. The statistical approach to quality management of transport products is understood as….

Evaluation of a large amount of information of different nature...

Application statistical methods in the quality management system

Continuous cycle of measurements and analysis of indicators...

Analysis of clientele needs in each individual segment

What is meant by technical compliance of the service in servicing passengers?

The technical level of equipment, rolling stock and its equipment must correspond to the service technology, otherwise...

Services should be offered to passengers from single to maximum set, the composition of which is determined by the client himself

Passenger companies and service centers must assume only those obligations, the fulfillment of which they guarantee

Services are provided in the place, time and form that suits the client

23. Under systematic approach Quality management of transport products means...

Grade large quantity information of different natures using universal indicators that allow you to compare the objects being assessed

Analysis of clientele needs in a particular segment

24. The marketing approach to quality management of transport products is understood as...

Analysis of clientele needs in each individual segment.

Application of statistical methods in the quality management system

Continuous cycle of measurements and analysis of indicators

Evaluation of a large amount of information of different nature using universal indicators that allow you to compare the objects being assessed

Services provided by forwarding organizations must take into account the interests of consumers, global experience and meet the following requirements: (only the correct ones are given)

Complexity
+accuracy and timeliness
+safety and environmental friendliness
+ethical
+Aesthetics
+ information content

The quality system in relation to JSC Russian Railways is... (only the correct ones are given)

Special organization transportation process and maintenance of technical equipment with control over all main and auxiliary technological operations affecting the main activity

Hierarchical system measures to control compliance with transportation technology and infrastructure maintenance

The set of characteristics of passenger, cargo transportation...

27. Main tasks transport service are:

Improving long-term efficiency and financial sustainability

Comprehensive improvement of the needs of cargo handlers. and society as a whole in transportation
-Increasing the scale of transport production

Development of new forms of service based on the latest n-t achievements...

28. The complex of services and goods provided to a person and society as a whole, necessary to satisfy his biological, social, production, social and cultural needs in life is called...

Social

Social and cultural service

Technical

Technological

29. The result of activities to satisfy the needs of passengers, civil servants and civil servants in transportation in accordance with established standards and requirements is called….

Service

Freight forwarding service

Transport service

30. The type of transport service associated with the organization of the process of sending and receiving cargo, as well as with the performance of other work related to the transportation of cargo in accordance with the freight forwarding agreement is called ...
+ forwarding service

Service

Transport service

Service

31. The system of services for servicing passengers, civil defense and civil enterprises, including provision of transportation, performance of related and additional work is called...

Quality of transport services
+transport service

Transport and forwarding services

Service thread

32. The process of processing raw materials, materials, technical products and semi-finished products in the field of production and operation in order to change their parameters and characteristics and obtain quality products called...

Technical service
+technological service

Social service

Social and cultural service

33. From the proposed options, select four levels of quality of transport services (transport service):

Compliance with standard

Compliance with quality management methods
+compliance with capabilities

Eligibility international agreements

Compliance with the mission, goals and objectives of the company
+compliance with market requirements
+meeting the client’s hidden needs

34. Maintenance of machines, mechanisms, machine tools, carriages, locomotives, automobiles, aircraft and other technical means and devices in order to increase the service life and maintain their operating parameters and characteristics within the range established by their operation or technical passport is called... (only the correct ones are given)

Technical service

35. The activity of establishing rules and characteristics for the purpose of their voluntary repeated use, aimed at achieving orderliness in the areas of production and circulation of products, increasing the competitiveness of products, works or services is called….

Standardization

36. the federal law No. 87 of June 30, 2003 “On transport and forwarding activities” includes three main elements that form the rules of transport and forwarding activities:

The procedure for providing forwarding services

Requirements for the quality of forwarding services

Methods for quality control of forwarding services

List of forwarding documents

Classification of forwarding services,

37. Specialized Information system, providing the ability to provide information to visitors, interact between them, perform trading operations and charge fees for using this system -….(only the correct ones are given)

Electronic marketplace.

Business process is...

A sequence of actions aimed at achieving a final, measurable and specific result

A security system that allows the buyer to choose....

Processing of raw materials...

1.1 History of the creation of international organizations

It is interesting to note that “knowledge” about international organizations appeared long before their introduction into international relations.

Dreams of this form of organization of human society can be found in the works of many scientists and politicians of the past. Over five hundred years (1300-1800), up to 30 projects of international organizations were drawn up aimed at ensuring international security, and at the beginning of the twentieth century more than 80 such projects appeared. Among the first to propose the creation of an international organization called the “Union of Humanity” was the Roman writer, statesman and orator Marcus Tullius Cicero (106 – 43 BC). In his opinion, the main goal of this union would be the struggle for peace and the prevention of war.

IN Ancient Greece in the 6th century BC the first permanent international associations appeared. They were created in the form of unions of cities and communities (for example, the Lacedimian and Delian Symmachia), as well as religious and political unions between tribes and cities (for example, the Delphic-Thermopylae amphictyony). Such associations were prototypes of future international organizations. F.F. Martens in his work “Modern International Law of Civilized Nations” wrote that “although these unions were caused specifically by religious purposes, they had an effect in general on relations between Greek states: like others social factors, they brought peoples together and softened their isolation.”

Among Russian educators, Vasily Fedorovich Malinovsky (1765 -1814) gained wide popularity in 1803 thanks to his work “Discourses on Peace and War.” In this work, he put forward the idea of ​​​​organizing a world union of peoples, which would resolve international disputes “according to the established order,” which would make it possible to avoid wars. In the mid-nineteenth century, the first international intergovernmental organizations appeared. The emergence of these organizations was caused by two mutually exclusive reasons. Firstly, education as a result of bourgeois-democratic revolutions sovereign states striving for national independence, and, secondly, the successes of the scientific and technological revolution, which gave rise to a tendency towards interdependence and interconnectedness of states.

Scientific and technological progress has led to the fact that integration processes penetrated the economies of all developed countries in Europe and caused comprehensive communication and interdependence of nations on each other. The need to reconcile these two opposing trends - the desire to develop within the framework of a sovereign state and the inability to do this without broad cooperation with other independent states - led to the emergence of such a form of interstate relations as international intergovernmental organizations. The latter, in turn, evolved to distance themselves from national states and to formalize the status of independent subjects of international law.

The question of the emergence of the first international organization is still controversial; the Central Commission for the Navigation of the Rhine, which arose in 1815, is most often referred to as such. It was established by special articles of the Final General Act of the Congress of Vienna, which was signed on July 9, 1815. These articles prescribed the establishment of international rules for navigation and collection of duties on the rivers Rhine, Moselle, Meuse and Scheldt, which served as the border of states or flowed through the possessions of several states. Experts in the field of international relations distinguish three stages in the development of international organizations. The first is the second half of the 19th century - the beginning of the 20th century. It was a time of rapid development of science and technology, which gave rise to such international organizations as the International Union for Earth Measurement (1864), the Universal Telegraph Union (1865), the Universal Postal Union (1874), the International Bureau of Weights and Measures (1875). year), International Union for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Property (1886), International Union of Railway Goods (1890). All of these organizations had their own permanent bodies, permanent members, as well as headquarters. Their powers were limited only to discussing specialized problems.

From the mid-19th century until the outbreak of the First World War, the number of international organizations increased, the main registration of which is maintained by the Union of International Associations, established in Brussels in 1909. He coordinated the activities of international organizations and collected information on general issues their activities.

The second period of development of international organizations was the 20s of the 20th century – the beginning of the Second World War. First World War delayed the development of international organizations and led to the dissolution of many of them. At the same time, awareness of the destructiveness of world wars for the development of human civilization stimulated the emergence of projects for the creation of international organizations of political orientation in order to prevent wars. One of these projects formed the basis of the League of Nations, created in 1919. The main bodies of the League of Nations were the Assembly of all representatives of the members of this organization, the Council and the permanent secretariat.

Its main task was to maintain peace and prevent new wars. The League of Nations recognized that any war “is of interest to the League as a whole” and it must take all measures to maintain stability in the world community. The Council of the League of Nations could be convened at the immediate request of any of its members. When a conflict arose between members of the League of Nations, the dispute was resolved either in arbitration or in the Council. If any of the League members started a war contrary to their obligations, then the remaining participants had to immediately cease all financial and trade relations with him. The Council, in turn, invited the various interested governments to contribute troops to maintain respect for the obligations of the League.

The founding act on the basis of which the League of Nations operated was the charter. It was he who provided for the need to limit national armed conflicts and reduce them to the minimum necessary to ensure national security.

But, according to experts, namely I.I. Lukashuk, the League of Nations was unable to cope with its main task: maintaining peace and peaceful resolution of international conflicts. Those disagreements that arose between the members of the League resulted in failure to fulfill their obligations. She could not prevent the Second World War, as well as the attack of Japan on China, Italy on Ethiopia, Germany on Austria and Czechoslovakia, and Italy on Spain. On April 18, 1946, the League of Nations was dissolved because it did not fulfill its functions and at this historical stage ceased to exist. The third stage refers to the period after the end of World War II, when in 1945 the first universal international organization appeared - the United Nations (hereinafter referred to as the UN).

In general, during the period from the First to the Second World War, the development of problems of organizing international peace and security moved at an extremely slow pace, but one could observe a tendency to expand the role of international organizations in the development of international law. S.B. Krylov wrote that “while the functioning of international law was previously based mainly on the actions of states, at the present stage it largely relies on organizations such as the UN and specialized agencies that are grouped around the UN.” The Second World War in force its scale gave a powerful impetus to government and public initiatives in many countries to develop problems of the post-war organization of peace and security. The need to create an international security organization arose already from the first days of the war, since, simultaneously with military efforts aimed at winning the war, member states anti-Hitler coalition also worked on developing the principles and plans for the future world organization. The UN was distinguished from pre-existing organizations by its pronounced political character, manifested in its orientation towards issues of peace and security, and by its extremely broad competence in all areas of interstate cooperation. After the adoption of the UN Charter came new era in the development of international organizations. The enormous importance of the UN as a guarantor of international peace and security is emphasized in their works by both domestic and foreign international lawyers.

Speaking at the 58th session General Assembly UN, President Russian Federation V.V. Putin emphasized that “the structure and functions of the UN were formed in a predominantly different international environment; time has only confirmed their universal significance. And UN instruments are not only in demand today, but as life itself shows, in key cases they are simply irreplaceable.” The current stage of development of international relations is characterized by a noticeable increase in the activity of international organizations. For example, over the past two centuries their total number has more than doubled. In total, according to the Union of International Associations, in 2005 there were more than 6,300 international organizations in the world. According to scientists, if we take into account all structures associated with international activities without exception ( charities, conferences), then their total number will reach about 50 thousand. Modern international organizations reflect the unity of cooperation among many peoples and nations. They are characterized by further development competencies and increasing complexity of their structures. The presence of a large number of organizations, as well as the specifics of each of them, allows us to conclude that a system of international organizations has formed, the center of which is the UN.

On concessions and production sharing agreements, oil companies acquire ownership rights to a portion of the produced products, respectively, at the wellhead and the destination of the products. Chapter 2. International legal mechanism for the exploitation of hydrocarbon deposits: problems and solutions 2.1 Legal justification for payment for the exploitation of hydrocarbon deposits On...

Points whose geographical coordinates are approved by the Government of the Russian Federation. A different width of territorial waters is established by international treaties of the Russian Federation. The airspace of the Russian Federation is the airspace over the land territory and over the territorial waters of the Russian Federation. The air border itself is a vertical...

The history of the formation and development of international organizations should be viewed through the prism of the evolution of international relations and humanity as a whole. This is caused by objective economic and political factors, such as the need of subjects for international communication.

At the dawn of human civilization, tribes and the first states communicated with each other and interacted for joint defense or waging wars, trade, etc. As a result, temporary intertribal and interstate alliances were formed.

In the early stages of human development, intertribal and interstate relations were expressed in bilateral contacts that arose as necessary between neighboring or closely located entities. Gradually, these contacts expanded, and alliances and coalitions, mainly of a military nature, periodically arose.

As humanity progressed, methods and techniques of international communication developed and improved. Thus, already in ancient times, along with bilateral meetings, other forms characteristic of the late period of development were increasingly used: congresses and conferences. Medieval history provides many examples of congresses of sovereigns in Asia, Africa, Latin America, Western and Eastern Europe.

Initially, conferences and congresses were convened sporadically. Then, international meetings gradually began to be practiced, creating more or less permanent bodies. These bodies were entrusted with the task of convening and servicing congresses and conferences, and sometimes performing other functions in between conferences. It was these bodies that became the prototypes of future international intergovernmental organizations.

Generally history of the creation and development of international organizations can be roughly divided into four stages.

First stage dates back to ancient times until the convening of the Congress of Vienna in 1815. During this period, ideas and conceptual foundations for the creation of international organizations were formed.

Ancient Rome practiced the establishment of mixed conciliation commissions to consider disputes with foreign states.

The first permanent international associations in Ancient Greece appeared in the 6th century. BC. in the form of the Lacedaemonian and Delian symmachy (unions of cities and communities) and the Delphic-Thermopylae amphictyony (religious and political union of tribes and peoples).

Characterizing the mentioned associations, the famous Russian international lawyer F. F. Martens noted that these unions, created specifically for religious purposes, “had their effect in general on relations between Greek states and... brought peoples closer together and softened their isolation.”

The Greek symmachy and amphictyony had a fairly clear internal structure. Supreme body there was a meeting in both intercity entities. In symmachy it was gathered once a year, and in amphictyony - twice. Decisions of the general meeting were made by a simple majority of votes and were binding on all members of the union. Each member of these unions, regardless of the size and importance of the city or tribe, had one vote in the symmachy, and two votes in the amphictyony.

Greek symmachy and amphictyony played important role for the development of intertribal, interstate and international relations of ancient Greek city-states. They also laid the foundation for certain organizational and legal principles and forms of future international organizations.

The prototypes of today's international organizations received their further development in the Middle Ages. International trade, as well as the Catholic Church, had a certain influence on them.

A significant role in the development of international trade relations was played by the Hanseatic Trade Union (XIV–XVI centuries), which united northern German cities and, according to F. Engels, “brought the whole of northern Germany out of the Middle Ages.”

In parallel, international relations were accompanied by such events as the conclusion of the Peace of Westphalia in 1648, which ended the 30-year war and recognized Catholicism and Protestantism as equal denominations of Catholicism as a whole. Associated with the Peace of Westphalia is the recognition of the sovereignty of states and equality between states, primarily the equality of states of the Christian world.

Second phase The history of the development of international organizations covers the period from 1815 to 1919. The beginning of this stage is associated with the end of the Napoleonic wars and the convening of the Congress of Vienna in 1815. During this period, the formation of the organizational and legal foundations of international organizations takes place. The needs of economic development dictated the need for international legal regulation of a number of new areas interstate relations, which influenced the evolution of the functioning of old and the emergence of new forms of multilateral communication. Such new form general administrative unions (unions) become. This period is marked by the beginning of the formation of a mechanism for international unions to coordinate the activities of states in special areas. Initially, such unions began to take shape in the field of customs relations.

Customs unions were associations of states on the basis of an agreement they concluded to create joint customs administration bodies and establish a common customs law and order in national customs territories.

One such union was the German Customs Union. The reasons for the creation of this union were rooted in the extreme economic decline of the German states that were part of the German Confederation of 1815. The decline of the economy was caused by various trade restrictions, many customs posts, different tariffs and trade legislation within the union territory. Customs Union took shape gradually, and by 1853 all of Germany was organized into one customs union.

All states that entered the union were subject to the same laws regarding the import, export and transit of goods; all customs duties were recognized as common and distributed among the members of the union according to population.

In the future, international cooperation between states based on constantly current organization finds its continuation in the field of transport. The beginning in this regard was the cooperation of states in the matter of navigation on international rivers within the framework of the international commissions they created for this purpose. Thus, the Rhine Navigation Regulations of 1831 and the Rhine Navigation Act of 1868, which replaced it, created the first such special international commission. To jointly discuss issues of Rhine navigation, each coastal state appointed one representative, who together formed the Central Commission, which had its initial seat in Mannheim.

Second half of the 19th century. was marked by the intensification of international economic, scientific, and technical ties between states, which constantly deepened and expanded. During this period there are first MMPO: International Union for Land Measurement (1864); World Telegraph Union (1865); Universal Postal Union (1874); International Bureau of Weights and Measures (1875); International Union for the Protection of Industrial Property (1883); International Union for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Property (1886); International Anti-Slave Union (1890); International Union for the Publication of Customs Tariffs (1890); International Union of Railway Goods (1890).

Characterizing these unions (international organizations) in general, we can note the following: they all had permanent bodies. The governing bodies of these unions, as a rule, were conferences or congresses, and permanent executive bodies were bureaus or commissions. The competence of these unions was limited to the regulation of specialized areas.

The creation of the first international organizations in the form of administrative unions with permanent bodies represented a progressive movement forward along the path of development and expansion of specific areas of such cooperation between states. International administrative unions laid the foundation for permanent international organizations, in contrast to world congresses and conferences, which were temporary international forums, functioning in international life since the 17th century.

At the turn of the 19th–20th centuries. The international situation is deteriorating. Two irreconcilable military blocs are created: the Entente and the Triple Alliance. During the same period, attempts were made to create an international security organization by convening the Hague Peace Conferences of 1899 and 1907, which resulted in the establishment of the Permanent Court of Arbitration in The Hague and the conclusion of the Convention for the Peaceful Resolution of International Conflicts. However, the efforts made at the international level could not prevent the outbreak of the First World War.

Start third stage associated with the conclusion of the Versailles Peace Treaty of 1919 and the establishment of the League of Nations - the first international intergovernmental organization for the maintenance of international peace and security.

Ideas and suggestions for creating similar organization were put forward during the war. Projects to create an international organization came from the governments of the USA, Great Britain, and France, which to one degree or another formed the basis of the Statute of the League of Nations. The final version of the League of Nations Statute was approved by the Paris Peace Conference in 1919 as component Treaty of Versailles. The statute contains 26 articles, which were simultaneously included as the first chapter in the texts of all five Paris peace treaties that ended the First World War: Versailles, Saint-Germain, Triapon, Nails, Sevsky. Of these, the first in terms of the time of conclusion was the Treaty of Versailles - June 28, 1919, which entered into force on January 10, 1920. Based on this, the founding date of the League of Nations is generally considered to be the date of signing of the Treaty of Versailles, i.e. June 28, 1919

The creation of the League of Nations is not only the first attempt to establish a universal international organization for the maintenance of peace and security, but also to create a special mechanism for this.

The main purpose of the League of Nations was to ensure universal peace and security and promote international cooperation between states. According to the Statute of the League of Nations, it was also entrusted with such functions as, for example, control over mandate holders, protection of the rights of national minorities and registration international treaties.

The original members of the League of Nations were 26 sovereign states and four dominions. Another group of member states were 13 so-called invited states that did not participate in the First World War.

Although the League of Nations was created under active participation US government, the Senate considered that US participation in the League in conditions where the influence of Great Britain and France would obviously dominate there was unjustified. Subsequently, the United States did not become a participant in the League of Nations.

In 1925, the Locarno Agreements were concluded, which came into force when Germany joined the League of Nations in 1926.

The entry into the League of Nations of states that were enemies of Great Britain and France in the First World War gradually gave rise to serious tensions and disagreements within this organization, which ended with two powers leaving its membership in 1933 - Japan and Germany, and in 1937 - Italy.

The USSR could not join the League of Nations for a long time due to the fact that the West did not recognize Soviet power. However, after Japan and Germany left the League and the fascists with their revanchist sentiments came to power in Germany in 1933, it became obvious that without the participation of the USSR global problems Europe and the world as a whole cannot be resolved, Western diplomacy has taken certain steps towards the USSR joining the League of Nations. Thus, on the initiative of French diplomacy, on September 15, 1934, the USSR was invited by 30 member states of the League of Nations to join this international organization. On September 18, 1934, the Assembly of the League of Nations decided to admit the USSR to the League and grant it a permanent member of the Council of the League of Nations. By joining the League of Nations, the USSR officially expressed its negative attitude towards some provisions of its Statute. For example, the government of the USSR made a statement about its non-recognition of certain articles of the League Statute, which actually legalized the state’s right to start a war under the pretext of protecting “national interests” (Articles 12, 15), introduced a system of colonial mandates (Article 22) and ignored equal rights of all races and nations (v. 23).

The League of Nations ceased de facto in September 1939, and was legally dissolved on April 18, 1946 after the creation of the UN.

The League of Nations Statute had certain shortcomings, which can ultimately be summarized as follows: its provisions did not contain an unconditional prohibition of aggression; Such a shortcoming as the international legal consolidation of the so-called mandate system (Article 22 of the Statute) also had a great negative impact on the activities of the League of Nations.

Due to these circumstances and other reasons, the League of Nations was unable to cope with its charter task - the peaceful settlement of international conflicts. Every time a conflict arose that led to military action, the League of Nations revealed its impotence.

For example, the existence of the League of Nations did not prevent the aggressors from carrying out active preparation to war, and then start it. Japan invaded China in 1931 and occupied Manchuria, Italy occupied Albania in 1939 and Ethiopia in 1936, Germany unilaterally terminated the Locarno Agreement on March 7, 1936 and sent its troops into the demilitarized Rhineland, and In 1938 it carried out the Anschluss of Austria, in 1939 it captured Czechoslovakia, Austria, and part of Lithuania. Germany and Italy carried out a joint intervention against Spanish Republic(1936–1937). Next, on September 1, 1939, Germany attacked Poland. Thus began the Second World War, which lasted six years.

Despite all these shortcomings, the Statute of the League of Nations was a landmark document of its time. His articles on arms limitation, settlement of disputes in judicial procedure or by applying to the Permanent Court of International Justice, on mutual guarantees of territorial integrity, on measures to maintain peace, on sanctions against a state that has resorted to war in violation of obligations under the Statute of the League of Nations, on ensuring compliance with international treaties and norms of international law, on the obligatory cooperation of member states was an innovation in the post-war period.

And another innovation in international relations and international law is the emergence of the international civil service in the modern sense.

The experience of the League of Nations did not pass without a trace. Many provisions of its Statute and practical experience were subsequently borrowed or taken into account when creating the UN.

Fourth stage development of international organizations is associated with the creation of the UN and its system, as well as the formation modern system international organizations.

The establishment of the UN was preceded by the creation of the anti-Hitler coalition. The first meeting to form an anti-Hitler coalition took place between US President F. Roosevelt and British Prime Minister W. Churchill on August 14, 1941 on the battleship Prince of Wales, as a result of which the Atlantic Charter appeared. In it, the leaders of the two states declared their refusal to seize territories, recognized the right of all peoples to choose the form of government under which they want to live, etc.

The next step of the world community to create an anti-Hitler coalition was the holding of the Inter-Allied Conference in London on September 24, 1941 with the participation of representatives of the USSR, Great Britain and several others European countries. At the conference, the USSR's accession to the Atlantic Charter was announced and a declaration of the Soviet government was read out, calling for the concentration of all economic and military resources of freedom-loving peoples for the speedy and decisive defeat of the fascist aggressors.

The first mention in an official international document of the need to create an international peacekeeping organization was contained in the Declaration of the Government of the USSR and the Government of the Polish Republic on Friendship and Mutual Assistance dated December 4, 1941. The Declaration stated that a lasting and just peace in the post-war period can only be achieved a new organization of international relations based on the unification of democratic states into a strong union. In creating such an organization, the document further noted, the decisive point should be respect for international law, supported by the collective armed force of all allied states.

Great importance to create an anti-Hitler coalition, there was a Declaration of the United Nations, which was adopted at the Washington Conference on January 1, 1942. The very name “United Nations” was proposed to the allies in the anti-Hitler coalition by US President F. Roosevelt in December 1941. Subsequently, this term became a synonym for the allies in the anti-Hitler coalition. coalition. The declaration was signed by representatives of 26 states participating in the anti-Hitler coalition, including the USSR, USA, Great Britain and China. Among them are also nine Central American states and Caribbean, Dominions of the British Crown, British India and eight European governments in exile. During 1942–1945 21 states acceded to the Declaration.

By the end of the war, other countries had acceded to the Declaration, including the Philippines, France, all Latin American countries (except Argentina), and some independent states Middle East and Africa. The Axis countries were not allowed to join the Declaration.

Practical steps to create a new international organization for peace and security were taken at the Moscow Conference of the Foreign Ministers of the three allied powers: the USSR, the USA and Great Britain (October 19–30, 1943). On November 2, 1943, the Declaration of the Four States (USSR, USA, Great Britain and China) on the issue of universal security was published. It said that they “recognize the need for the establishment, as soon as possible, of a general international organization for the maintenance of international peace and security, based on the principle of the sovereign equality of all peace-loving states, of which all states, large and small, can be members.” Thus, this document laid the fundamental basis for a universal MMPO.

Subsequently, the issue of creating an international organization for peace and security was discussed at the Tehran Conference of the leaders of the three allied powers - the USSR, the USA and Great Britain (Stalin, Roosevelt and Churchill), which took place from November 28 to December 1, 1943.

At the Tehran Conference, an agreement was reached on a wide range of issues included in a special document called “Proposals for the creation of a General International Security Organization,” which contained a list of provisions that, in the opinion of the participating states, were to be enshrined in the charter of the future organization: on goals, principles , membership in an organization; on the composition, functions, powers of its main bodies; about the international court; on measures to maintain international peace and security, including the prevention and suppression of aggression; O international cooperation on economic and social issues; about the secretariat, the procedure for amending the charter, etc.

The final part of this document included a special section - “Measures for the transitional period”, which provided that before the entry into force of special agreements on the contingents of armed forces in accordance with the Moscow Declaration, the participating states should consult with each other and, if necessary, with other members of the organization for the purpose of such joint actions on behalf of the organization, which formed the basis of the UN Charter, and this is their enormous historical significance. They became the subject of discussion by the governments of many countries of the anti-Hitler coalition, which presented their comments on them.

The next stage in the creation of the UN was the Conference of Member States of the Anti-Hitler Coalition, held in Dumbarton Oaks (USA) in two stages: from August 21 to September 28, 1944 and from September 29 to October 7, 1944. At it, the participating states could not agree on some issues, including the voting procedure in the UN Security Council; on the composition of its non-permanent members; on the statute, composition and procedure for election International Court of Justice UN; on international guardianship; about the seat of the UN; on the participants in the founding conference of the UN and initial membership in the UN and on the immunity of state representatives.

In practice, the issue of establishing the UN was resolved at the Crimean (Yalta) Conference of the leaders of the three powers of the anti-Hitler coalition, held from February 4 to 11, 1945. The Yalta Conference has a special place in the political and diplomatic history of the Second World War. At it, decisions were made on agreeing on issues regarding the voting procedure in the UN Security Council, the principle of unanimity of the permanent members of the UN Security Council and the composition of the founding states of the UN.

On the issue of creating an international guardianship system, it was agreed that such a system would be applied:

• – to existing mandates of the League of Nations; – territories separated from enemy states as a result of war;
• – any other territory that can be voluntarily placed under trusteeship.

At the Crimea Conference, it was decided that the founding conference of the UN would open on April 25, 1945 in San Francisco and that the UN states “as constituted as of February 8, 1945,” as well as “those of the acceding Nations, who declared war on the common enemy by March 1, 1945."

The founding conference of the UN was held in San Francisco from April 25 to June 26, 1945. It went down in the history of international relations as an event of great political significance and one of the largest conferences. 282 delegates, over one and a half thousand experts, advisers, members of delegation secretariats, etc. took part in the Conference.

The work of the Conference was concentrated in four main committees, four commissions and twelve technical committees. Of great importance were the informal meetings of the four heads of delegations - the USSR, the USA, Great Britain and China, at which the most pressing issues of the Conference were discussed and agreement was reached common point the view of the great powers. A total of six such informal meetings were held, at which 27 joint amendments to the UN Charter were adopted.

In general, the discussion of the draft UN Charter and the coordination of the positions of the states participating in the Conference took place in an acute and complex diplomatic struggle between the USSR, on the one hand, and the USA and Great Britain, on the other. Nevertheless, over the course of two months, the Conference did a tremendous amount of work, the volume of which can be judged at least by the fact that it considered 1,200 amendments alone to the draft UN Charter, reflecting the various positions of states. All of them were systematized and sent for discussion to the relevant committees of the Conference.

As a result of the extensive and painstaking work of the Conference, the UN Charter and the Statute of the International Court of Justice were developed, which was an indisputable achievement in the progressive development of international law.

On June 26, 1945, the UN Charter was signed by all states participating in the Conference (50 in number). It officially entered into force on October 24, 1945, following ratification and the deposit of instruments of ratification with the United States Government by five permanent members of the Security Council and 24 other member states.

October 24, by decision of the PLO General Assembly in 1947, was declared UN Day and is celebrated annually by the entire progressive public of the globe.

In the summer of 1945, a Preparatory Commission consisting of all UN member states was established in London to resolve organizational and other practical issues (structure of PLO bodies, rules of procedure, funding procedures, location of the UN, etc.). On the issue of location, serious behind-the-scenes disputes arose: Great Britain and some other states advocated placing the UN headquarters in Europe (Geneva), while the United States and Latin American states saw the location of the PLO on US territory. On December 10, 1945, the US Congress unanimously adopted a resolution inviting the UN to the United States. On February 14, 1946, during the voting in the Preparatory Commission, 23 votes were cast for Geneva, 25 were against (including the USSR, Yugoslavia, Ukrainian SSR, BSSR and Czechoslovakia), two delegations abstained (Ecuador, USA). 30 representatives voted for the United States, 14 were against, and 6 abstained. Thus, by a majority vote, the decision was made to locate the UN headquarters in the United States. The first session of the UN GA opened on January 10, 1946 in London (due to the UN not having its own building). The first meeting of the UN Security Council took place there on January 17, 1946.

A certain amount ($8.5 million) was allocated by J.D. Rockefeller for the purchase of the current site in Manhattan. The authorities of the city of New York also allocated plots of land adjacent to this place and cleared the territory, built the necessary infrastructure structures and developed the surrounding territory in the amount of $30 million. In 1948, the UN signed an agreement with the US government to provide them with an interest-free loan of 65 million dollars for the construction of UN headquarters. The laying of its foundation took place on October 24, 1949. The building itself was built quite quickly. Already in 1952, both the GA and the UN Security Council held their meetings in the new building.