Hydrosphere - the watery shell of the Earth

on the course of the main, most ambitious geological processes. An unearthly substance - a mineral, a rock, a living body, which would not contain it. All earthly matter... is permeated and embraced by it. Pure, without impurities, water is transparent, colorless and odorless. This is the only mineral on our planet that occurs naturally in three states of aggregation: gaseous liquid and solid. Water can be considered from a chemical point of view as hydrogen oxide or oxygen hydride. In table 6 give the melting and boiling points of compounds similar in composition to water.
Table 6. Melting and boiling points of hydrogen compounds of elements of the main subgroup of group VI periodic table

Data analysis table. 6, as well as Fig. 8 shows the “illogical* behavior of water: transitions of water from solid to liquid and gaseous states occur at temperatures much higher than they should be. The anomalous behavior is due to the structure of the H20 water molecule; it is built in the form obtuse triangle: the angle between two oxygen-hydrogen bonds is 104°27" (Fig. 9)J But since both hydrogen atoms are located on the same side of the oxygen atom, the electrical charges in it are dispersed, and the water molecule acquires polarity. Polarity is the reason! chemical interaction between different water molecules. The hydrogen atoms in the H20 molecule, having a partial positive charge, interact with the electrons of the oxygen atoms of neighboring molecules. Such chemical bond is called hydrogen. It combines water molecules into unique polymers of spatial structure; the plane in which the hydrogen bonds are located is perpendicular to the plane of the atoms of the same water molecule. The interaction between H20 molecules explains the anomalously high melting and boiling temperatures. In order to “loose” hydrogen bonds, significant additional energy is needed, which, in particular, explains the high heat capacity of water.
Ice crystals are formed from similar associates (combinations of molecules). The atoms in an ice crystal are “packed” loosely and therefore ice is a poor conductor of heat. The density of liquid water at temperatures close to zero is greater than that of ice. At 0°C, 1 g of ice occupies a volume of 1.0905 cm3, 1 g of liquid water - 1.0001 cm3. Therefore, ice floats and that is why reservoirs do not freeze to the bottom, but only have an ice cover. 40

This reveals another water anomaly. After melting, water first contracts and only then, at a temperature of 4 ° C and above, begins to expand.
Special methods ice-P and ice-III were obtained - heavier and denser crystalline forms of solid water (the hardest, densest and most refractory ice-VII was obtained at a pressure of 3 billion Pa;
its melting point is + 190° C (Fig. 10).
From chemical properties One of the most important properties of water is the ability of its molecules to dissociate, i.e., disintegrate into ions, as well as the colossal ability to dissolve substances of various chemical natures.
The role of water as the main and universal solvent is determined primarily by the polarity of its molecules and, as a consequence, by its extremely high dielectric constant. Opposite electric charges and, in particular, ions are attracted to each other in water 80 times weaker than they would be attracted in air. Thermal movement in this case it is easier to separate the molecules.
This is why dissolution occurs, including of many sparingly soluble substances: it is not in vain that they say:
“Water wears away stones...”
Dissociation (decay) of water molecules into ions in normal conditions very small: one molecule out of half a billion dissociates. It should be noted that of the above reactions, the first is conditional, so

just as the H+ proton, deprived of its electron shell, cannot exist in an aqueous environment; it instantly combines with a water molecule, forming a hydronium ion H30+

It is fundamentally possible that associates of water molecules disintegrate into very heavy ions, such as:
8Н20-gt; H90+4 + H70"4, and the reaction H20-gt; H++ OH- is just a schematic general representation of more complex reactions.
Water has weak reactivity. Some active metals are capable of displacing hydrogen from it:

and in an atmosphere of free fluorine can burn:

V.P. Zhuravlev et al. (1995) provides data from G.V. Vasiliev according to the very diverse characteristics of water, in particular, anomalous water (or superwater) reaches maximum density at t = - 10 ° C, its viscosity is 10-15 times less classic water, has polymers (H20)3 and (H20)4.
The presence of super-anomalous water has been established, which does not have a maximum density, does not crystallize (even at -100 ° C), but vitrifies like resin. Academician A.N. Frumkin believes that this new fourth state of aggregation of water is resinous and puts it in line with the discovery of new chemical elements.
Metabolic water is a special liquid that is produced by a living organism, which has the property of counteracting “drying out,” in other words, “aging.” Metabolic water, according to some scientists, is itself capable of aging and turning into “dead” water.
G.V. Vasiliev releases “melt” water, which increases productivity; “magnetic” water, which prevents carbonate formation; “electric” water, which accelerates the flowering of some plants; “dry” water, consisting of 90% H20 and 10% H2Si04, as well as I-water, “black”, “remembering”, etc. Many of these types of water have specific properties, some are hypothetical. However, we have already noted that water dissolves almost all substances, except fats and a very limited number of minerals. Therefore, in nature it practically does not happen clean water, it is always a solution of greater or lesser concentration.
Water is mainly a liquid, i.e. a moving body, which allows it to penetrate into a wide variety of bodies and 42

environment and move in different directions, simultaneously transporting substances dissolved in it. This ensures metabolism in geographical envelope, including between living organisms and the environment. Water is able to overcome gravity even in a liquid state, rising through the thinnest capillaries. This determines the possibilities of water circulation in rocks and soils; blood circulation in animals; movement of plant juices up the stems. Water has the ability to wet and “stick” to various surfaces. Electrical interaction forces are capable of binding water around solid mineral particles, significantly changing its characteristics. For example, its freezing temperature becomes -4° C, density - 1.4 g/cm.
The origin of water on Earth has not yet been fully explained: some experts believe that it was formed as a result of synthesis from hydrogen and oxygen when they were released from the bowels of the Earth in the first stages of its existence, and others, following Academician. O.Yu. Schmidt suggest that water came to Earth during the formation of the planet from outer space.
The world ocean is the water shell of the Earth, with the exception of reservoirs on land and glaciers of Antarctica, Greenland, polar archipelagos and mountain peaks. The world's oceans are divided into four main parts - the Pacific, Atlantic, Indian, and Arctic oceans. The waters of the World Ocean, flowing into the land, form seas and bays. The seas are relatively isolated parts of the ocean (for example, the Black, Baltic, etc.), and the bays do not protrude into the land as much as the seas, and in terms of the properties of the waters they differ little from the World Ocean. In the seas, the salinity of water can be higher than the ocean (35%), as, for example, in the Red Sea - up to 40%, or lower, as in the Baltic Sea - from 3 to 20%.
The waters of the World Ocean and its constituent parts have some general signs: they all communicate with each other; the water surface level in them is almost the same; salinity averages 35%, has a bitter-salty taste due to the large amount of mineral salts dissolved in them.
In addition to salts, various gases are dissolved in ocean water, the most important of which is oxygen, which is necessary for the respiration of living organisms. IN various parts In the world's oceans, the amount of dissolved oxygen varies, depending on the temperature of the water and its composition. The presence of carbon dioxide in ocean water makes photosynthesis possible and also allows some marine animals to create shells and skeletons as a result of life processes.
Water temperatures in the oceans range from freezing in the polar seas to 28°C at the equator.
The waters of the World Ocean are in constant motion in the form of waves, sea currents and tidal phenomena. Waves arise under the influence of wind and seaquakes; sea ​​currents are formed under the influence constant winds and differences in the density of ocean water; The ebb and flow of ocean water is associated with the attraction of the Moon and the rotation of the Earth around its axis.
Groundwater is water located in pores, cracks, cavities, voids, caves in the thickness of rocks under the surface of the Earth. These waters can be in liquid, solid and gaseous states. Groundwater and surface water are interconnected: in some cases, some are recharge zones, others are discharge zones, and in other cases, vice versa. Groundwater has different origins and is divided into: juvenile, formed, according to the hypothesis of M.V. Lomonosov, during magmagenic processes; infiltration, formed due to seepage atmospheric precipitation through the thickness of permeable soils and soils on waterproof layers; condensation, accumulated in rocks during the transition of water vapor in the ground atmosphere into a liquid state; waters buried by sediments in surface bodies of water.
It is almost impossible to establish the genesis of groundwater based on
its characteristics, and there is no particular need for this, much more important is the state of water in soils and soils. Water retained by molecular forces is almost not involved in the processes that ensure the life of organisms; in particular, plants cannot use this water with the help of their root system. Capillary and gravitational water are suitable for these purposes. The latter includes underground water that moves in the depths earth's crust under the influence of Earth's gravity. Groundwater has different temperatures, basically it, as a rule, corresponds to the temperature of the host rocks, but deep underground waters located near magma chambers are a source of hot water. In Russia, they are discovered in Kamchatka and the North Caucasus, where their temperature reaches 70-95° C. Fountaining hot springs are called geysers. More than 20 of them have been discovered in the valley of geysers in Kamchatka, among them the “Giant”, which produces a fountain 30 m high, or the “old servant” (Yellowstone, USA), which gushes at regular intervals. Geysers are also common in Iceland and New Zealand.
When filtered through rocks with different mineral and chemical compositions, groundwater naturally replenishes itself with dissolved substances. So they are gradually formed mineral water, which are sometimes saturated with carbon dioxide and hydrogen sulfide. Some of these waters have medicinal and spa value.
Surface waters of land. Rivers. In general, on the surface of the earth's land, water moves in various forms: rivers, streams, springs, temporary watercourses. Recently, watercourses (canals) created by man have become of serious importance.
Rivers and streams are permanent watercourses located in natural depressions of the relief. The sizes of rivers are very different: from huge ones (the Amazon River) to rivers that are known to almost every person because they can be crossed. High water content deep river the Amazon world - 3160 km3 per year - is explained by the huge area of ​​the basin (about 7 million km2) and the abundance of precipitation (more than 2000 mm per year). The Amazon has 17 tributaries of the so-called first order, each of which is equal in water content to the Volga River.
Streams are even smaller natural watercourses with a width of no more than 0.5-1.0 m. Rivers form a river network of the main channel and tributaries in a certain area. Rivers receive their food from a certain area called its basin. The constant sources of river nutrition are groundwater, melt water snow and glaciers, rainfall. Depending on the feeding conditions, a regime is formed near the rivers; Based on the water level, periods of highest and lowest water are distinguished. They received names: high water, flood and low water. Rivers perform colossal work of erosion and accumulation. They erode rocks, form channels, and the resulting material is transported and deposited as alluvial (river) deposits, creating floodplains and accumulative terraces near the bedrock banks. There are young and old rivers. The latter, as a rule, have wide developed valleys with abandoned old winding channels (oxbow lakes), a large number terraces and wide floodplains. Young rivers often have rapids and waterfalls (areas where water falls from high ledges). One of the largest waterfalls in the world is Victoria on the river. Zambezi - falls from a height of 120 m with a width of 1800 m; Niagara Falls - height 51 m, width of the stream 1237 m. Many mountain waterfalls are even higher. The highest of them is Angel on the river. Orinoco - 1054 m high.
Lakes. In addition to watercourses, where water moves from higher to lower elevations, there are permanent bodies of water on land in natural depressions in the relief. On the territory of our country there is part of the most big lake in the world - the Caspian Sea and the deepest - Lake Baikal. Lakes formed in various ways: from volcanic craters to tectonic troughs and karst sinkholes; Sometimes dammed lakes appear during landslides and mudflows in the mountains. A large number of lakes, which are located in Finland, Sweden, Karelia (Russia), Canada, were formed during the advance and retreat of glaciers during periods of glaciation. Most lakes are full fresh water, but there are also salty ones, for example Caspian, Aral

Rice. 11. Scheme of lake overgrowth:
/ - moss cover (ryam); 2 - bottom sediments of organic residues; 3 - “window” or space of clean water

and some others. Fresh ones have a salinity of less than 1%, brackish ones - more than 1%, salted ones - more than 24.7%.
Lakes develop depending on environmental conditions. Rivers and temporary water flows bring huge amounts of inorganic and organic substances into lakes, which are deposited on their bottom. Vegetation appears, the remains of which also accumulate, filling the lake basins, and give rise to the formation of swamps (Fig. 11).
Swamps are excessively moist areas of land covered with moisture-loving vegetation. Waterlogging in forest belts often occurs as a result of deforestation. The tundra is a zone where permafrost does not allow water to penetrate into the soil and its gradual accumulation leads to the formation of swamps.
Based on nutritional conditions and location, swamps are divided into lowland and highland (Fig. 12). The former receive their nutrition from precipitation, groundwater and surface water. A large amount of mineral components supplied with groundwater contributes to the active development of vegetation and its high productivity. Under certain conditions, lowland swamps turn into so-called raised swamps. Peat formation takes place in these swamps, a very complex geochemical process of mineral formation and sedimentation. The accumulation of peat, on the one hand, increases fertility reserves in the bowels of the earth by increasing the volume of humus, and also contributes to the conservation of excess carbon, but, on the other hand, significantly depletes the mineral component that feeds plants in the swamp. There is a replacement with less demanding plants, for example sphagnum mosses, which produce organic acids that slow down peat formation.

Rice. 12. Lowland (a) and raised (b) swamps

tion. Water no longer gets into the zones of development of sphagnum mosses and the process of destruction of vegetation gradually develops more and more.
Considerable attention has been paid to swamps due to the fact that they occupy vast spaces in the territory of our country and often represent the sources of significant surface watercourses. But the point is not only this, recently the fact of the decisive influence of the swamp on the existence of the forest has been established, that is, there is a deep connection between the optimal conditions for the development of forest ecosystems and the swamps existing in them, and many small lakes.
Water is of paramount importance for the functioning of living organisms. It is the main medium of biochemical reactions, ultimately absolutely necessary component protoplasm. Nutrients are transported inside living organisms in the form of aqueous solutions, and water also transports and removes dissimilation products from organisms (I.A. Shilov, 2000). The relative water content in living organisms ranges from 50 to 95% (95% of water is contained in the body of jellyfish, and up to 92% in the tissues of many mollusks). Intracellular and intercellular metabolism depends on the amount of water and dissolved salts, and in hydrobionts - osmotic
relationship with the environment. Most terrestrial animals can exchange gases with their environment only in the presence of moist surfaces; Moisture also, when evaporated, contributes to the formation of a thermal balance between changing temperature parameters of the environment and the warmth of organisms.
I.A. Shilov (2000) describes water exchange between organisms and the environment as an exchange consisting of two opposite Processes, one of which is the entry of water into the body, the other is its release into external environment. U higher plants this process is the “sucking” of water from the soil by the root system, carrying it (along with dissolved substances) to individual organs and cells and removing it through the process of transpiration. Of the total volume, 5% of water is used for photosynthesis, and the rest is used to maintain turgor (internal hydrostatic pressure in living cells, causing tension in the cell membrane).
Animals obtain water mainly by drinking, and this way for most of them, even aquatic ones, is not only necessary, but also the only one. Water is excreted through urine and excrement, as well as through evaporation. Individual organisms living in an aquatic environment are capable of receiving and releasing water either through their integument or through specialized areas of tissue that are permeable to water. This also applies to terrestrial inhabitants: many plants, invertebrate animals and amphibians typically receive water from sources such as dew, fog, and rain.
For animals, one of the sources of water is food. Moreover, its importance in water metabolism is not limited to the water content in the tissues of food items. Increased nutrition is accompanied by the accumulation of fat reserves in the body, which are important both as an energy reserve and as an internal source of water supply to cells and tissues. Water exchange is directly related to salt exchange. A certain set of salts (ions) is necessary condition to carry out body functions in a normal manner, since salts are part of the composition of tissues and play a certain role in the metabolic mechanisms of cells. If disturbances occur in the amount of incoming water and, accordingly, the necessary salts, then the complete equilibrium is disturbed and shifts in osmotic processes occur.
For all living organisms, the most important thing is to maintain a stable water-salt metabolism as the main factor in the implementation of their vital functions.

Water on our planet exists in three states - liquid, solid (ice, snow) and gaseous (steam). Currently water occupies 3/4.

Water forms the aquatic shell of our planet - the hydrosphere.

Hydrosphere (from Greek words“hydro” - water, “sphere” - ball) includes three main components: the World Ocean, land waters and water in the atmosphere. All parts of the hydrosphere are interconnected by the process of the water cycle in nature, already known to you.

1. Explain how water from the continents enters the World Ocean.
2. How does water get into the atmosphere?
3. How does water get back onto land?

The World Ocean accounts for over 96% of all the water on our planet.

Continents and islands divide the World Ocean into separate oceans: Pacific, Atlantic, Indian,.

IN last years highlighted on maps South ocean- the body of water surrounding Antarctica. The largest in area - Pacific Ocean, the smallest is Northern Arctic.

Parts of the oceans that extend into the land and differ in the properties of their waters are called seas. There are a lot of them. Largest seas planets - Philippine, Arabian, Coral.

Water in natural conditions contains various substances dissolved in it. 1 liter of ocean water contains on average 35 g of salt (mostly table salt), which gives it a salty taste, making it unsuitable for drinking and industrial use. agriculture.

Rivers, lakes, swamps, glaciers and groundwater are land waters. Most of the land's waters are fresh, but among lakes and groundwater there are also salty ones.

You know what a huge role rivers, lakes, and swamps play in nature and people’s lives. But here’s what’s surprising: in the total amount of water on Earth, their share is very small - only 0.02%.

Much more water enclosed in glaciers - about 2%. They should not be confused with the ice that forms when water freezes. arise where more falls than has time to melt. Gradually, the snow accumulates, compacts and turns into ice. Glaciers cover approximately 1/10 of the land. They are located primarily on the mainland of Antarctica and the island of Greenland, which are covered with huge ice shells. Blocks of ice that break off along their shores form floating mountains - icebergs.

Some of them reach enormous sizes. Considerable areas are occupied by glaciers in the mountains, especially in such high ones as the Himalayas, Pamirs, and Tien Shan.

Glaciers can be called storehouses of fresh water. So far it is almost not used, but scientists have long been developing projects for transporting icebergs to dry areas to ensure drinking water local residents.

They also make up about 2% of all water on Earth. They are located in the upper part of the earth's crust.

These waters can be salty and fresh, cold, warm and hot. They are often saturated with substances beneficial to human health and are medicinal (mineral waters).

In many places, for example along the banks of rivers, in ravines, underground waters come to the surface, forming springs (they are also called springs and springs).

Groundwater reserves are replenished by precipitation, which seeps through some of the rocks that make up the earth's surface. Thus, groundwater participates in nature.

Water in the atmosphere

Contains water vapor, water droplets and ice crystals. Together they make up fractions of a percent of total number water on Earth. But without them the water cycle on our planet would be impossible.

1. What is the hydrosphere? List its components.
2. What oceans form the World Ocean of our planet?
3. What makes up the waters of land?
4. How are glaciers formed and where are they located?
5. What is the role of groundwater?
6. What is water in the atmosphere?
7. What is the difference between a river, lake and ?
8. What danger does an iceberg pose?
9. Do they exist on our planet? salty bodies of water besides the seas and oceans?

The water layer of the Earth is called the hydrosphere. It consists of the World Ocean, land waters and water in the atmosphere. All parts of the hydrosphere are interconnected by the process of the water cycle in nature. The World Ocean accounts for more than 96% of the planet's total water. It is divided into separate oceans. The parts of the oceans that extend into the land are called seas. Land waters include rivers, lakes, swamps, glaciers, and groundwater. The atmosphere contains water vapor, water droplets and ice crystals.

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To better understand what the atmosphere, hydrosphere, and lithosphere are, it is necessary to consider a term such as “geographical envelope.”

The geographic envelope is the totality of the Earth's geospheres: the earth's crust, hydrosphere and atmosphere. They form a single whole and exist interconnected. Thus, solar energy is transformed into thermal, kinetic, electrical, chemical, etc. within the lithosphere. There it accumulates and is transmitted to other spheres - air and water.

What is the hydrosphere

The term “hydrosphere” refers to the watery shell of the Earth. This includes both terrestrial (rivers, lakes, seas, oceans) and underground (ground) waters, as well as snow cover, glaciers, and steam in the atmosphere.

What is the hydrosphere? The definition of the concept is as follows: this is the totality of all the waters of our planet. The most important elements that make up the hydrosphere are rivers, swamps, lakes, glaciers and groundwater.

Rivers are of great importance; they transport masses of water over long distances. Swamps, like mountain glaciers, are a source of food for rivers. Glaciers are a reservoir of fresh water.

Reservoirs are artificial reservoirs created by man for economic activity.

Composition of the hydrosphere:

As can be seen from these data, the largest share of water falls on the World Ocean, and the Earth's rivers account for only 0.0001%. All these parts of the hydrosphere are interconnected, and water can move from one classification to another.

Water and its features

Water is unique chemical element, which is present on our planet in three states of aggregation. But the most useful is liquid; it is in this form that water is a necessary source for the existence of all living things. For many organisms, this is not just a source of food, but a habitat. It has been proven that the first organisms lived in water, and only then, in the process of evolution, came to land. Thus, the main characteristic of the hydrosphere is the presence of a huge number of living organisms.

What is the hydrosphere? We can say that this is the totality of the water of our planet.

Functions of the water shell

Let us highlight several of the most important functions of the hydrosphere:

1. Accumulating. Water accumulates a huge amount of heat and ensures a constant average temperature of the planet.
2. Oxygen production. As mentioned above, in the watery shell of the Earth lives a large number of living organisms, including phytoplankton. It produces most of the oxygen in the atmosphere. And oxygen, in turn, is necessary for the normal functioning of most organisms.
3. The hydrosphere, in particular the World Ocean, is a huge resource base. Various types of fish are caught here and mineral resources are mined. Humanity also uses the water itself for various purposes: for purification, energy extraction, cooling, etc.
4. The water shell is an excellent breeding ground for various harmful microorganisms. Certain diseases can be transmitted through it.

Use of water resources

1. Water consumers. These are industries that use water for certain purposes but do not return it. Among them are thermal power engineering, agriculture, ferrous and non-ferrous metallurgy, pulp and paper and chemical industries.
2. Water users. These are industries that use water for their needs, but then always return it. For example, household and drinking services, sea and river transport, shipping, fisheries.

It is worth noting that for the life support of a city with a population of 1 million people, more than 300 thousand m³ of clean water per day is needed, and more than 75% of the water returns unsuitable for living organisms, i.e. contaminated.

Classification of water according to intended purpose

• Drinking water - used by humans to quench thirst. It should contain a minimum amount of toxic and chemical substances.
• Mineral water is extracted from underground sources by drilling. Used by humans for medicinal purposes.
• Industrial water is not necessarily water thoroughly purified from impurities, because... it is used in industry.
• Thermal energy water - thermal. Can be used in any sector of the national economy.

Process water

Divided into several types:

1. Water for irrigation. It is used in agriculture and does not require complex purification from impurities.
2. Energy water. Used for space heating. Water is heated to a gaseous state.
3. Domestic water. Used for various needs in hospitals, canteens, laundries and baths.

In industry, almost half of the water is used to cool equipment. In this case, it does not become dirty.

Process water also has several classifications. Highlight:

• Washing room- used for washing various materials (solid, gaseous and liquid).
• Environment-forming- used for ore enrichment, rock dissolution during mining.
• Reactionary- used to speed up or slow down various reactions.

Irrational use of water and ways to solve problems

The most a big problem- This is an overconsumption of surface water. As a result, regional disasters arise, such as the death of animals and plants, drainage of swamps, and a drop in water levels in rivers.

To avoid overuse of a valuable resource, it is necessary to use it rationally, create closed cycles of water use in industry, and save at the household level.

Overuse of groundwater occurs due to increased withdrawal and reduced precipitation, when underground storage facilities do not have time to replenish spent reserves. To solve this problem, it is necessary to take into account the characteristics of the territory from which water is drawn.

If you do not respond to the above problem in time, the next one may arise - soil subsidence. When underground sources are depleted, cavities appear in the bowels of the earth, the soil is no longer supported by anything and settles. This is dangerous because the drawdown can be unexpected in places where people are located.

To prevent this problem from taking you by surprise, it is necessary to reduce groundwater consumption, install high-quality filters for reuse waste liquid.

Another problem arising from overuse groundwater, - influx of salt water. This occurs due to a decrease in pressure inside the cavities as a result of a decrease in groundwater levels.

Water pollution

What is hydrosphere pollution? This water pollution is one of the global problems humanity. There is a glut of petroleum products. To clean, it is necessary to catch not only the oils floating on the surface, but also the sediment that sinks to the bottom. The chemical industry is one of the main sources of pollution not only of the hydrosphere, but also of the atmosphere.

The pulp and paper industry litters nearby areas with insoluble fibers and other substances. Because of this, the water develops an unpleasant odor and taste, changes color, and increases the growth of bacteria and fungi.

Thermal power plants discharge waste water back into reservoirs. If you consider that it is usually much warmer, you can understand: the entire reservoir is heated. This adversely affects local flora and fauna. The waters begin to bloom, because... the growth of cyanobacteria, algae and other vegetation increases. The liquid acquires an unpleasant odor and taste.

Floating timber also has an adverse effect on the condition of water. Rivers become clogged and polluted. In addition, this economic activity harms the fish and animals living in the river along which the rafting takes place. Young fish and eggs die from lack of oxygen. Species composition decreases.

Human activity is harmful environment, especially the hydrosphere and biosphere. Wastewater from sewers ends up in the ground, harmful substances fall not only into the soil, but also into groundwater, rivers and lakes. In addition to harmful organic substances, wastewater contains various impurities: radioactive elements, heavy metals, organic synthesis products.

Water has a unique property - it can self-renew and self-purify thanks to solar energy.

The earth's hydrosphere is a fragile structure. To solve the problem of its pollution, it is necessary to take a number of measures:

• providing each enterprise with a modern water treatment plant;
• installation of high-quality filters for domestic water;
• improving closed water consumption cycles.

Perhaps every person knows what the hydrosphere is and how important it is, but not many people think about the catastrophic speed with which water pollution occurs. If everyone made an effort to preserve clean water, the disaster would not be so widespread. The earth's hydrosphere will never be fully restored, but humanity can make sure that the current reserves do not become contaminated.

Lecture 3.

Hydrosphere is the watery shell of the earth.

Hydrosphere pollution.

Sources of hydrosphere pollution.

Methods for monitoring water quality.

Water protection measures.

Wastewater treatment methods.

Hydrosphere is the watery shell of the Earth.

Hydrosphere- the water shell of the Earth, including all waters in liquid, solid and gaseous states.

The hydrosphere includes the waters of the oceans, seas, groundwater and surface waters of the land. Some water is found in the atmosphere and in living organisms.

Water occupies the predominant part of the Earth's biosphere (71% of the total area of ​​the earth's surface).

The hydrosphere already 4 billion years ago was represented by the following three components: terrestrial (the World Ocean, river, soil, lake waters, glaciers), underground (water of the lithosphere), air (vapor water of the atmosphere). The hydrosphere includes the following types of water (in parentheses the share of the total volume of water in the hydrosphere, %, according to M.I. Lvovich, 1974):

World Ocean (94.0);

groundwater (4.3);

glaciers (1.7);

land waters (lakes, river waters, soil moisture) (0.03);

atmospheric vapor (0.001).

Water is an essential component of living matter (70–99%). In essence, living matter is water solution"living" molecules. It is water that ensures their life. Earthly life originated in an aquatic environment, and therefore can be considered a derivative of water.

Fundamental properties of water:

1. First property hydrosphere – unity and ubiquity"(according to V.I. Vernadsky) natural waters. All waters are interconnected and represent a single whole. This unity of natural waters is determined by:

a) easy transition of water from one phase state to another. Within earth temperatures Three states are known: liquid, solid, vapor. The plasma state of water exists when high temperatures and pressures in the deep parts of the subsurface;

b) the constant presence of gas components in water. Natural water is an aqueous solution (gas, suspended solids, minerals).

2. Second property hydrosphere is determined special structure of the water molecule. The structure and properties of water provide the most favorable conditions for the development of life on Earth. From physics we know that all bodies expand when heated and contract when cooled. Water behaves differently. If it were to compress when turning into ice (cooling), the ice would be heavier than water and would sink to the bottom of rivers and lakes. The rivers would be frozen to the bottom, and life in these bodies of water would be impossible. Ice is an insulator that keeps the water underneath the ice from freezing, which protects all underwater life. If it were not for this property, the Earth would turn into an ice-bound planet.

Special structure water molecules provide variety of structure it when changing external factors(temperature, pressure, chemical composition). In winter we had to observe the variety and beauty of ice patterns on the windows, snowflakes, frost on the trees. Just as no two drops of water are exactly alike, no two types of water are identical in structure.

3. Third property hydrosphere is expressed in geologically its eternal mobility. The movement of water is very diverse and manifests itself in numerous cycles. The main movement of water is the geological cycle of matter. Every second under the influence solar heat millions of cubic meters of water rise up and form clouds. The wind sets the clouds in motion. When conditions are right, moisture falls in the form of rain or snow. Raindrops They have a favorable size for everything earthly and fall quietly and softly. Are all favorable coincidences in life random? Thus, water participates in peculiar cycles of matter and energy. This system was established on Earth with the advent free water and continues to this day.

Why is the movement happening? Movement can occur under the influence of: a) gravity; b) solar (thermal) energy; c) molecular movement when changing phase state.

4. Fourth property hydrosphere is determined by high chemical activity of water. Under the conditions of the earth's crust, there are no natural bodies that, to one degree or another, would not dissolve in natural waters. Water in the biosphere acts as a universal solvent, because, interacting with all substances, as a rule, it does not interact with them. chemical reactions. This ensures the exchange of substances between land and ocean, organisms and the environment.

The most important abiotic factors of the aquatic environment are the following:

1. Density and viscosity.

The density of water is 800 times, and the viscosity is approximately 55 times greater than air.

2. Heat capacity.

Water has a high heat capacity, so the ocean is the main receiver and accumulator of solar energy.

3. Mobility.

The constant movement of water masses helps maintain the relative homogeneity of physical and chemical properties.

4. Temperature stratification.

A change in water temperature is observed along the depth of the water body.

5. Periodic (annual, daily, seasonal) temperature changes

The lowest water temperature is considered to be - 2 ° C, the highest + 35-37 ° C. The dynamics of fluctuations in water temperature are less than those of air.

6. Transparency and turbidity of water.

Determines the light regime below the surface of the water. The photosynthesis of green bacteria, phytoplankton, higher plants, and, consequently, the accumulation of organic matter depends on transparency (and its inverse characteristic - turbidity).

Turbidity and transparency depend on the content of suspended substances in the water, including those entering the water bodies together with industrial discharges. In this regard, transparency and suspended solids content are the most important characteristics of natural and waste waters that are subject to control at an industrial enterprise.

7. Salinity of water.

According to the degree of salinity, all reservoirs are conventionally divided into

fresh with salinity less than 0.5 0 / 00,

brackish water - salinity ranges from 0.5 - 16 0 / 00,

salty - more than 16 0 / 00.

The salinity of oceanic water bodies is 32 - 38 0/00,

The highest salt content is in salt lakes, where the concentration of electrolytes reaches 370 0/00.

Main difference sea ​​water from the river is that the overwhelming majority sea ​​salt make up chlorides, and in river water prevail carbonic salts. A person uses only fresh water to ensure life. Of the total water resources on the ground on share of fresh water have to no more than 3%.

8. Dissolved oxygen and carbon dioxide.

Excessive consumption of oxygen for the respiration of living organisms and for the oxidation of organic and mineral substances entering the water with industrial discharges leads to the impoverishment of the living population to the point where aerobic organisms cannot live in such water.

9. Hydrogen ion concentration (pH).

All aquatic organisms have adapted to a certain pH level: some prefer an acidic environment, others prefer an alkaline environment, and others prefer a neutral one. A change in these characteristics can lead to the death of aquatic organisms.

– the water shell of the Earth includes all the water on the planet, which is in liquid, solid (ice) and gaseous (water vapor) states. The hydrosphere includes the World Ocean, land waters, and atmospheric water vapor.

It is assumed that hydrosphere arose as a result of the release of liquid stationary solutions and gases from the Earth's mantle. The total volume of water on the planet remains unchanged and is about 1.5 billion km 3.

Home integral part the hydrosphere is World Ocean, it accounts for more than 96% of the water volume. Glaciers make up 1.8%, The groundwater– 1,7%, rivers, lakes, swamps only 0.01%. The surface of the World Ocean occupies about 71% of the earth's surface and is located between the atmosphere and the lithosphere.

All the waters of the Earth are interconnected and are in constant motion: in cycles. The water cycle is the process of continuous movement of water under the influence of solar energy and gravity, covering the hydrosphere, atmosphere, lithosphere and living organisms. Water evaporates from the surface of the land under the influence of solar heat, is transported in different directions by air currents and, under the influence of gravity, falls to the ground again in the form of precipitation. Moreover, most of the precipitation falls back into the ocean.

There are small and large water cycles. IN small gyre Only the ocean and atmosphere are involved (ocean - atmosphere - ocean); and in a large cycle, water “travels” like this: ocean - atmosphere - land - ocean. This water cycle, in which, in addition to the atmosphere and ocean, land takes part, is called the great or global water cycle.

The hydrosphere is one: This is evidenced by the system of the World Water Cycle, the spatial continuity of the World Ocean, and the common origin of waters.

The hydrosphere is of great importance for the existence of life on Earth. Without water there could not be humans, plants and animals. For life, it is necessary to maintain temperature at a certain level (from 0 to 100˚). The hydrosphere plays a large role in maintaining a relatively constant climate on the planet: it is a heat accumulator, which ensures the constancy of the average temperature on Earth; The hydrosphere, due to phytoplankton, is the main source of oxygen in the atmosphere.

The hydrosphere is of great importance in human economic activity. The ocean is a source of natural biological resources: fish, seafood, pearls, etc. Nowadays they are widely used and mineral resources: oil, gas, ore. The potential energy resources are enormous. In addition, the most important transport routes serving global trade pass through the ocean.

Currently, the problem of hydrosphere pollution is acute. Humanity actively uses aquatic environment for the disposal of production and consumption waste. Intense anthropogenic pollution of the hydrosphere leads to serious changes in its geophysical parameters, destroys aquatic ecosystems and is potentially dangerous to humans. International community takes urgent measures to save humanity's habitat. The environmental threat to the hydrosphere requires international cooperation of all countries and the adoption of a unified strategy and program of joint action.

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