Common viper. Common viper - description, where it lives, features Gray snake with black stripes

Steppe viper (Vipera ursinii) – poisonous snake, a widely known representative of the genus of true vipers in Russia.

The length of the reptile's body with head is on average 45-48 cm; the known record for this species is 70 cm. Females are slightly larger than males.

On top, the snake is brownish-gray in color with the same zigzag stripe along the ridge as that of an ordinary viper. Sometimes this stripe is broken into separate spots. The head has a symmetrical pattern of dark spots. Completely black individuals (melanists) are very rare among this species.

First of all, it differs from the steppe in its smaller size. In addition, the upper side of its head sharply turns into the side, forming a pronounced rib; as a result, the lateral edge of its muzzle is pointed (in the common one it is rounded) and slightly raised above its upper part.

Habitats

The steppe viper is common in Central Asia, Central and Eastern Europe, Northwestern China, Turkey, Iran, Kazakhstan and the Caucasus. This is a fairly common species for the south of Western Siberia and the south of the European part of Russia (in the north its habitat reaches Kazan).

Unlike the common viper, the steppe viper is found in open spaces. It is not for nothing that it received such a name: its favorite habitats are various types of steppes. It also lives on rocky mountain slopes, alpine meadows, sea coasts, riverine forests, ravines, semi-deserts and loose sands. It can also be found in pastures and fields.

In favorable habitats, its population density can be extremely high. For example, in Kazakhstan, in the tea thickets, the number of these snakes can reach up to 45 individuals per 1 hectare, and in the Ciscaucasia - up to 60! In such places you can’t even take a step without bumping into this snake. However, the steppe viper does not have such obvious “snake foci” as are known in the common viper - it is more evenly distributed.

Poisonousness of the steppe viper

The venom of this snake is not very strong. There have been no recorded cases of death from its bite to people or large animals. Usually after 5-12 days the victim makes a full recovery.

Symptoms of poisoning are the same as with the bite of other vipers. A pricking sensation occurs in the affected area, the skin turns red, and a mark from two teeth is visible. After 10-20 minutes, swelling occurs at the site of the bite, sometimes significant. After a few hours, bruising and bloody blisters may appear. In addition, there appear characteristic features toxic poisoning: dizziness and nausea, sometimes vomiting, severe weakness, chills, pain in the various parts body, rapid heartbeat, shortness of breath.

The effect of the poison is directly related to its amount entering the body. The amount of poison, in turn, depends on:

• season (snakes have more venom in autumn than at other times of the year);
• size and age of the reptile (larger and older individuals have more poison);
• the interval between meals by the snake (in well-fed snakes it is present in greater quantities than in hungry ones);
• molting stages (reptiles molting at this time have more poison);
• time interval between bites (the full volume of venom in a reptile is restored after 2 weeks).

The venom of the steppe viper also finds industrial use. These snakes, like ordinary vipers, are kept in snake nurseries.

Snake lifestyle

The steppe viper leads a terrestrial lifestyle, preferring dry and sunny places. It can also crawl into trees: there are cases when they were found at a height of four meters. In addition, the reptile swims well.

The steppe viper is a diurnal snake. In spring and autumn, it can most often be seen in the middle of the day. In summer, it is active in the morning and evening, and during hot hours it sits out in shelters.

Nutritional Features

The diet of the steppe viper is radically different from the diet of its closest relatives. It feeds not on small mammals and lizards, but, strangely enough, on insects! IN summer time it hunts almost exclusively on orthoptera - locusts, grasshoppers, grasshoppers, which it catches in large quantities.

In the spring, when there are no adult insects yet, steppe vipers have no choice but to try to hunt small rodents, lizards and tailless amphibians. However, luck does not always smile on them: most often their stomachs remain empty, because catching such prey is not an easy task for them. Sometimes they include in their diet other food available to them: spiders, chicks of larks, buntings and other small birds, bird eggs. It happens that frogs become their prey.

After the victim is captured, the vipers usually swallow it alive without using their poisonous apparatus. They digest food from two to four days.

Reproduction

Mating season for steppe vipers it occurs at the beginning - mid-April. At this time, males are actively looking for females. Like their relatives, this species often engages in mating games: one can often find “balls” of snakes of 6-8 individuals - usually one female and several competing males attracted by her. Males also organize ritual fights – the so-called “dances”.

After the mating period, males, and especially females, rest for a long time on open places basking under the rays of the sun. At this time, they often catch the eye of a person.

Pregnancy of the steppe viper lasts from 90 to 130 days. The female gives birth to live young; there can be a lot of them in one litter - up to 28, but usually 5-6. The length of newborn vipers is 12-18 cm. They feed mainly on various insects. Soon after birth, they molt (by the way, adults molt 3 times a year). In the third year of life, they reach a length of 30-35 cm and can already bear offspring.

Wintering

These snakes hibernate alone or not in large groups in cracks in the soil, in rodent burrows, in voids between stones and other suitable shelters.

Interestingly, for the winter steppe viper in the places of its distribution it leaves later than all other reptiles, and in the spring it appears earlier than others - in the south of its range already at the end of February - beginning of March. It can be found even in winter, during the thaw, when the temperature rises to + 4° C.

Enemies of the steppe viper

When meeting a person or other possible danger, the reptile tries to retreat as quickly as possible. But since she is quite slow, she does not always manage to crawl away. In this case, she actively defends herself, raising her head on an S-shaped curved neck, which at any moment the head can “throw” towards the enemy with lightning speed. And she has enough enemies: these are owls, steppe eagles, harriers, black storks, hedgehogs, badgers, foxes, wild boars, steppe ferrets. But, like many other representatives of the fauna, its most serious enemy is man. People catch reptiles in order to extract snake venom, and often kill, simply because of their ignorance, any snake they meet along the way - many vipers die only because of superstitious fears of snakes.

IN last years The number of steppe viper is noticeably declining. This happens due to the plowing of the steppes, construction and reclamation work, as well as direct destruction by humans.

In contact with

It is useful to know what a viper looks like and how it differs from other reptiles, because no one is safe from meeting it. It stands out among other snakes with its short, thick body. Its length can be from 30 cm to 3 m. Weight also varies. There are specimens up to 15 kg. The head is separated from the body by a narrowing in the form of a neck. The front muzzle becomes blunt. There are scaly formations between the nostrils. Some species have such formations above the eyes. The pupils are in the form of vertical slits. In the dark they can expand greatly, so the viper snake can see well even at night.

The common viper belongs to the genus Viperidae and the viper family

Appearance of a snake

The color of snakes can be varied, ranging from almost black to light brown and even red. It is determined by the environment. Thus, in specimens living on trees, a greenish tint predominates. Many individuals have a dark zigzag line running down their back. On the belly side the color is lighter, sometimes there are white spots. The end of the tail may stand out in brightness.

These reptiles overwinter in warm burrows up to 2 m deep. Wintering begins in mid-autumn and ends in spring, after warm weather sets in. The snakes come to the surface and immediately begin to reproduce. They live on average 15 years, sometimes more, up to 30.

The distribution area of ​​vipers in nature is very wide. They can be found in the forest, in the swamp, and in the sands of the desert. They are found on all continents except Antarctica and Australia. There are 292 species of vipers.

The common viper belongs to the genus Viperidae and the viper family. It reaches a length of 60-80 cm. It lives mainly in conditions with low temperatures. It is found even at latitudes close to the Arctic Circle. At other latitudes it settles high in the mountains.

In terms of complexity and perfection of structure, the venom-toothed apparatus of vipers (together with pit vipers) reaches the highest stage of evolution. The maxillary bone of vipers is so shortened that its length is less than its height. It is remarkable that this bone, which bears venom-conducting fangs, can rotate about a transverse axis by approximately 90°. The maxillary bone is movably connected at the back with a long and thin transverse bone, and at the top with the prefrontal.

In the normal position, the transverse bone is pulled back, the maxillary bone is turned with its upper side forward and its lower side backward. The poisonous teeth are located horizontally, as if in supine position and their ends are directed backwards. Before the bite, the transverse bone moves forward and pushes the maxillary bone, which rotates as its upper end is held by the prefrontal bone. Poisonous fangs sitting on the underside of the maxillary bone, describing an arc, move forward and stand vertically.

Such an excellent mechanism allows vipers to have poisonous fangs of considerable length, which can be placed in a closed mouth only in a lying position. An ordinary viper, with a body length of only about 60 cm, has fangs 0.5 cm long, and the one and a half meter Gaboon viper has fangs reaching a length of 3-4 cm. If such fangs were fixedly fixed, the snake could not close its mouth without damaging its lower jaw.

Venomous fangs are equipped with a venom-conducting channel that opens on the front surface of the tooth near the end. This canal lies deep in the thickness of the tooth, and the front surface of the tooth above the canal is smooth.

Each maxillary bone has 1-2 large poisonous fangs and, in addition, 3-4 smaller replacement teeth. One of the two large canines is an already grown replacement tooth, ready to replace the main canine. In addition to the loss of fangs due to injuries, breaking them off due to an unsuccessful bite, natural periodic loss of teeth occurs, accompanied by their replacement with regular replacement teeth.

A large venom gland is connected to the upper jaw by a winding duct. These bends in the duct allow the maxilla to rotate without putting tension on the duct, so that the venom can always pass through it unhindered. From the duct, the poison enters the folds of the mucous membrane surrounding the maxillary bone, and from there into the dental canal.

Rotation of the maxillary bone and placement of the canines in fighting position are by no means automatically associated with opening the mouth. The muscles that open the mouth and move the odontoid apparatus act completely independently. Thus, one can often observe how a viper, after inflicting a bite, opens its mouth and, with movements of its jaws, “puts in place” the ligaments and bones that have moved during the bite. At the same time, she slightly retracts her fangs and then places them on the roof of her mouth, still keeping her mouth open. In African ground vipers Atractaspis, the opposite effect is also noted: they can push their teeth perpendicularly without retracting the lower jaw, which lies between the exposed fangs, and the mouth remains closed.

On the upper jaw of vipers there are only poisonous fangs and their substitutes. Small non-poisonous teeth are present on the palatine, pterygoid and mandibular bones. These teeth act when swallowing the victim, pushing it deeper into the mouth.

The head of viper snakes is rounded-triangular in shape, with a blunt nasal end and temporal corners strongly protruding to the side (there are paired venomous glands). At the upper end of the nose, between the nostrils, some species have single or paired outgrowths formed by scales. In other species, similar outgrowths, like small horns, protrude above the eyes. The scutes covering the head are small in most vipers, not correct form or completely similar in shape to the scales of the body. Only in ground vipers and toad vipers the entire top of the head is covered with large, regular scutes. These species are considered the most primitive among vipers, since large head shields are typical of more ancient snakes - colubrids and slates. Also, in some species of true vipers (for example, the steppe and common viper), small scutes alternate with large, regular scutes. Therefore, the named species should be considered as more primitive among the vipers of the genus Vipera.

The eyes of viper snakes are small, with a vertical pupil. A small ridge formed by supraorbital scales usually protrudes above the eyes. In large and old individuals this ridge is especially well developed and noticeably extended to the side above the eye. This gives the viper's eyes a serious, concentrated and even angry expression.

The head of vipers is usually separated from the body by a sharp neck interception. The body is very short and thick, especially in the middle part. Towards the posterior section it sharply narrows and turns into a short blunt tail. This shortening and thickening of the body entails a change in the number of scales covering the body. The number of transverse rows of scales (from head to tail) is greatly reduced, but vipers have a lot of longitudinal rows of scales (around the body) (from 19 to 39 in different species). The scales are equipped with sharp longitudinal ribs.

The coloring of vipers is varied, but three types are distinguished: the green color of tree vipers, the sandy-brown color with a vague pattern in desert inhabitants, and the bright, contrasting color with a geometric pattern in terrestrial vipers, which usually live in forests. All three types of coloration, including contrasting ones, in natural conditions perfectly hide snakes against the background of the substrate and, thus, are protective. Vipers do not have a deterrent or warning coloration, so characteristic of many slates, when the entire body or individual parts have a bright pattern that stands out against the background of the substrate and is usually displayed to scare away the enemy. Vipers never warn a passerby with a demonstrative pose or hissing, trying to remain unnoticed. If you accidentally step on a snake, it will immediately bite.

The viper family includes 10 genera (58 species), distributed throughout Africa, Europe and Asia. The center of origin and distribution of vipers is obviously located in Central Africa.

This is evidenced by the presence here of the most primitive forms(Caisus atractaspis), as well as exceptional species diversity(35 species!): 11 species live in South Africa, and only 7 species are found in the north of the mainland. 7 species are also common in Europe, 2 of which are only in the extreme southeast. In the western regions of Asia, the viper fauna is quite rich (up to 14 species), but quickly becomes depleted to the east, and only 2 species live in Southeast Asia, one of which is very rare and with a limited range. In Europe, vipers penetrate north to 67° N. latitude, in Asia - up to approximately 61° N. w. (in both cases there is only one species - the common viper). This same viper goes farthest to the east - to Sakhalin Island. In Southeast Asia, also, only one species (chain viper) is distributed outside the mainland - on the island of Taiwan, on EAST Java and on the islands of Flores, Komodo and several smaller ones. Thus, in East Asia, vipers are represented by 1-2 species, and in many areas (Japan, Korea, almost all of China) they are completely absent. Here they are geographically replaced by evolutionarily related pit snakes.

It is in Southeast Asia that the fauna of pit snakes is especially rich (16-20 species).

Vipers inhabit a wide variety of habitats - wet equatorial forests, dry savannas and steppes, arid deserts, northern coniferous forests, Rocky Mountains up to 3000 m above sea level. However, in all these different landscapes, most vipers lead a purely terrestrial lifestyle. Only a few evasive species have adapted to life in trees ( tree vipers Atheris) or switched to an underground, burrowing lifestyle ( earth vipers Atractaspis).

Vipers are phlegmatic and slow snakes. They lie motionless most of the day, basking in the sun, and only at dusk do they begin active hunting. However, even at this time many large species remain motionless, lying in wait for prey, while small species of vipers usually combine ambush hunting with short-term pursuit or systematic combing of the hunting area.

Vipers feed on a variety of animals, primarily small rodents, as well as birds (adults, chicks, eggs), lizards, frogs and toads, insects, arachnids and other invertebrates. Some species specialize in eating certain groups of animals, and many have individual, age-specific, seasonal and geographic differences in diet. Juveniles usually feed on insects and other arthropods; species living in deserts include lizards in their menu, and lie in wait for birds at watering holes. Small species also continue to feed on insects as adults; for example, the main diet of steppe vipers consists of locusts. In areas of mass migration of birds, individual populations of snakes almost completely switch to birds. African toad vipers feed mainly on tailless amphibians.

The method of obtaining food for all vipers is quite similar. Having inflicted an instant injection with poisonous teeth, the snake waits for some time and then crawls towards the prey. After making sure that the poison has had its effect and the victim is killed, the snake begins to swallow.

The venom of viper snakes has a hemolytic effect on the victim’s body. When a bite occurs, primarily local phenomena develop: pain, swelling and multiple hemorrhages in the bite area. In addition, internal hemorrhages occur in various organs of the body and vascular thrombosis. A full-fledged bite leads to the death of the victim within a few minutes. Small species of vipers release less venom when they bite, but their prey is correspondingly smaller. Only the bites of large vipers are life-threatening for humans, but here, too, modern treatment methods have led to a sharp decrease in mortality. About 1% of people bitten, usually children, die from the bites of the common viper. There are no known cases of death from steppe viper bites. Poisoning is accompanied by a number of unpleasant symptoms: along with the above-described phenomena, heart function sharply worsens, dizziness and vomiting occur, and in severe cases, loss of consciousness. Local painful phenomena caused by a viper bite persist for several days and even weeks.

Vipers usually breed in the spring. At this time, in many species one can observe spectacular mating tournaments between males - the so-called “snake dances”. Most vipers give birth to live young, but ground vipers, toad vipers, horned vipers, motley vipers, and vipers are oviparous. In some species, in particular the common viper, a primitive placenta is formed. The number of cubs in the litter depends primarily on the size of the snakes. Small species of vipers give birth to 4-8, and large ones - up to 40-70 individuals. Newborn snakes can hatch from eggs while still in the mother's body, but more often they come out in egg shells, from which they are released within a few minutes. In some vipers, for example the viper, the ability to lay eggs is not fully formed. In some parts of their range they give birth to live young, and in others they lay eggs, but with well-developed embryos.

The most ancient and primitive viper snakes are toad vipers(Causus). Four species of these snakes are found in sub-Saharan Africa. The head of toad vipers is covered with large, regular-shaped scutes, the cervical interception is not pronounced, the body is dense but not thick, and the tail is short. The structure of poisonous fangs has many similarities with aspid fangs. They are relatively short, and on the front surface of the tooth a shallow suture is visible, under which a poison-conducting channel passes. All toad vipers are oviparous.

Diamondback toad viper(Causus rhombeatus) only 50-80 cm long. The upper side of the body is light brown, sometimes with a greenish tint. Against this background, large dark brown spots of a rhombic-polygonal shape are located in one row. There is a large triangular-heart-shaped spot on the head. All these spots are edged with dark or less often white edges. The sides of the body are decorated with dark oblique-transverse strokes.

The venom glands of the diamondback viper are very developed. They have an elongated shape and are located not only in the upper jaw, but also in the anterior part of the body. The green toad viper has equally powerful glands, but in the other two species of this genus they have the usual shape and size.

The diamondback viper lives in Central Africa from Sudan in the north to Angola and Mozambique in the south. It is common in sparse forests, agricultural lands, and villages. In all these places it stays near water bodies, in damp lowlands and irrigated areas. During the day, the snake hides in shelters or buries itself slightly in upper layer soil. At night, she goes out hunting for frogs and toads and at this time she comes across roads and paths. Although amphibians make up the main portion of the diet, the snake often eats small rodents.

Females lay 10-12 eggs 2-3 cm long. When kept in captivity, one female laid eggs monthly from April to August, and most of the eggs hatched into snakes, although fertilization did not occur in captivity. Obviously, the male's reproductive products remained viable in the female's body throughout the summer.

Diamondback vipers live well in captivity, reliably feeding on frogs and mice.

Green toad viper(Causus resimus) about 0.5 m long. The top is bright green, and on the head there is a triangular-heart-shaped spot, pointed forward. It is distributed in eastern Africa from Sudan to Mozambique and is found in many places together with the diamondback viper.

The remaining two species of toad vipers (C. defilippii and C. lichtensteini) are also common in Central Africa, with the latter species extending as far west as Liberia.

Earth vipers(Atractaspis) are peculiar small snakes that lead an underground, burrowing lifestyle. Their relationship with true vipers is manifested in the structure of the dental apparatus and in the large number of longitudinal rows of scales on the body (up to 37). In other characteristics, they differ sharply from typical viper snakes and have convergent similarities with burrowing snakes from other families. Their dimensions do not exceed 1 le, and are usually 50-70 cm. The narrow head with a pointed tip of the muzzle is covered with large regular scutes. The intermaxillary shield is greatly enlarged, the head smoothly, without cervical narrowing, passes into a cylindrical body, which ends in a very short tail. The color is dark brown or black, sometimes with small light spots.

There are 16 known species of ground vipers; most of them inhabit the forests of equatorial West Africa (Atractaspis aterrima, A. boulengeri, A. congica, A. corpulenta, etc.). Some species also live in savannas East Africa(A. leucomelas, A. scortecci, A. microlepidota), and the latter species is also common in the south of the Arabian Peninsula. Recently a new species of earthen vipers - Sinai viper(A. engaddensis) - was found even further north, on the coast of the Dead Sea. This snake is also found in the UAR. Thus, ground vipers are found in a wide variety of habitats - from rain forests to savannas and deserts. Everywhere they lead an underground life and come to the surface only after heavy rains, as well as when plowing and digging the ground. Their diet consists of small rodents, lizards and snakes. They kill prey with a bite of venomous teeth that are disproportionately long. Huge poisonous fangs barely fit into the mouth in a horizontal position, and when biting the snake often pushes them into a vertical position without opening its mouth.

The canines go around both sides of the lower jaw, and the mouth remains closed. It is still unclear what adaptive significance such greatly enlarged teeth have.

The venom of earthen vipers, despite their small size, has a serious effect on humans. When bitten, severe local lesions occur, but in the vast majority of cases recovery occurs (only one case of death is known). Unlike many other burrowing snakes, which do not bite even when encouraged to do so, ground vipers usually bite at the first opportunity. Therefore, people who find them while digging in the ground often become victims of bites.

All ground vipers are oviparous, which also differs from typical vipers. These snakes have so many unique features in their structure and biology that some scientists classify them as a special family.

Burmese viper(Azemiops feae) is one of the ancient and primitive forms, standing apart from other vipers. The head of this small snake is covered with large scutes; there are only 17 longitudinal rows of scales on the body. The poisonous teeth are relatively short, similar in length to the teeth of slate snakes. However, the shape of the shortened maxillary bone and its mobility prove the relationship of this snake with other vipers.

The color of the Burmese viper consists of light narrow transverse stripes on a dark background. The head is yellow with two longitudinal stripes. Inhabits the mountain forests of Northern Burma, Southeast Tibet and Southern China. Its biology has not been studied.

The central genus of the family, real vipers(Vipera), includes 11 species of typical viper snakes. Among them there are small, about 50 cm, snakes, and large ones, up to 1.5 m in length. The head is covered with small ribbed scales or small irregularly shaped scutes. Only some species among the small scutes also have large regular scutes (steppe, Caucasian, common viper), which is why they can be considered more ancient species. The body is always covered with strongly keeled scales, which form 19-37 longitudinal rows.

The coloring of real vipers is varied, but on the dorsal side there is usually a zigzag stripe, a chain of rhombic spots or a series of short transverse strokes.

The greatest diversity of vipers is found in Southern Europe (7 species) and Transcaucasia (5 species). IN North Africa live viper And snub-nosed viper, and in East equatorial Africa there are two evasive species (Vipera hindii and Vipera superciliaris), which some scientists place in another genus - Bitis. Distributed far to the east in Asia common viper, and in the southeast of the mainland lives chain viper. Vipers inhabit forest, mountain and desert landscapes and lead a terrestrial lifestyle. All vipers are ovoviviparous and bring from 2-5 (steppe viper) to 20-40 and even 60 cubs (chain viper). The only exception is the viper: on the northeastern edge of its range it is oviparous.

Common viper (Vipera berus) is a relatively small snake, and the total length of its body with tail rarely exceeds 75 cm, usually it is no more than 60 cm; only in the north are vipers up to 1 m long known. The tail is 6-8 times shorter than the body. Females are slightly larger than males. The viper's head is clearly demarcated from the neck, and on its upper side, in addition to small scutes, there are three large ones (frontal and two parietal). The tip of the muzzle, when viewed from above, is rounded. The nasal opening is cut in the middle of the nasal shield. Around the middle of the body, as a rule, there are 21 scales (occasionally 19 or 23).

On top, the body is gray, brownish or red-brown in color with a dark zigzag stripe along the ridge. There is an X-shaped pattern on the head. A dark stripe runs from the eye to the corner of the mouth. Black vipers are often seen, and they are more numerous in the north.

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Distributed very widely: lives in Northern and Central Europe and Northern Asia, from England to Sakhalin and Korea. To the north it rises to 68° N. latitude - in Europe and 61-63° N. w. - in Siberia. In the south it reaches 40° N. w. The mountains rise up to 3000 m above sea level.

Inhabits forest and forest-steppe zones, preferring mixed forests with clearings and good grass stand, forest edges, clearings, overgrown burnt areas, swamps, banks of rivers and lakes. It is often found in vegetable gardens, less often it settles in meadows, dry pine forests and green spruce forests.

Like most northern snakes and temperate latitudes, the common viper is distributed very unevenly across the territory, forming large concentrations in suitable places - snake foci, but being absent from large areas at all. In the northern parts of the range, the location of snake foci is determined by conditions suitable for wintering. In snake hotspots, the population density of vipers can reach 90 snakes per 1 hectare, but more often there are no more than 3-8 vipers per 100 hectares.

Vipers, as a rule, are sedentary and live their entire lives in the same place, moving within a radius of no more than 60-100 m. As tagging and repeated catches of snakes have shown, the area of ​​their individual sites is 1.5-4 hectares, and on such A pair of vipers usually lives in the area. Only after wintering, occupying summer habitats, in some areas snakes move several hundred meters, and sometimes 2-5 km. During such migrations, vipers can swim across fairly wide rivers and lakes. Migrations of vipers are also known in mountainous areas, where they move along slopes over a distance of several kilometers, apparently due to changes in the food supply of their habitats between seasons or in different years.

Vipers overwinter below the freezing layer of soil, at a depth of 40 cm to 2 m, most often in burrows of rodents or moles, in the passages of rotten roots of trees and shrubs, in the voids of peat bogs, if they are not filled with water, under haystacks, in large piles of stones and deep rock cracks. There are few suitable places for wintering, especially in the permafrost zone, and their presence quite clearly determines the distribution of vipers over the territory. The temperature in wintering areas should not fall below 2-4°C.

More often, vipers hibernate alone or in small groups of 2-5 snakes together, but sometimes several dozen vipers gather in especially convenient places; Cases of accumulation of up to 200-300 snakes in wintering areas have been described. Together with vipers, toads, newts, spindles and other animals were found in wintering grounds. Vipers use the same wintering habitat from year to year.

After wintering, common vipers appear on the surface in mid-spring, on sunny days, when there is still a lot of snow in the forest in some places. IN middle lane this often happens at the end of March - beginning of April, sometimes at the beginning of May, depending on the course of spring. Males appear first, followed by females and young a few days later.

They leave for the winter in the second half of September - early October. In the middle zone, wintering lasts about 180 days; in the south and north of the range, respectively, 2-3 weeks less or more.

In the spring, in the first days after leaving winter shelters, males stay in the warmest, well-warmed places, using solar radiation and contact with warm soil, heated trunks of fallen trees or warm flat stones for heating. The body temperature of vipers in nature ranges from 9 to 31°. Optimal temperature for males it is about 25°, and for pregnant females it is 28°. Above 37°, vipers experience heat rigor and die.

In summer, burrows of various animals, rotten stumps, bushes, and various cracks serve as a refuge for vipers. Usually snakes crawl out and bask in the sun repeatedly throughout the day, but they often go hunting at dusk and are most active in the first half of the night. After a successful hunt, vipers may not leave their shelters for two or three days or more, or they only come out to bask in the sun.

Males hunt especially intensively in late May - early June, after the mating period ends. Females are inactive throughout pregnancy.

The food of vipers is very diverse and varies depending on the place, season and from year to year. As a rule, mouse-like rodents or frogs form the basis of the diet of the common viper during the entire active period, but during the mass hatching of small birds nesting on the ground, i.e. from early June to early July, the chicks turn out to be the favorite food of snakes.

Most often in the stomachs of vipers you can find gray or bank voles, sharp-faced or grass frogs, and from the chicks - warblers, pipits and buntings. The general list of animals eaten by common vipers is very extensive and includes a large number of species of small animals, including shrews, all types of amphibians found in the viper’s range, a large number of species of small birds (including not only species that nest on the ground) , which the snake obviously lies in wait for during their feeding, watering place (finches, lentils, repols, etc.) or resting. They catch vipers and lizards, among which viviparous and spindle are more common.

Young vipers usually feed on insects, especially locusts and beetles, and less often eat caterpillars of butterflies, ants, slugs and earthworms. In some places, young vipers large quantities they catch frogs that have just completed metamorphosis.

For the first time, female vipers begin to reproduce at the age of about 5 years, with a total body length of 50-54 cm; males become sexually mature at 4 years of age, reaching a length of about 45 cm. It is possible that in the south of the range, sexual maturity occurs a year earlier.

Mating occurs two to three weeks or a month after leaving the wintering area, usually from mid-May to early June. The assumption of autumn mating in vipers is not confirmed by modern research.

The number of eggs in the female’s oviduct ranges from 5 to 20, depending on the size of the snake and the conditions of the year. However, up to 20% of eggs sometimes dissolve (resorb), so that one female often brings 8-12 cubs. As recent research has shown, in the walls of the oviducts of the female viper there are many folds, the epithelium of which is very rich in capillary blood vessels. The outer membranes of developing eggs (chorioallantois) are also rich in blood vessels, and gas and water exchange occurs through the thin membranes between the chorioallantois of the egg and the walls of the oviduct. Consequently, in the common viper something like a placenta is formed and the development of the embryos occurs not only through the yolk of the egg, but also through the circulatory system of the female.

The period of egg development lasts about 3 months, and young ones are born from the second half of July to early September, mass births of young ones occur in August. In the northern and central parts of the range, females give birth every other year; in the south of the range they breed annually.

The length of the young at birth is about 16.5 cm. After a few hours or a few days they molt. Until the first moult, they stay close to the place of birth, but when you try to pick them up, they hiss and bite; their bites are poisonous. After the first molt, the vipers crawl away and begin to look for insects, but they can survive without food for several weeks, existing on the reserve nutrients obtained in the egg.

Molting of the young subsequently occurs once or twice a month, depending on the condition of the snake. Signs of shedding in the form of fading color and clouding of the eyes appear about a week before the start. The speed of molting is determined by the state of the body - healthy and strong snakes shed quickly, in just one and a half to two hours, and weak and sick ones shed up to two weeks. During molting, snakes hide in their shelters, do not feed and are inactive.

The sex ratio of the common viper is close to 1:1, but in the spring during the breeding season, males are very active and are seen three times more often than females. On the contrary, in June - July, pregnant females are found twice as often as males, as they tend to crawl out into open, well-warmed places.

The lifespan of vipers in nature is little known, but there are snakes 11-12 years old and some live up to 14-15 years. The enemies of the common viper are snake eagles, owls, less often storks, and among four-legged animals - the badger, fox, ferret and hedgehog.

Despite the fact that the common viper is the most widespread venomous snake in our country and its numbers in some areas are significant, relatively few people suffer from its bites. This is explained by the fact that she is peaceful and bites a person only if he steps on her or carelessly grabs her with his hand. When a person approaches, the viper always hurries to crawl away and hide, or, hiding, lies calmly. The viper's bite is painful, but patients recover in 2-4 days. Illness and complications after a bite, sometimes lasting several weeks, are caused by the use of harmful methods of self-medication (cauterization, incisions, wrapping a limb with a tourniquet, etc.). Over many decades, isolated cases have been known in which a viper bite resulted in death, in most cases children bitten in the face. And even in these cases it is not clear what the cause of death turned out to be - poisoning by snake venom or “treatment”.

Steppe viper(Vipera ursini) is smaller than ordinary, and the length of its body with head does not exceed 57 cm, usually no more than 45-48 cm. Females are somewhat larger than males. Unlike the common viper, the steppe viper has the lateral edges of the muzzle pointed and slightly raised above its upper part, and the nostrils cut through the lower parts of the nasal shields.

On top it is brownish-gray in color with a dark zigzag stripe along the ridge, sometimes broken into separate parts or spots. The sides of the body are covered with dark, blurred spots. Black steppe vipers are very rare.

Distributed from the steppes of Western Europe (France, Italy, Austria, Yugoslavia, Albania, Romania, Hungary, Bulgaria), through the steppe and southern part of the forest-steppe zone of our country up to Eastern Kazakhstan and North-West China. Lives in Crimea, in the steppe regions of the Caucasus, Central Asia, Turkey, Iran. It rises into the mountains to 2500-2700 m above sea level.

Inhabits various types of steppes, sea coasts, shrubs, rocky mountain slopes, meadow floodplains, riverine forests, ravines, cereal-hodgepodge semi-deserts and loose sands. It avoids agricultural land and is preserved when plowed in bushes, beams, along roadsides, etc. For this reason, it has almost completely disappeared in Moldova and Southern Ukraine.

The population density of the steppe viper strongly depends on conditions and is uneven from year to year, but the snake foci are not as pronounced as in the common viper. In some places over large areas the number of these vipers can be very high. Thus, in the Ciscaucasia there are known areas where from 20 to 56 steppe vipers are found per 1 hectare. In Kazakhstan, large areas of wormwood semi-desert are inhabited by 12-18 snakes, and in tea thickets - up to 45 vipers per 1 hectare. On the coastal cliffs of Taganrog Bay Sea of ​​Azov there were up to 160 steppe vipers per 1 km of path.

After winter, steppe vipers appear on the surface at different times depending on the area and weather conditions. Most often, snakes were first observed in March or early April, and in the south of the range - at the end of February at temperatures not lower than 5°. On warm days they also come to the surface in winter. Apparently, snakes spend the entire cold season in semi-torpor.

Having left rodent burrows, soil cracks, voids between stones and other shelters where vipers spend the winter alone or in small groups, they spend most of the day in open, unshaded places, basking in the sun. In early or mid-April, steppe vipers mate. Males are very active at this time, they search for females and often catch the eye. They often arrange mating games around one female, just like the males of other snakes.

After the mating period, males feed intensively, and when full, like females, they lie for a long time in well-warmed places. At the same time, pregnant females prefer more open areas, which is why they are more often seen by humans.

In spring, steppe vipers feed on foot-and-mouth disease and lizards, which make up from 30 to 98% of their diet. In some places, when the number of mouse-like rodents is high, they catch voles, mole voles, steppe pieds, hamsters, mice, and also look for insects. However, rodents and insects (mainly locusts) become the main prey of steppe vipers by the end of spring. In summer, locusts are found in the stomach of almost every well-fed viper. Vipers also catch chicks of larks, wheatears, buntings and other small birds. They often climb trees after chicks, climb into birdhouses and destroy chicks of starlings, sparrows, and tits; Sometimes they also eat bird eggs. The steppe viper's prey is occasionally spadefoot vipers and frogs. Young steppe vipers feed on insects and arachnids, and rarely small lizards. Viper food is digested within 2-4 days.

Steppe vipers apparently begin to reproduce at the age of 3, with a body length of 31 to 35 cm. The gestation period is from 90 to 130 days, most often about 105-110 days. From early August to mid-September, females give birth to 3 to 16 cubs, usually 5-6. The length of newborns is from 12 to 18 cm. Probably, in the steppe viper, just like in the common viper, a placental connection of the embryos with the walls of the mother’s oviducts is formed.

Shortly after birth, viper pups molt. Adults molt three times a year: in April - May, July - August, late August - early September. Snakes shed at temperatures not lower than 15° and relative humidity not lower than 35%. In healthy snakes, shedding their old integument takes about 15 minutes. Exhausted and sick snakes shed for a long time, and this process often turns out to be disastrous for them.

The life expectancy of steppe vipers in nature is apparently shorter than that of ordinary vipers, since snakes older than 7-8 years are rarely found. The steppe viper has many enemies: owls, black kites, steppe eagles, harriers, crows, storks, badgers, foxes, steppe ferrets, hedgehogs. The specific enemy of the steppe viper is the lizard snake, which prefers vipers to any other prey and easily deals with them, swallowing them whole, having previously paralyzed them with a bite. One lizard snake is capable of swallowing two or three vipers within an hour.

For humans, the bite of a steppe viper is even less dangerous than the bite of an ordinary viper. The steppe viper also tends to crawl away when meeting a person and throws its head towards the enemy only when the path to retreat is cut off. Cases deaths the bite of a steppe viper is not reliably known. Occasionally, horses and small livestock die from the bites of this viper.

Caucasian viper(Vipera kaznakowi) is very close to the previous species, but is distinguished by a denser physique and a characteristic bright color. Its length does not exceed 60 cm. The head is very wide with strongly protruding temporal swellings and a slightly upturned tip of the muzzle. A sharp neck interception separates the head from the thick body. The main color of the body is yellowish-orange or brick-red, and a wide dark brown or black stripe runs in a zigzag pattern along the ridge. Often this stripe is torn into a number of transversely elongated spots. The head is black on top with individual light spots. Sometimes there are individuals that are entirely black.

The Caucasian viper lives in the Western Caucasus and Transcaucasia, as well as in North-Eastern Turkey. In the north it is distributed all the way to the southern regions of the Krasnodar Territory, and in the southeast it enters Armenia. Inhabits river valleys, mountain forests, subalpine and alpine meadows, from the Black Sea coast to altitudes of 2500 m above sea level. This snake is most common in the upper forest zone and in subalpine meadows. It is found more often in the Greater Caucasus than in the Transcaucasian Highlands. Its diet consists mainly of mouse-like rodents. There are isolated cases of people dying from the bite of the Caucasian viper. The victims of its bites are often domestic animals.

Aspis viper(Vipera aspis), 60-70 cm long, has a dense body and a wide triangular head. The top of the head is covered with small polygonal scutes, only the supraorbital scutes are larger than the others. The tip of the muzzle is noticeably upturned. The coloring is very varied. The main background of the body can be light gray, brown or yellowish-red. Along the back there is a series of black transverse spots, sometimes merging into a sharp zigzag. The ventral side is yellowish-gray and the underside of the tail is bright orange.

Distributed in the northeast of Spain (Pyrenees), the south and southeast of France, the south of Germany (Black Forest), Switzerland, southern Austria, northern Yugoslavia and Italy. In Calabria and the island of Sicily lives the southern subspecies (V. a. hugyi) with a wavy zigzag pattern interrupted by individual oval spots; a special subspecies (V. a. montecristi) inhabits the island of Monte Cristo.

The favorite habitats of this viper are dry rocky slopes overgrown with bushes, forest edges and clearings, abandoned quarries. In the mountains it rises to 2500 m above sea level. The aspis viper's food consists of mouse-like rodents, moles, and occasionally chicks. Juveniles feed mainly on lizards. The hunting activity of aspis vipers often occurs during the evening twilight hours. They track their prey and, carefully crawling up, try to bite. The viper usually continues to pursue a frightened mouse, choosing the moment to attack. After the bite, the snake follows the victim and waits for her death, which occurs in 1-5 minutes. The viper then swallows the mouse, which takes 5 to 10 minutes. On hot days summer nights Aspis vipers are active throughout the night.

In terms of the strength of its poison, the aspis viper is very close to the common viper. Its bite is equally painful, and deaths are known, mainly among children (2-4%).

Aspis vipers begin breeding in April, shortly after leaving wintering grounds. The mating season lasts about two months, and during this time tournaments between males and mating can be observed. In August - September, females give birth to 4 to 18 cubs 15-20 cm long. In October, the snakes already leave for the winter. In the third year of life they become sexually mature. They shed on average 4 times a year.

U snub-nosed viper(Vipera latasti) the tip of the muzzle is even more upturned than that of the aspis, and is sometimes crowned with a short soft outgrowth (“horn”). This growth is covered with several small oblong scales. It is noticeably shorter than long-nosed viper(V. ammodytes). By this characteristic and by a number of others, the snub-nosed viper occupies an intermediate position between the aspis and the long-nosed viper. Its length is about 60 cm, the body is dense, long-haired, with a sharply triangular head. The body color is grayish-brown or reddish. Dark spots along the back merge into a zigzag stripe. The middle part of these spots is slightly lighter, and the edges are dark brown, almost black.

It lives on the Iberian Peninsula and in the mountainous regions of North-East Africa (Morocco, northern Algeria and Tunisia), where it lives in dry rocky places and feeds on mouse-like rodents and lizards.

Big-nosed viper(V. ammodytes) is often called sandy or horned. Both of these names are unfortunate, since this snake is not found in the sands, and other vipers (Cerastes) that have paired projections above the eyes are called horned. The long-nosed viper has a pointed soft spike 3-5 mm long, covered with scales and directed upward and slightly forward, at the tip of its muzzle. The head is covered on top with small scutes, among which only the larger supraorbital scutes stand out. Body length is 60-70 cm, with males slightly larger than females and can occasionally grow up to 90 cm. The color is gray, brown or reddish, with a wide dark zigzag along the back, which sometimes breaks up into separate spots. The ventral side is yellowish-gray with dark speckles, and the underside of the tail is bright red, yellow or greenish. Distributed from northeastern Italy and southern Austria through Yugoslavia, southern Romania, the countries of the Balkan Peninsula and Asia Minor to Western Transcaucasia. In the Aegean Sea, it inhabits the Cyclades archipelago; in the southeast of its range it is found in Syria. In our country it lives in the mountainous areas of Georgia and Armenia.

The favorite habitats of the long-nosed viper are rocky slopes overgrown with bushes, screes and cliffs in river valleys, old quarries, and sunny dry edges. Most often it can be found on gravelly mountain slopes with Mediterranean vegetation - shiblyak, frigana, etc. It often settles near human habitation, using stone fences or piles of stones in courtyards and near roads as shelters. She spends most of her time on the ground, but on a warm sunny day she likes to climb onto the branches of bushes. Although the long-nosed viper lives in dry places, if possible, it willingly goes into water, can completely immerse itself in it, and is also an excellent swimmer.

In early spring, after wintering, it sometimes hunts during the day, but the rest of the year it prefers evening twilight and the first half of the night for hunting. Its food consists of mouse-like rodents, shrews, small birds and chicks, and occasionally feeds on lizards.

Long-nosed vipers begin breeding in March - April; in the north of the range about a month later. Males organize mating tournaments similar to those of the common viper. Two males intertwine their hind parts, raise their front parts and, bending in an S-shape, rest against each other with the side of their heads. Each of the opponents tries to push the other's head to the side, but the wrestlers never use their teeth.

Mating occurs from March to May, and in August - September, females give birth to up to 20 cubs 20-23 cm long.

Long-nosed vipers live well in captivity and quickly learn to take both live and dead food. Some individuals lived in captivity up to 22 years of age.

Noticeably larger than previous species Armenian viper(Vipera xanthina), reaching 1.5 m in length. Its head is covered with small scutes and scales, only the supraorbital scutes are large. On the grayish-brown body there is a clear pattern of large orange or brown spots with a dark edge, often merging into a wide winding stripe along the ridge. Two dark oblique stripes on the back of the head stand out against the lighter background of the head. The ventral side is mottled with small blackish spots, and the tail below is yellowish-orange.

Distributed in Turkey, Northwestern Iran, Syria, Lebanon, Jordan and Israel. In our country, it is found in the Armenian SSR and the Nakhichevan Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic. The eastern subspecies (V. x. raddei) comes here, rarely reaching a length of more than 1 m. In the extreme north-west of its range, this viper penetrates into Europe: it can be found across the Bosphorus Strait, in the vicinity of Istanbul. It lives in the mountains at an altitude of 1000-3000 m above sea level, on rocky slopes with sparse trees and shrubs or mountain-steppe vegetation.

The food of the Armenian viper consists of small mammals, birds, lizards and insects. Young individuals feed mainly on locusts. In April - May, Armenian vipers leave their winter shelters in rock crevices. At this time you can see large concentrations of them near their wintering grounds. Soon they begin to mate and then spread throughout the surrounding area. In August, females give birth to 5-10 cubs about 20 cm long.

In our country, there are many cases of death of livestock from the bite of the Armenian viper, but there were no deaths among people. The larger Palestinian subspecies (V. x. palestinae) brings a lot of trouble to the population of the Eastern Mediterranean countries.

Gyurza(Vipera lebetina) is a large snake with a blunt muzzle and sharply protruding temporal corners of the head. The top of the head is covered with ribbed scales, and the supraorbital scales are small, unlike those of the above-described species of vipers. The thick and short body is colored grayish-sandy or reddish-brown, and along the back there is a row of transversely elongated dark brown or orange spots. On the sides of the body there is a row of smaller dark spots. The head is plain, without a pattern. The underside of the body is light gray with small dark spots. The general background color varies greatly; sometimes monochromatic individuals are found. Females are up to 1.3 m long and males are up to 1.6 m long.

The distribution area of ​​the viper is very extensive - Morocco and Algeria south of the Atlas Mountains, Tunisia and Libya, the countries of the Eastern Mediterranean, Turkey, Iraq, Iran, Afghanistan, Pakistan and North-West India. The nominal subspecies of viper (V. 1. lebetina) lives on the island of Crete, and on the islands of Milos, Kimolos, Polinos and Sifnos (Cyclades) - a small subspecies V. 1. schweizeri. In our country, the viper is found in Transcaucasia and Eastern Ciscaucasia, Southern Turkmenistan, Southern and Eastern Uzbekistan, Western Tajikistan and the extreme south of Kazakhstan (Pisteli-Tau ridge).

This snake received the laconic and sonorous name “gyurza” in the Caucasus and is also known by this name throughout Central Asia. In other countries it is usually called the Oriental or Levantine viper, and there are numerous local names used by the population.

Throughout its vast range, the viper adheres to fairly similar habitats. Usually it can be seen in dry foothills, in mountain gorges and on slopes overgrown with sparse bushes, along cliffs in river valleys. This snake penetrates into the mountains no higher than 1500 m above sea level. It also willingly settles on cultivated lands, along the sides of irrigation canals, in gardens and vineyards, and also often crawls into ruins or visits the outskirts of villages. As shelters, it uses rodent holes, crevices in rocks, gullies in river cliffs, or fences made of stones.

During the year, the viper can make significant migrations. Seasonal movements are especially characteristic of snakes living on mountain slopes. After wintering in rock crevices, where snakes accumulate in large groups, they spread throughout the surrounding area. As the summer heat approaches, vipers descend to the lower parts of the gorges, closer to water sources. At the end of summer, they concentrate near water bodies, where they quench their thirst and hunt birds flying to the watering hole. During the hot season, vipers willingly bathe and drink large quantities of water.

In spring, the first vipers appear in March - April. At first, they only bask in the sun near their winter shelters and do not immediately begin hunting. In early spring, when the nights are still cold, vipers lead a diurnal lifestyle. At night they climb into holes or other shelters. With the onset of hot days, snakes gradually switch to crepuscular and then nocturnal activity. IN summer months Viper are found on the surface mainly after sunset and in the first half of the night. When the autumn coolness returns again, they again become diurnal animals until they leave for the winter in October.

The number of vipers is quite high - in typical habitats there are up to 4 individuals per 1 hectare. In addition, vipers can form clusters; for example, in August and September, up to 20 specimens per 1 hectare sometimes creep near springs.

Young snakes hunt for small lizards - geckos and foot-and-mouth disease. In Central Asia, the fast foot-and-mouth disease suffers the most from young viper. Grown-up snakes switch to small mammals - gray hamsters, voles, house mice. Adults easily cope with gerbils, jerboas, rats, and eat young hares, dragons, skinks and yellowbellies. In a small number, vipers eat phalanges, small turtles and their eggs.

Usually animals make up the lion's share of the menu of these snakes. However, in spring and autumn, during the migration of birds, vipers often hunt birds. Moreover, in some populations of viper birds during the autumn migration make up more than 90% of all food. Such a “fascination” with birds is known, for example, for the viper living on the Nuratau ridge in Uzbekistan. During the period of mass migration of birds (May and September), most snakes climb onto bushes and trees and here, hiding among the foliage, guard their feathered prey. Other individuals do not bother climbing branches, but settle down near springs and lie in wait for birds at a watering hole. The victims of snakes are a variety of birds up to the size of a turtledove, but mainly passerines, the most numerous on migration are gall buntings, yellow and white wagtails. Snakes living in vineyards climb onto grape bushes in the fall and hide near a bunch of juicy berries. Sparrows, which fly in large flocks to feast on grapes, end up with the viper for lunch. The snake grabs the bird with a lightning-fast strike and usually does not let it go from its teeth, so that it does not have to climb to the ground for prey. Having waited until the poison paralyzes the bird (usually no more than one minute), the snake immediately swallows it and guards the next unwary sparrow.

In April - May, vipers mate, and young snakes are born in early autumn. However, their appearance occurs in different ways. In most of its range, the viper gives birth to live young, but in Central Asia it lays eggs. The eggs laid are covered with a thin, translucent shell and contain fairly developed embryos. Therefore, when normal conditions their incubation period is less than 40 days. Before emerging from the eggs, the snakes make a small hole in the shell of the egg (“biting”), but are in no hurry to leave the safe shelter, remaining in it for more than a day. The hatchlings emerging from the eggs reach a length of 23-24 cm and a weight of 10-14 g.

The total number of eggs laid or newborn snakes is usually 15-20. One large female Central Asian viper, 1.3 m long and weighing almost 2 kg, laid 43 eggs in captivity.

The general appearance of the viper, with a thick and short body, seems to indicate its slowness and clumsiness. In fact, the viper climbs branches very deftly, and on the ground it is capable of quick and unexpected movements. When danger appears, she quickly crawls into cover. If its path is blocked, the viper emits a loud, threatening hiss and makes a sharp throw with its whole body towards the enemy. In large snakes, these throws over the entire length of the body are so threatening that the catcher is forced to jump back to avoid a bite. It is often necessary to perform a number of such jumps around the snake before it is possible to stop it with a fishing gear. The body of the viper is unusually powerful and muscular, so holding a large specimen in your hand is not at all easy. With a sharp and strong movement of the body, the viper tries to free its head and, to avoid this, the catcher is forced to hold the snake’s body with his second hand, holding it under the armpit or between the knees. The viper's jaws are very mobile; it twists its head, trying to reach with its poisonous teeth the hand that holds it by the neck. At the same time, sometimes the viper manages to sink its teeth into the catcher’s hand, having first pierced its lower jaw.

The bite of a viper has a strong effect on the human body, since when bitten by a snake it injects about 50 mg of poison, which in toxicity is second only to the venom of a cobra (from the snakes of our fauna). Viper's venom contains enzymes that destroy red blood cells and the walls of blood vessels and cause blood clotting. Therefore, after a bite, numerous internal and subcutaneous hemorrhages, severe swelling in the bite area, and vascular thrombosis occur. All this is accompanied by sharp pain in the bitten limb, dizziness, and vomiting. If no help is taken, fainting and even death may occur (up to 10% of cases). However, subject to timely and qualified treatment, with the use of antidote serum, deaths from a viper bite can be avoided.

The venom of the viper is widely used in medicine, and therefore special snake nurseries have been created in our country, where venom is extracted from snakes. These nurseries are located in Tashkent, Frunz and Termez. Vipers are kept there in large quantities because they are hardy, live longer than our other snakes in captivity and give relatively a lot of poison - on average 0.1-0.2 and even up to 0.4 g (dry) per bite. The venom of the viper is used to obtain antidote serum and, more importantly, for the manufacture of various medicines. In its special properties, the venom of the viper is superior to the venoms of most viper snakes and is extremely similar to the venom of the chain viper. Our scientists have created the drug lebetox from the venom of the viper, which stops bleeding in patients with various forms of hemophilia (incoagulability of the blood). In addition, viper venom is used in the diagnosis of various complex diseases.

Due to the special value of the venom of this snake, zoologists are studying the distribution of viper across the territory of our country, identifying places with a high number of snakes (the so-called snake foci). In such places, snake reserves are created, where snakes are protected, and their population will serve as a replenishment for snake nurseries and will provide medicine with a lot of valuable products.

The largest viper is widespread in South Asia - chain viper, or daboya(Vipera russeli). It is distributed in India and Pakistan north to Kashmir, southern China and all countries of the Indochinese Peninsula. Daboya is also common on a number of islands - Ceylon, Taiwan, East Java, Komodo, Flores. A large and thick snake, up to 1.5 m long, has a very beautiful body pattern. Along the ridge and on the sides of the body there are three rows of oval-rhombic spots of red-brown color, trimmed with wide black and narrow white stripes. Some of these spots can merge with each other, forming a chain. The head is decorated with an arrow-shaped pattern, which is emphasized by straight white lines. The top of the head is covered with small keeled scales, the occipital region of the head is greatly expanded, and the nostrils are very large. The size of the nostrils, combined with a voluminous lung, allows this snake to emit an unusually loud hiss both when inhaling and exhaling. (If the daboye closes her nostrils with wax, she will no longer be able to hiss so loudly.) This “voice” of the daboye, similar to the sound of a punctured soccer ball, sometimes makes a lonely traveler literally petrify with fear, but it serves as an excellent warning of danger, and many people have escaped Daboya's bite thanks to her loud "voice".

The chained viper lives in dry areas with thickets of bushes, on cultivated lands, where it hides in hedges, piles of stones or mammal burrows. Very often she crawls into villages, attracted by the abundance of rodents. In mountainous areas, daboya is found at an altitude of more than 2000 m above sea level. It leads a crepuscular or nocturnal lifestyle, and can be seen during the day only when it basks in the sun near its shelter. After sunset, the daboya goes in search of food - small rodents, as well as birds, lizards and frogs.

The eggs develop in the mother's body for about six months after fertilization, and about 20 babies are born. Sometimes their number in one offspring is more than 60. Snakes either emerge from the egg shell while still in the mother’s body, or are born in the shell and leave it immediately after birth. When such a birth occurs in captivity, some individuals that do not immediately break through the shell may die, since the shell quickly hardens in the dry atmosphere of the terrarium. This requires human intervention to help the snakes get out. Having emerged from the egg shell, the cubs undergo their first molt in a few minutes. On the second or third day, the snakes are already eating; in captivity they are given small lizards and newborn mice.

The chained viper is one of the most common venomous snakes in Southeast Asia. Its twilight lifestyle exacerbates the possibility of unexpected collisions when people in the dark step on a snake that comes out to hunt. Therefore, the chained viper appears to account for the majority of all reported snakebites in India and Indochina. Daboya's poison is highly toxic and its properties are very close to the poison of the viper. Since the chain viper is on average larger than the viper, noticeably more poison is released when it bites. The picture of poisoning is similar to that described for a viper's bite, but the symptoms are even more pronounced, and without treatment, death occurs in approximately 15% of cases.

Chain vipers are used to produce snake venom. They are distinguished by a very high “milk yield”, releasing usually 0.3-0.5 and sometimes up to 0.8 g of venom (dry weight) in one take. An effective hemostatic drug, stipven, similar to the Lebetox mentioned above, was created from the venom of this snake in England.

In captivity, chain vipers get along well, reliably taking both live and dead food - mice, rats and lizards. Under good conditions, they even mate and bear offspring.

Far apart from the rest of the vipers of the genus Vipera, in the mountains of East Africa, there live two rare species, known from a small number of specimens: Kenyan viper(V. hindii) lives in the Aberdare Mountains north of Nairobi, and another species - Nyasa viper(V. superciliaris) - lives in the vicinity of Lake Nyasa. Such an isolated distribution of the two species is difficult to explain, and perhaps zoologist Kramer was right when he recently classified these vipers as African family Bitis.

Throughout Africa, except for the northern coast of the mainland, they are widespread African vipers(genus Bitis). A total of 10 species are known, most of which live in Southern and Southeast Africa. Only one type ( noise viper) enters the northern regions of the mainland and even penetrates the Arabian Peninsula. Among African vipers there are very large species, up to 2 m, and almost dwarf species, about 30 cm long. All African vipers have one characteristic: on the upper side of the muzzle they have subcutaneous sinuses that open above the nostrils. Therefore, the nostrils of African vipers appear very wide and turned upward. The purpose of these sinuses is still unknown. They are probably remote thermoreceptors, like the lateral pits of pit snakes.

The most famous and widespread of the African vipers is noise viper(Bitis arietans). The average length of this very thick snake is about 1 m, but especially large specimens occasionally reach 1.5 m. The massive blunt-triangular head is covered with small ribbed scales; against a dark background, two wide light stripes stand out from above, running from the eyes to the temples and connected between the eyes by a light transverse line. The powerful body is grayish-yellow or brown in color. Along the back there is a row of light yellow crescent stripes, directed with sharp ends forward and bordered in front by wide dark brown crescents. Towards the rear end of the body, the light semilunar stripes break up into two rows of oval spots on both sides of the ridge. Behind fat body sharply tapers into a blunt short tail.

The noisy viper is found throughout almost all of Africa, from Morocco to the southern tip of the continent, and also on the Arabian Peninsula. It inhabits grassy and shrubby savannas, dry woodlands, agricultural lands, and often visits villages in search of rats and mice. It avoids only arid deserts and dense forests, so it is not found either in the Sahara or in equatorial West Africa. In other areas of the mainland, the noisy viper is quite common. During the day, she lies motionless, curled up among thick grass, in bushes, or half buried in the sand. As night falls, the snake becomes active and goes in search of food. But even at night it moves slowly and ponderously, periodically stopping and waiting in ambush. Only at the moment of collision with the victim does the noisy viper show unexpected swiftness, delivering a lightning-fast blow with its poisonous teeth. The viper eats rats, mice and other rodents, and less commonly birds, lizards and amphibians. The prey dies within 1-2 minutes, after which the viper swallows it. When swallowing, the noisy viper first uses its poisonous fangs, pushing the prey deep into the mouth, where the neck muscles come into action. This peculiar use of poisonous teeth is also observed in the Gobon viper.

Females of the noisy viper give birth to 30-40, and occasionally up to 70 cubs. Newborn snakes, 15-20 cm long, are very mobile and have an excellent appetite. Dr. Schweizer, who kept a family of 35 snakes born from one female, fed them for the first weeks with baby frogs and newborn mice. The voracious snakes willingly took food and often in a hurry made a mistake and began to swallow one of their closest relatives instead of food. Schweitzer more than once had to remove the front part of the torso of a sluggish baby from the throat of his sibling, and such “family scenes” usually did not affect the health of the pulled out snake, since the period of stay in someone else’s esophagus was quite short.

Two months after birth, the size of the vipers doubles, reaching 30-40 cm in length. By the age of two, having grown to 80-90 cm, vipers become sexually mature and can already bear offspring.

For a person, a noisy viper poses a serious danger in case of an unexpected collision with it, especially at night, when the snake is active and bites without delay. During the day, the color of the viper amazingly hides it against the background of brown soil and withered grass, so it is very easy to step on the snake without noticing it. Huge poisonous fangs, up to 2-3 cm long, make the bite very effective, and the venom is highly toxic. The mortality rate from African viper bites can reach 15-20% in the absence of proper assistance to victims. The relatively small number of bites by the noisy viper is explained by the fact that during daytime encounters with it, the viper does not always bite immediately. During the day she is too lethargic and phlegmatic and bites only after repeated or very strong irritation. With calm and careful handling, you can even pick it up without getting bitten. It is known that sometimes African children play carefree with a noisy viper. If this snake is irritated, then it becomes extremely dangerous. The viper greatly inflates its body and emits a very loud, threatening hiss, which is why it received the name “noisy.” In such an excited state, the snake is capable of making lightning-fast and precise attacks over almost the entire length of its body.

Stands out among its relatives for its particularly respectable size. Gaboon viper, or cassava(Bitis gabonica). Its thick body sometimes reaches almost 2 m in length, and the weight of large individuals can exceed 8 kg. At the front end of the muzzle, between the nostrils, there are two large awl-shaped scales, slightly curved back. In some specimens these spines are very short, in others they are long and tall, giving the snake a warlike appearance. The rest of the top of the head, as well as the entire body, are covered with small ribbed scales. The coloring of the Gaboon viper is amazingly luxurious, the pattern of which is formed by clear geometric shapes and a combination of bright and rich colors - white, black, pink, purple, brown. The head is light gray on top with a narrow dark stripe in the middle. From the eyes, one or two dark postorbital stripes extend down and back, expanding. Along the ridge there is a row of white or light yellow longitudinally elongated rectangles. They are connected by paired black triangles. A clear light zigzag with a dark brown trim along the lower edge runs along the sides of the body, and purple diamonds with light gray spots in the middle are embedded in the recesses of the zigzag. It is remarkable that such a bright and clear coloring does not at all reveal the snake in a natural setting, but, on the contrary, perfectly hides it against the background of red-brown soil among variegated vegetation and dry fallen leaves. This type of coloring is usually called dismembering, since the intricate geometric figures, merging with the variegation of the substrate, they seem to break up the true outlines of the body, dividing it into separate spots. The described geometric pattern is very stable in the Gaboon viper, and only the color execution of the pattern can be very different - with a predominance of light yellow, bright red or dark gray colors. The iris of the eye can also be colored differently - from light gray to blood red.

The Gaboon viper is distributed over a vast territory - from Liberia to Tanganyika and from South Sudan to Angola. It lives in savanna woodlands and forested areas, along river valleys, damp meadows and in the lower zones of mountains, inhabiting more wooded and humid biotopes than the previous species. Therefore, the center of the Gaboon viper's range gravitates towards Central Equatorial Africa. This nocturnal snake feeds on rodents, lizards, and birds. Gives birth to an average of about 40 cubs.

The phlegmatic nature of the Gaboon viper is simply amazing. It takes a lot of effort to anger this snake and make it bite. Africans know her character and are usually not afraid; if they need to catch a snake, they without fear grab it by the neck or tail and put it in a bag or drag it behind them, and the snake does not even try to bite. It is therefore not surprising that there are very few known accidents caused by the bite of the Gabon viper. However, these rare cases have very serious consequences, with a significant proportion of deaths, since the poison introduced by the 3-4-centimeter teeth of the viper causes deep poisoning of the body.

It also has gorgeous bright geometric colors. rhinoceros viper(Bitis nasicornis). This snake is noticeably smaller than the Gaboon viper, its length does not exceed 1.2 m. The tip of the muzzle is decorated with two or three long pointed scales that stick out vertically above the nostrils. The thick, short body is covered with an effective pattern. The black arrow-shaped pattern on the head is edged with a light yellow stripe, and the sides of the head are bright blue. Along the back are double blue trapezoids, outlined in yellow and connected by black diamonds. On the sides, black triangles alternate with large green diamonds bordered by a narrow red stripe.

She lives in humid tropical forests Equatorial Africa, from Western Kenya to Cameroon. It lives in damp, swampy places along the banks of forest rivers and streams, and willingly enters the water. The variegated coloration hides this snake well among the bright greenery of lush vegetation against the background of red-brown soil and fallen leaves.

The remaining vipers of the genus Bitis are much smaller than the three species described above and live only in South Africa. Most common tailed viper(Bitis caudalis), up to half a meter long. Above each eye she has one sharp scale sticking out, like horns. These horns can be very short or, on the contrary, very long. The general background color of the body is light brown; along the ridge, alternating, there are light gray and red-brown rectangular spots.

It lives in sandy desert areas throughout South Africa, as far north as Angola. It is especially common in the deserts in the southwest of the continent. Small rodents and lizards serve as food for it.

In a calm state, this snake crawls in the usual way, head first, bending its body in a zigzag manner, but if there is a need for rapid movement, the tailed viper easily switches to a specific “lateral move”, characteristic of snakes living in the sand (efa, horned rattlesnake, etc. ) - The snake moves the back part of its body sideways and forward, and then pulls up the front part. It seems that the snake is crawling not forward, but sideways. This method of movement creates better body support on a loose substrate. When in danger, escaping from pursuit, the tailed viper is capable of throwing its body forward so strongly and sharply that the “lateral move” turns into a series of quick short jumps.

Tufted viper(Bitis cornuta) is similar to the caudate in size, type of coloring and ability to move “sideways”. But above each eye she has not just one scale rising, but a whole bunch of sharp, vertically protruding scales. Along the grayish-brown background of the body there is a row of dark brown spots with light borders. The range of the tufted viper is limited to the deserts of South-West Africa and the Cape Province.

Pygmy viper(B. peringueyi) in comparison with its respectable relatives - the Gaboon and noisy viper - is striking in its insignificant size. An adult snake barely reaches 30 cm in length. It does not have any protruding scales above its eyes, and therefore it is often, unlike the two previous species, called a hornless viper. The body of the viper is gray or reddish-yellow with three longitudinal rows of small dark spots. The tip of the tail is usually black.

This little snake lives in sandy deserts Kalahari and Namib. She has perfectly mastered the shifting sands, moves using the “lateral movement” method, and in case of danger she quickly “sinks” into the sand using vibrating movements of her body.

In captivity, the pygmy viper is fed small lizards. The amount of poison injected during a bite is very small, so the lizards die only 10-20 minutes after the bite.

Among African vipers there are also two mountain species: Bitis atropos lives in the mountainous regions of South Africa, and B. worthingtoni lives in the mountains of Kenya.

In the deserts of South-West Asia and North Africa, a group of vipers was formed, deeply adapted to life in dry areas, among sands covered with the most sparse vegetation. This group includes false-horned vipers(Pseudocerastes - 4 species), horned vipers(Cerastes - 2 species), sand frets(Echis - 2 species) and controversial viper(Eristicophis - 1 species).

Common in the sandy deserts of Western Pakistan and Iran Persian viper(Pseudocerastes persicus) is a small snake, 80-90 cm in length, with a wide head rounded in front, a clear neck and a dense, but not very thick body. There is one small soft process above the eyes. These outgrowths are covered with small scales and are directed upward and slightly backward. Sometimes the “horns” themselves are not pronounced, but only one or two scales above the eyes stand vertically. The nostrils are equipped with an internal valve that protects the nasal cavity from sand when the snake burrows into the ground. The color of the Persian viper is brownish-gray with longitudinal rows of dark spots, sometimes forming transverse stripes.

Palestine viper(P. fieldi) is close to the Persian in size, adult individuals reach a length of 60-70, maximum 79 cm. Females are on average larger than males. The color of the body is yellowish-gray with two rows of light brown spots, sometimes edged with a white border. The Persian viper inhabits Mesopotamia, the Syrian and Sinai deserts and Northern Arabia. Its typical habitats are wide bottoms of dry riverbeds (wadis) with sandy soil and rocks, among hilly terrain. This viper rarely visits villages, but in especially dry times of the year, when the khamsin blows, you can find snakes crawling into puddles under taps or under a leaking irrigation pipe. In spring, the Persian viper is active during the day, and in summer it comes out to feed at night. It feeds on gerbils, lizards, and hunts migratory birds. It is surprising that the Persian viper willingly eats carrion, even stale ones. In captivity, it also prefers to eat dead animals. This snake lives and breeds well in captivity. Females lay eggs (from 14 to 21) with developed embryos. After a month, the cubs are hatched, about 13 cm long.

When moving, the Persian viper often uses a “lateral move”, developing a speed of up to 37 cm/sec. Often the viper digs sand with lateral movements of its head, expanding rodent burrows. Although it lives on sandy soil, it does not know how to “drown” in the sand using lateral body movements, as some other sand-loving snakes do (horned viper, mottled viper, dwarf viper).

In the deserts of Balochistan lives a rare and little-studied controversial viper(Eristicophis macmahoni). Its name remains true to this day, since many features of its structure have not yet been properly explained - too little is known about the life of this snake in nature. At the front end of the head of the mottled viper, two large wing-like scales protrude forward. They probably serve the snake when buried in the sand. The abdominal scutes of this viper are angular on the sides, which is characteristic of tree snakes. In this case, apparently, the longitudinal carinae on the ventral scutes help the viper bury itself in the sand by lateral vibration of the body. This type of diving is often used by this snake. The skin (more precisely, the cuticle) of the controversial viper is unusually thin and is easily damaged if handled carelessly. It is possible that this property of the skin is a protective device, like the thin and weak cuticle of skink geckos. However, it is difficult to imagine that a poisonous snake that hunts at night and buries itself in the sand during the day could have many enough enemies to develop such a protective property of the skin.

Horned viper(Cerastes cerastes) is a snake 60-80 cm long, with a thick body and a sharply tapered short tail. One sharp vertical scale sticks out above the eyes. The length of these scales varies greatly. The scales on the sides of the body are smaller than the dorsal ones, strongly keeled and directed obliquely downwards, forming a kind of saw running along each side. The color of the horned viper is sandy yellow with dark brown spots along the back and on both sides of the body.

This snake inhabits the entire Sahara Desert and the adjacent foothills and dry savannas, as well as the Arabian Peninsula. During the day, the snake burrows into the sand or hides in rodent holes, and at nightfall it goes out to hunt for small rodents and birds. Young individuals feed on locusts and lizards.

The horned viper is oviparous; its clutch contains 10-20 eggs. From a clutch of eggs incubated at 28-29°C, the young hatched after 48 days.

The horned viper moves in a “sideways motion”, throwing the back half of its body forward and to the side and pulling the front part towards it. In this case, not a single trace remains on the sand, but separate oblique stripes at an angle of 40-60° to the direction of movement, since when “throwing” forward the snake does not touch the ground with the middle of the body, resting only on the front and rear ends of the body. In the process of movement, the snake periodically changes the “working side” of its body, moving forward either with its left or right side. In this way, an even load on the muscles of the body is achieved with an asymmetrical method of movement.

Small keeled scales, sawtooth-shaped, located on the sides of the body, bring a double benefit to the snake. Primarily, they serve as the main burrowing mechanism for burying the snake in the sand. The viper spreads its ribs apart, flattens its body and, with rapid transverse vibration, pushes the sand to the sides, “drowning” in it literally before our eyes. The keeled scales act like miniature plows. In 10-20 seconds, the horned viper disappears into the sand. A linden trace remains from her dive, bordered by two sandy rollers, but this trace soon disappears under a light blow of wind. Having buried itself, the snake often sticks its head out of the sand just enough so that its eyes are level with the surface. In this case, a thin layer of sand remains on the upper side of the head, masking it.

In addition, the keeled scales are used by the viper to make a kind of scaring sound. Curled into a half ring, the snake rubs one side of its body against the other, sawtooth scales scrape against each other, emitting a loud, continuous rustling sound. This sound is most similar to the hissing of water spilled on a hot stove. A disturbed viper can continuously “hiss” in this way for 1-2 minutes. This "hiss" is used by the snake to scare away enemies, similar to the vocal hiss of most snakes or the dry chirping of a rattlesnake.

The horned viper was well known to the ancient Egyptians. It was this type of snake that served as the basis for the Egyptian hieroglyph “phi”. The choice of snake for this hieroglyph is probably due to the onomatopoeic similarity. Snake charmers in Egypt, both before and now, willingly use in their performances, in addition to cobras, also horned vipers. The “horns” of vipers are undoubtedly the most spectacular attribute of their appearance, but the supraorbital scales are sometimes very weakly expressed. Therefore, some spellcasters, not content with the natural size of the “horns,” glue the sharp tips of porcupine quills over the eyes of their “artists” to ensure their success with the gullible public.

Avicenna's viper(Cerastes vipera) is much smaller than the horned one, no more than 50 cm in length, and never has horn-like scales above the eyes. The lateral scales of the body are small, ribbed and directed obliquely downwards. The general coloration of this snake is sandy-brown with rows of dark spots. Its tail is often decorated with black rings, and its tip is entirely black.

The Avicenna viper lives in the sandy deserts of North Africa, is nocturnal and feeds on small lizards and rodents. There is a known case of breeding in captivity, when a female gave birth to five cubs in a thin and transparent egg shell.

The Avicenna's viper uses “lateral movement”, “drowning” in the sand and a special method of hissing with the help of the lateral scales of the body much more often than the horned viper. This shows its deeper adaptation to life in shifting sands.

Among desert vipers, the most widespread is sand faff(Echis carinatus). A small snake, usually 50-60 cm long, occasionally reaching sizes of 70-80 cm. Males are on average slightly larger than females. The eyes of the efa are large and high, so that any part of the head forms a noticeable deflection. The head is covered with small ribbed scales; sharp ribs also protrude from the scales of the body. On the sides of the body there are 4-5 rows of smaller and narrow scales, directed obliquely downwards and equipped with jagged ribs.

,

These scales serve as a “musical instrument” that produces a kind of dry hissing, described above in the horned viper. The general physique of the efa is dense, but slender, which is associated with its great mobility and speed, which distinguishes it from most vipers. The color of the body is varied and variable throughout its vast range, but the typical color of the body is grayish-sandy, and two light zigzag stripes run along the sides, edged below with a blurred dark stripe. Along the top of the body there is a series of light, transversely elongated spots, strictly consistent with the zigzags of the side stripes. A light cross-shaped pattern stands out on the head, very reminiscent of the silhouette of a flying bird. This drawing seems to emphasize the swiftness of the lightning-fast throws of the snake.

The sand epha is common in North Africa, reaching as far south as Ghana, Cameroon, Northern Kenya and Uganda. Further, the epha's range extends through the Arabian Peninsula, Iraq, Iran, Afghanistan and India up to Northern Ceylon. In the north, Efa reaches the southern part of Central Asia. In our country, this snake inhabits the eastern coast of the Caspian Sea to the Kara-Bogaz-Gol Bay, the foothills of Kopet-Dag, and the Southern Karakum Desert. Along the South

Western Kyzylkum efa penetrates north almost to the Aral Sea. In the east, efa inhabits the foothills of Southern Uzbekistan and Southwestern Tajikistan.

The habitats of the efa are very diverse - hilly sands overgrown with saxaul, loess and even clay deserts, dry savannah woodlands, river cliffs and terraces, ruins of ancient settlements. In favorable conditions, efa can be very numerous. For example, in the valley of the Murgab River, over an area of ​​about 1.5 km2, snake catchers produced more than 2 thousand eff. over 7 years. The population density in such biotopes reaches 3-7 individuals per 1 hectare. Efa is much less common on cultivated lands, where it can sometimes be found in wastelands, along the edges of fields and dried up irrigation ditches.

In Central Asia, ephs appear at the end of February and are diurnal until June, and in the summer they become active at night. In autumn, ephs again appear on the surface in the daytime, but hunt little, bask in the sun more and go to winter in October, climbing into gerbil holes or into deep cracks and gullies in cliffs. In a warm winter, even in January, ephs can crawl out of their shelters in the middle of the day to bask in the rays of the winter sun.

Sand ephs feed on small rodents (gerbils, mice, hamsters), less often lizards, birds, small snakes, lake frogs and green toads. Among the snakes attacked by the efa were the water snake, the arrow-snake, the viper and the efa itself. One day, Efa managed to swallow a water snake that was equal in length to her.

Young ephs eat completely different food. They eat invertebrates - scolopendras, scorpions and locusts - and, in addition, small lizards.

In March-April, sand ephs mate, and in July-August females give birth to 3 to 15 cubs 10-16 cm long.

It moves mainly in a “lateral move”, the mechanics of which are described above (p. 428). In our country, this is the only snake that moves in this way. Therefore, the characteristic trace of a “side passage”, consisting of individual oblique strips with hooked ends, immediately reveals a sandy fret. If you follow a fresh trail, you can find a snake that is hunting or has already crawled into a hole. When digging out a gerbil's hole where the efa has disappeared, you don't have to be afraid that it will climb far into the depths of the winding passages. As soon as the beginning of the hole is dug, the efa rushes out and takes on a characteristic defensive pose. Curled into two half rings and holding its head in the middle of this arc, it continuously slides one half ring over the other, and the side scales with jagged ribs make a loud hissing sound, as if a stream of water is pouring onto a hot frying pan. The head of the epha is always directed towards the enemy, and any object extended towards the snake is struck by a rapid throw. The energy, mobility and speed with which it defends and attacks from the epha produces great impression. It is not for nothing that in all the countries where it is found, it is considered one of the most dangerous snakes. The venom of the epha is often mentioned as the most toxic among viper venoms, although it is still inferior in toxicity to the venom of the viper. The venom of epha especially sharply reduces the level of fibrinogen in the blood, which causes heavy bleeding both in the bite area and in other “weak” places, especially from the mucous membranes of the eyes, nose and mouth. The remaining symptoms of poisoning are typical for most viper snakes.

In India and South-West Asia, the epha's bite often causes illness and death in people, as well as the death of livestock. It is believed that in the absence of medical care, about 5% of people who are bitten die. For such a small snake this is quite a lot. However, it is likely that some of the dead people owed this not so much to a snake bite, but to the use of harmful self-medication methods - bloodletting, cauterization and constrictions. The sand epha, living in Ceylon, has a noticeably weaker poison, and its bites are not fatal.

Common on the Arabian Peninsula, Egypt (east of the Nile) and Palestine motley efa(Echis coloratus) is a brownish-gray snake with a number of light diamonds or stripes along the back, 70-75 cm long and weighing up to 200 g. A light longitudinal stripe is noticeable on its head, sometimes bifurcated in front and behind.

The mottled epha reaches as far north as the Dead Sea and is the most numerous venomous snake in Israel. It prefers rocky and gravelly slopes with hard soil and piles of stones, with very rugged terrain. Unlike the previous species, the motley efa avoids sandy places. But it willingly colonizes irrigated lands and becomes numerous in some oases. Thus, in the Ein Gedi oasis, on the shores of the Dead Sea, after intensive irrigation and the growth of the village, the motley ephas multiplied greatly.

They feed on birds, lizards and small rodents. It is curious that in the mentioned oasis on irrigated lands, snakes successfully switched to green toads and lake frogs. Young snakes usually feed on invertebrates and lizards.

In May-June, variegated ephs mate. It is observed both in the daytime and in the dark. The duration of each mating is about 3 hours. In August-September, females lay 6 to 10 eggs. The weight of the eggs is relatively large - 8-11 g each, and the weight of the entire clutch can be more than a third of the weight of a pregnant snake. Unfertilized females do not lay eggs, which is often the case with other snakes; in this case, in motley efs, the eggs are absorbed inside the female’s body. In this way, valuable nutrients are saved, which is very important in the harsh desert conditions. The eggs are very sticky, and when females lay them, they stick them to the wall or even to the roof of the burrow or the void between the stones where the eggs are laid. Sometimes females dig a shallow hole with their heads and, having laid their eggs, cover them with earth. Each female usually lays eggs only once every 2 years. In the fall, young snakes hatch, up to 20-25 cm long and weighing 6-7 g. Only at the age of 4-5 years do sand ephs become sexually mature.

Living on a dense substrate, the sand ephas rarely uses a “lateral move” when moving, but usually crawls in a typical “snake-like” way. Only when she is very frightened and hastily fleeing does she switch to a quick “sideways move.” Unlike sand f-hole this snake has a relatively good-natured character. When in danger, it curls up into a half ring and “hisses” with the side scales of the body, but bites rarely and reluctantly. There are only a few known cases of bites from this viper, and deaths almost never occur.

Tree vipers(genus Atheris) are distributed in the forests of Central Africa from Guinea to Uganda and south to Zambia. These are peculiar snakes that have adapted to living in trees. This unusual way of life for vipers led to the formation of special structural features of these snakes. Although the head of tree vipers is triangular and the neck is well defined, their body is more slender and dexterous than that of ground vipers. The body scales are heavily ribbed - this improves traction when climbing branches. The tail is tenacious, capable of curling and serves as a grasping organ. The coloration of tree vipers is protective - the main background of the body is green, matching the color of the foliage. Their sizes are small - usually about 60 cm. They feed on various arboreal animals, mainly frogs, rodents and lizards. Having grabbed the prey with its teeth, the snake does not let it out of its mouth and, after waiting for the poison to take effect, immediately swallows it among the branches. When resting, tree vipers usually perch on branches and hold the front part of their body in an elevated position, bending it under acute angle. This position makes the snake look very much like a bent or broken branch.

Of the 7 species of these snakes, the most common rough tree viper(Atheris squamiger), living in the tropical forests of the Congo Basin and east to Lake Nya-sa. It is grayish-green in color with yellow transverse rings around the body. In West Africa, from Guinea to Gabon, common green tree viper(A. chloroechis), light green in color with two rows of rounded yellow spots along the back. Horned tree viper(A. ceratophorus) is distinguished by a pair of scaly projections above the eyes. It is found in the forested Usambara Mountains in Tanganyika.

Animal life: in 6 volumes. - M.: Enlightenment. Edited by professors N.A. Gladkov, A.V. Mikheev. 1970 .

• Collier's Encyclopedia

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A symbol of wisdom in the legends and tales of various cultures, the snake traditionally represents both a sophisticated mind and excellent insight, as well as speed of reaction with great destructive power. The lifestyle and habits of the most common venomous snake in central Russia - the common viper - confirm the established image of this reptile.

Common viper: what is it?

Let's start getting acquainted with this very unusual snake with its description. What does a viper look like? This is a reptile, reaching a length of 0.7-1 m. Males, as a rule, are smaller than females. The viper's head is quite elegant, rounded-triangular with clearly defined scutes - two parietal and one frontal. The nasal opening is located in the center of the anterior shield. The pupil is vertical. The teeth are movable tubular, located in front of the upper jaw. The clear delineation of the head and neck adds grace to this graceful and dangerous creature.

Snake coloring

Nature did not skimp on colors when painting the viper. The many shades of color of the snake are amazing: the gray or sandy-brown back of almost every individual is dotted with intricate patterns of various tones - from light blue, greenish, pink and lilac to terracotta, ashy and dark brown. It is impossible to determine the dominant color, since there are as many color options for the viper as there are individuals. But distinctive feature This type is a zigzag or even stripe stretching along the entire back. Usually it is darker, but there are exceptions. Sometimes there are snakes with light stripes
on a dark background. One way or another, this element is a kind of calling card of the animal, warning that it belongs to a very dangerous looking- common viper.

There is an interesting pattern: males are purple, gray or bluish-blue cold in color. Females, on the contrary, are much more brightly colored; they have red, yellow, greenish-brown and delicate sand tones in their arsenal. True, black can be worn by both sexes. Moreover, they can be absolutely the same color, without any identifying stripes. However, you can still distinguish them by looking closely: males have small white spots on the upper lip, and the bottom of the tail is also lightened. Females have red, pink and white speckles on the lips and throat, and the lower part of the tail is bright yellow.

The variety of colors of snakes is amazing, and the more surprising is the fact that viper cubs are born completely brown-brown in color with a terracotta zigzag along the back, and changes in the skin begin no earlier than after 5-7 molts, i.e. almost after year after birth.

Snakes and vipers: similarities

Scientific research from past years shows that the main difference between these two species is their habitat. Snakes have always lived next to humans, without fear of such proximity. Vipers never sought to communicate with people. Moreover, if people settled near the habitats of snakes, the outcome for these animals was natural. Currently, due to changes in natural conditions and man-made disasters, much has changed. For example, massive fires drive vipers out of their usual places. Incidents of snakes in gardening communities located near burnt forests have increased significantly. Of course, the appearance of reptiles in crowded places cannot be explained by a change in the snake worldview. Often they simply have nowhere to go, and the differences between snakes and vipers become similarities imposed by circumstances.

Snakes and vipers: differences

There are external differences between these species. The most important thing is that the grass snake has orange-yellow spots on the sides of its head. The coloring also varies - snakes do not have a zigzag pattern on the back. Its body is more elongated from head to tail, by the way, quite long. The viper's tail is short and sharply tapering.

They differ in the shape of their heads and eye pupils. The viper's head is covered with small scutes; the snake's are large. The viper's pupils are vertical, characteristic of a nocturnal reptile. Already is a lover of daytime vigils, and his pupils are round. A person who knows what a viper looks like will have no difficulty distinguishing these animals.

Lifestyle of snakes

Being predominantly nocturnal, snakes can be active during the day. They can calmly bask in the sun, choosing stones, large hummocks, and smooth clearings. Night is hunting time. The gray viper (common) is an excellent hunter. Quick reaction, accuracy and surprise of the attack leave no chance for mice and frogs that come into her field of vision.

These reptiles mate between mid-May and early June. Being ovoviviparous, vipers bear offspring until mid-to-late August. The cubs are born as poisonous little snakes up to 15-18 cm long.

Behavior and habits

Immediately after birth, the babies are freed from the egg shell and crawl away. The growth of young vipers is accompanied by constant molting. Having made the transition to independent life, they feed on various insects, and as they grow older they begin to hunt small birds, field mice, lizards, toads and frogs. In turn, young animals become victims of large birds of prey and animals. But after 2-3 years, the cubs look the same as a viper looks, i.e., a fully grown individual.

Snakes spend the winter in the soil, burrowing to a depth below the freezing layer. They climb into the holes of moles and voles, grooves from tree roots, deep crevices in rocks and other suitable shelters. Clumps of small groups in one place are often observed. This is how they wait out the cold. Sufficiently severe winters cause torpor in snakes, which lasts up to six months. The lifespan of vipers is about 10-15 years.

Steppe viper

Living in Southern Europe, the steppe viper is a resident of lowland and mountain steppes and is found in Greece, Italy, France and many other European countries, as well as in Altai, Kazakhstan and the Caucasus. This amazing snake can climb mountains to a height of up to 2.5 thousand meters above sea level. What does a steppe viper look like?

It is a large snake up to 0.7 m long. It is distinguished by a slightly elongated head and slightly raised edges of the muzzle. The back of the viper is colored in brown-gray tones, with a light transition to the middle, decorated with a black or brown zigzag stripe along the ridge, sometimes divided into spots. The sides of the body are decorated with a number of vague dark spots, and the upper part of the head is decorated with a black pattern. The abdomen is gray, with light spots. The maximum distribution density of the viper is observed on the steppe plains (up to 6-7 individuals per hectare).

Reproduction

Plains vipers are most active from late March - early April until October. Mating time is April-May. The gestation period is 3-4 months. The female lays from 4 to 24 eggs, from which babies appear in July-August, 10-12 cm long and weighing 3.5 g each. Having reached a body length of 28-30 cm (usually three years after birth), the cubs become sexually mature. Slow on land, the snake is an excellent swimmer and can climb low bushes and trees with amazing speed. Being an excellent hunter, the steppe viper tracks down birds, mice, and does not disdain lizards, grasshoppers and locusts.

In the recent past, the steppe viper was used to obtain snake venom, but barbaric extermination led to a sharp reduction in its number, which stopped this trade. Today, in all European countries, this species is protected as an endangered species under the Berne Convention.

Marsh viper

Russell's viper, chained, or swamp viper is considered the most dangerous of the entire family. This species is found over vast areas of Central and Southeast Asia. The average length of this snake is 1.2 m, but occasionally there are individuals whose size exceeds one and a half meters.

The head has a somewhat flattened triangular shape. Big eyes dotted with golden veins. Large fangs, reaching 1.6 cm, are a serious threat and excellent protection for the reptile. The back is rough, covered with scales, the belly is smooth.

The body color of the marsh viper is dominated by gray-brown or dirty yellow tones. The back and sides are decorated with rich dark brown spots surrounded by a black ring with a bright yellow or white outer rim. There can be up to 25-30 such elements on the back, increasing as the snake grows. The number of spots on the sides may vary, sometimes they merge into a solid line. There are also dark V-shaped streaks on the sides of the head.

Behavior, nutrition and reproduction of marsh vipers

Ovoviviparous Russell's vipers mate early in the year. Duration
gestation period is 6.5 months. The appearance of cubs, as a rule, occurs in June-July. In one litter there are up to 40 or more baby reptiles with a body length from 2 to 2.6 cm. Immediately after birth, the first moult occurs. Cubs reach sexual maturity at two to three years of age.

Being the most poisonous snake Living in the Asian region, the chain viper is a dangerous nocturnal predator. She crawls out to hunt as soon as the sun disappears below the horizon. The diet of the swamp viper does not differ from the menu of other representatives of the class and consists of rodents, frogs, birds, scorpions and lizards. For people, this snake poses a mortal danger.

Encounters with snakes

As already mentioned, the viper is a poisonous snake. You need to remember this when going into the forest. True, meeting a person is never part of this creature’s plans; as a rule, it tries to hide as soon as it hears a threatening noise. Unfortunately, it is not always possible to avoid unexpected contacts while walking in the forest, picking mushrooms and berries, in swamps, or while gardening.

Feeling a threat, the viper actively defends itself: it hisses, rushes forward threateningly and makes dangerous bite-throws. Remember: when meeting a snake, it is strictly forbidden to make sudden movements, so as not to provoke an attack by the reptile!

To avoid such an unpleasant encounter, extreme caution must be taken when walking around forest areas, where the viper can live. Every person needs to carefully study the photo of this representative of the animal world.

When visiting places of possible encounters with these reptiles, you must have the appropriate equipment. High rubber boots worn on woolen socks provide reliable protection from snake bites; tight trousers tucked into shoes. It’s good to have a long stick with you, which will help you both look for mushrooms and scare the snake. Most likely she will crawl away. Tapping with a stick while moving along the trail will also not be amiss. Vipers are deaf, but are able to perceive the slightest vibration in the ground. Only soft peat or fresh arable land prevents the snake from recognizing the approach of a person in time. Typically, snakebites are not an expression of aggression, but rather a reaction to unexpected or frightening disturbance.

Probably, folk tales and legends telling about this amazing creation, like a viper (a description of some species is presented in the article), are absolutely right: natural wisdom and endurance help these reptiles survive.

And even further north), or in the mountains up to 2600 m above sea level.

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Description

A relatively small snake, whose length including the tail usually does not exceed 65 cm. The largest specimens are found in the northern part of the range: for example, snakes more than 90 cm long have been recorded on the Scandinavian Peninsula. In France and Great Britain, the largest individuals reached a length of 80-87 cm. Females are slightly larger than males. Weight adult viper varies from 50 to 180 g.

The large flattened head with a rounded muzzle is noticeably separated from the body by a short neck. In the upper part of the head there are three large shields, one of which - the frontal - has an almost rectangular shape, elongated along the body and is located in the space between the eyes, the remaining two - the parietal - are directly behind it. Sometimes another small scute is developed between the frontal and parietal scutes. The nasal opening is cut into the lower part of the nasal shield. The vertical pupil, along with the overhanging supraorbital scutes, give the snake an angry appearance, although they have nothing to do with the manifestation of emotions. The apical shield is not divided. There are usually 21 scales around the middle of the body. Abdominal scales in males are 132-150, in females 132-158. There are 32-46 pairs of tail scales in males and 23-38 pairs in females.

The color is extremely variable - the main background can be gray, yellowish-brown, brown or reddish with a copper tint. In some areas, up to 50% of the population are melanistic black vipers. Most individuals have a contrasting zigzag pattern along the backbone. The belly is gray, grayish-brown or black, sometimes with white spots. The tip of the tail is yellow, orange or red. Juveniles often have a copper-brown back with a zigzag stripe.

Spreading

The common viper has a mosaic distribution in the forest belt of Eurasia from Great Britain, France and northern Italy in the west, to Sakhalin and the Korean Peninsula in the east. In France, the main habitat area is within the Massif Central. In Europe, the southern limit of its range runs through northern Italy, northern Albania, northern Greece and European Turkey. In Eastern Europe, the viper sometimes penetrates the Arctic Circle - for example, it lives in the Lapland Nature Reserve and on the shores of the Barents Sea. To the east - in Siberia and Far East- distribution in many places is limited by the lack of suitable wintering burrows. The viper is found north on the Lena up to the 62nd parallel, in Western Siberia up to the 64th parallel, east to the Trans-Baikal Territory. From the south, the range is limited to steppe regions. The southeastern edge of the distribution area is located in Mongolia (Mongolian Altai), northwestern and northeastern China (Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region and Jirin Province).

Lifestyle

Life expectancy can reach 15, and according to some sources, 30 years. However, observations in Sweden indicate that snakes rarely survive after two or three years reproduction, which, taking into account the achievement of sexual maturity, gives a maximum age of 5-7 years. The viper quickly adapts to any terrain; in the Swiss Alps it rises to 2600 m above sea level. Habitats are more diverse in the northern and eastern parts of the range, where the snake often colonizes peat bogs, heather heaths, cleared mixed forests, the banks of various freshwater reservoirs, wet meadows, field edges, shelterbelts, and dunes. In southern Europe, biotopes are mainly limited to wet depressions in mountainous terrain. Distribution is uneven depending on the availability of places suitable for wintering. The saddle, as a rule, does not move further than 60-100 meters. The exception is forced migration to a wintering place; in this case, snakes can move away to a distance of up to 2-5 km. Wintering usually occurs from October-November to March-April (depending on the climate), in the north of the range it lasts up to 9 months, for which the snake chooses a depression in the ground (burrows, crevices, etc.) at a depth of up to 2 meters, where the temperature does not drop below +2… +4 °C. If there is a shortage of such places, several hundred individuals may accumulate in one place, and in the spring they crawl to the surface, which creates the impression of great crowding. Subsequently, the snakes crawl away.

In the summer, it sometimes basks in the sun, but mostly hides under old stumps, in crevices, etc. The snake is not aggressive and, when a person approaches, tries to use its camouflage coloring as much as possible, or crawl away. Only in the event of a person's unexpected appearance or provocation on his part can she try to bite him. This cautious behavior is explained by the fact that it requires a lot of energy to reproduce venom in conditions of changing temperatures.

Reproduction

The mating season is in May, and the offspring appear in August or September, depending on the climate. The viper is viviparous - the development of eggs and the hatching of cubs occurs in the womb. Usually up to 8-12 young individuals appear, depending on the length of the female. It happens that during childbirth, the female wraps herself around a tree or stump, leaving her tail hanging, “scattering” the baby snakes onto the ground, which from the first moment begin an independent life. Juveniles are usually 15-20 cm long and are already poisonous. Many people believe that only born individuals are more poisonous, but this is not true. The opinion that young individuals are more aggressive is also incorrect. Just after being born, snakes usually moult. Subsequently, molting of young and adults occurs 1-2 times a month. Before their first hibernation in October-November, they never eat, since before hibernation they must digest all the food they eat in order to avoid problems with metabolism.

I

In terms of the complex of components, the venom of the common viper is similar to the venoms of other European and tropical species of vipers. It contains high-molecular proteases with hemorrhagic, hemocoagulating and necrotizing effects, peptide hydrolases, hyaluronidases and phospholipases, which at the time of the bite enter the circulatory system through the lymph nodes.

For humans, the bite of a common viper is considered potentially dangerous, but extremely rarely leads to fatal outcome. For example, in the UK, only 14 deaths were recorded between 1876 and 2005, the last of which occurred in 1975 (a five-year-old child died from a bite). About 70% of those bitten either experience no symptoms at all or feel a burning pain directly in the area of ​​the bite. Often redness and swelling develop around the wound - hemorrhagic edema. With a more severe degree of intoxication, dizziness, nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, pale skin, increased sweating, chills, and tachycardia are possible within 15-30 minutes. Finally, with particularly increased sensitivity, loss of consciousness, swelling of the face, a significant drop in blood pressure, heavy bleeding (DIC syndrome), renal failure, convulsive or comatose state may occur. In the vast majority of cases, the consequences of the bite disappear after 2-4 days, but can last for a longer period, up to a year. In particular, improper self-treatment can lead to complications.

As first aid for a bite, doctors recommend calming down, applying a pressure bandage (but not a tourniquet), reducing the load on the limb to the point of immobilization, and ensuring plenty of fluids. Opinions about the benefits of sucking poison from a wound are divided: some experts believe that with this procedure, up to 30-50% of all poison can be removed within 10-15 minutes, others consider it harmful, since bacterial flora can enter the blood along with saliva, causing purulent inflammation. Incorrect and erroneous, but still common methods of treatment include making transverse incisions at the site of the bite, cauterization, applying a tourniquet, and covering with snow.

Enemies

The greatest danger to the common viper comes from humans, primarily from their economic activities aimed at deforestation and other changes in natural landscapes. In Europe, there are also frequent cases of deliberate extermination and catching of vipers for sale to be kept in private terrariums. In Romania, illegal trapping of snakes for the purpose of collecting venom is practiced. Among forest inhabitants, the main enemies of vipers are hedgehogs, which are immune to snake venom. The hedgehog uses the following tactics when attacking: it bites the snake on the body and immediately curls up into a ball, exposing its needles for a retaliatory strike. The procedure is repeated several times until the viper weakens and dies. Snakes are also hunted by the common fox, badger, ferrets, owls, snake eagles, and, less commonly, storks.

Notes

1. Ananyeva N. B., Borkin L. Ya., Darevsky I. S., Orlov N. L. Five-language dictionary of animal names. Amphibians and reptiles. Latin, Russian, English, German, French. / under the general editorship of academician. V. E. Sokolova. - M.: Rus. lang., 1988. - P. 363. - 10,500 copies. - ISBN 5-200-00232-X.
2. , p. 230.
3. , With. 329.
4. Olsson, M.; Madsen, T.; Shine, R. Is sperm really so cheap? Costs of reproduction in male adders, Vipera berus // Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences. - 1997. - T. 264, No. 1380. - pp. 455-459. - DOI:10.1098/rspb.1997.0065.
5. Strugariu, Alexandru; Zamfirescu, Stefan R.; Gherghel, Iulian. First record of the adder ( Vipera berus berus) in Argeş County (Southern Romania) // Biharean Biologist. - 2009. - T. 3, No. 4. - P. 164.
6. , With. 274.
7. , With. 79.
8. Vipera berus (Linnaeus, 1758) - Common viper (undefined) . Vertebrates of Russia.