Pz.4A - installation batch. Combat weight 17.3 t. Engine Maybach HL 108 TR power 250 hp, five-speed co- shy of gears Dimensions 5920x2830x2680 mm. Armament: 75 mm cannon KwK 37 with a 24 caliber barrel length and two machine guns MG 34. Armor thickness 8 - 20 mm. Outcast- 35 weapons were sold.

Pz.4B - straight front hull plate. The course machine gun was confiscated. A new commander's cupola and periscope observation device were introduced. Engine Maybach HL 120 TR power 300 HP, six-speed gearbox. Lobo thickness- howl of turret and hull armor - 30 mm. From- 42 (or 45) units prepared.

Pz.4C - a special bumper under the gun barrel for bending the antenna when turning the turret, armored casing spa- rented machine gun. Starting from the 40th car- we series engine installed Maybach HL 120 TRM. 140 units produced.

Pz.4 D - frontal part of the hull like Pz. lVA, including a front-mounted machine gun. Izme- Nena gun mask. The thickness of the side armor of the hull and turret was increased to 20 mm. In 1940 - 1941, the frontal armor of the hull and turret was reinforced with 20 mm armor- mi sheets. 229 units produced.

Pz.4 E - frontal hull armor 30 mm plus additional 30 mm armor plate. Frontal armor of the turret - 30 mm, mass- ka guns - 35... 37 mm. Installed but- high commander's cupola with reinforced armor and ball mount for chickens- Kugelblende 30 owl machine gun, simplified - new drive and guide wheels, ba- worn box for equipment, etc.- weight 21 tons. 223 units produced.

Pz .4 F (F 1 ) - the latest modification with a short-barreled gun. Direct lobo- a hull plate with a forward-facing machine gun. New design commander's cupola- tions. Single-leaf hatches in the sides of the towers- nor replaced by double-leaf ones. Frontal armor 50 mm thick. The track is 400 mm wide. 462 units produced.

PZ .4 F 2 - 75 mm KwK gun 40 with a 43 caliber barrel length and a pear-shaped muzzle- brake. New gun mask installation and new sight TZF 5f. Combat mas - ca 23.6 tons. 175 units manufactured.

Pz .4 G (Sd . Kfz . 161/1) - two-chamber gun muzzle brake. Late production tanks were armed with a 75 mm cannon KwK 40 with a barrel length of 48 calibers, they are- were equipped with additional armor plates- that in the frontal part of the hull with a thickness of 30 mm, 1450 kg "eastern tracks" and

side screens. 1687 units were produced.

Pz. 4N (Sd. Kfz. 161/2) - 75 mm KwK gun 40 with a barrel length of 48 calibers. 80 mm frontal armor. The radio antenna was moved from the side of the hull to its stern. Anti-cumulative 5 mm screens are installed. New type commander's cupola with anti-aircraft installation machine gun MG 34. Vertical stern plate of the hull. Six-speed gearbox ZF SSG 77. 3960 (or 3935) units produced.

Pz. lVJ (Sd. Kfz. 161/2) - technologically and structurally simplified version Pz. lVH. Manual drive for turning the turret. Support rollers without rubber bands. Increased fuel capacity- nyh tanks. 1758 units were produced.

The first Pz tanks. 4 entered the Wehrmacht in January 1938. General order for combat vehicles this type included 709 tank units weapons.

The plan for 1938 provided for the village- 116 tanks, and the company Krupp almost you - completed it by transferring 113 vehicles to the troops. The first "combat" operations involving- eat Pz. IV became the Anschluss of Austria and the seizure of the Sudetenland of Czechoslovakia in 1938. In March 1939, they marched through the streets of Prague.

On the eve of the invasion of Poland 1 September- In 1939, the Wehrmacht had 211 tanks Pz. 4 modifications A, B and C. According to the then existing staff, a tank division should have consisted of 24 tanks Pz. IV, 12 vehicles in each regiment. One- but only the 1st and 2nd tank regiments of the 1st tank were fully staffed- howl division (1. Panzer Division). The Training Tank Battalion also had a full staff(Panzer Lehr Abteilung), attached 3rd tan- war division. In the remaining formations there were only a few Pz. IV, which - These were superior in armament and armor protection to all types of Polish tanks opposing them. However, over time- During the Polish campaign, the Germans lost 76 tanks of this type, 19 of them irretrievably.

To the beginning of the French Pan campaign- cervaffe already had 290 Pz. IV and 20 bridge laying machines at their base. Like Pz. lll they were concentrated in divisions operating in the directions of the main attacks. General Rommel's 7th Panzer Division, for example, had 36 Pz. IV. During the battles, the French and English- we managed to knock out 97 tanks Pz. IV. Without - The return losses of the Germans amounted to only 30 combat vehicles of this type.

In 1940, the share of tanks Pz. IV in Wehrmacht tank formations increased slightly. On the one hand, thanks to the growth of production, and on the other, due to the decrease- reducing the number of tanks in the division to 258 units. During a short-lived operation in the Balkans in the spring of 1941. Pz. IV, participation - who fought in battles with the Yugoslav, Greek- mi and British troops, no losses- carried

T PERFORMANCE AND TECHNICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE TANK Pz. lVFI

COMBAT WEIGHT, t; 22.3, CREW, people; 5.

OVERALL DIMENSIONS mm: length - 5920, width - 2880, height - 2680, ground clearance - 400.

WEAPONS: 1 cannon KwK 37 caliber 75 mm and 2 machine guns MG 34 caliber 7.92 mm.

AMMUNITION: 80 - 87 artillery rounds and 2700 rounds of ammunition. AIMING DEVICES* telescopic sight TZF 5b. RESERVATION, mm: hull front - 50; board - 20+20; feed - 20; roof -11; bottom - 10; tower - 30 - 50.

ENGINE: Maybach HL 120 TRM, 12-cylinder carburetor, V -shaped, liquid cooling; working volume 11,867 cm 3 ; power 300 hp (221 kW) at 3000 rpm. TRANSMISSION - three-disc dry friction main clutch, six-speed synchronized gearbox ZF SSG 76, planetary rotation mechanism, final drives. RUNNING GEAR: eight small rubber-coated road wheels- meter on board, interlocked in pairs into four trolleys, suspended- mounted on quarter-elliptic leaf springs; leading to- forest front location with removable ring gears (behind- lantern clutch); four rubberized support rollers; each caterpillar has 99 tracks with a width of 400 mm. MAXIMUM SPEED, km/h: 42. POWER RESERVE, km: 200.

OBSTACLES TO OVERCOME: ascent angle, degrees - 30; width- on the ditch, m - 2.3; wall height, m ​​- 0.6; ford depth, m - 1. COMMUNICATIONS: radio station Fu 5.

To the beginning of Operation Barbarossa Ver- Macht had 439 tanks Pz. IV, by the end of 1941, 348 of them were lost without recovery- military. Pz. IV, armed short-barreled- guns, could not effectively- rummage with Soviet medium and heavy- mi tanks. Only with the advent of the long-barreled modification did the situation level out. By mid-1943 Pz. IV became the main German tank on Vos- exact front. The staff of the German tank division included a tank regiment of two battalions. In the first battalion, two companies armed themselves Pz. IV, in the second, only one company. Overall, the race division- I thought there were 51 tanks Pz. IV combat battalions - nah. In Operation Citadel they made up- or almost 60% of the tanks that took part- ity in combat.

In North Africa, up to the capital- lation of German troops, Pz. IV successfully resisted all types of Union tanks- nicknames Best of luck these tanks achieved in the fight against the British- Ser tanks A.9 and A. 10 - mobile- new, but lightly armored. First modification cars F 2 was delivered to

North Africa in the summer of 1942. At the end of July, Rommel's Afrika Korps raced- I thought there were only 13 tanks Pz. IV, of which 9 were F 2. In English documents of that period they were called Panzer IV Special.

Despite the defeat at El Alamein, the Germans began to reorganize- tion of their forces in Africa. On December 9, 1942, the 5th Tank Army was formed in Tunisia, which included- sneeze entered transferred from France

The 10th Panzer Division, which had- weapons of tanks Pz. IV Ausf. G. These tanks took part in the defeat of American troops at Kasserine on February 14, 1943. However, this was the last successful operation.- German radio on the African continent- those - already on February 23 they were forced- We went on the defensive, their forces were quickly melting away. On May 1, 1943 in German troops- kakh in Tunisia there were only 58 tanks - of which 17 Pz. IV.

In 1944, the organization of the German tank- howl division has undergone significant changes. The first battalion of the tank regiment received tanks Pz. V "Panther", second - the swarm was complete Pz. IV. In fact, the "panthers" entered military service- the existence of not all Wehrmach tank divisions- ta. In a number of formations, both battalions had only Pz. IV.

In the summer of 1944, German troops- whether defeat after defeat, as in Za- pada, and in the East. I comply- There were also significant losses: in only two months- Syatsa - August and September - 1139 tanks were destroyed Pz. IV. However, me - no, their number in the troops continued to increase- to be significant. In November 1944 Pz. IV accounted for 40% of German tanks on the Eastern Front, 52% in the West- nom and 57% in Italy.

The last major operations of the German army involving Pz. IV began a counteroffensive in the Ardennes in December 1944 and a counterattack by the 6th SS Panzer Army in the area of ​​Lake Balaton in January - March 1945, which ended in failure- scrap. During January 1945 alone, 287 were shot down. Pz. IV, from them rose - refurbished and returned to service 53 ma- tires.

Pz. IV took part in hostilities before last days war, including street fighting in Berlin. On the territory of Czechoslovakia, battles with fate- The production of tanks of this type continued until May 12, 1945.

major tank losses Pz. IV amounted to 7636 units.

Pz. IV in significantly larger quantities- wow, than other German tanks, having delivered- was intended for export. Judging by the German hundred- tistics, Germany's allies, as well as Turkey and Spain arrived in 1942 - 1944. 490 combat vehicles. Besides Ger- Pz mania. IV were in service in Hungary (74, according to other sources - 104), Romania (142), Bulgaria (97), Fin- Land (14) and Croatia.

Based on Pz. IV were issued self-propelled artillery installations, commanders- such tanks, advanced artillery vehicles- Riy observers, evacuation tractors and bridge tanks.

After the surrender of Germany, a large batch of 165 Pz. IV was handed over to Che- Khoslovakia. Having undergone repairs, they are- was in service with the Czechoslovak army until the early 1950s. Except for Czechoslovakia in the post-war years Pz. IV were used in the armies of Spain, Turkey, France, Finland, Bulgaria and Syria.

The German army entered World War II with a rather strange situation in the tank weapons system. The Pz.Kpfw.III medium tank, which was created as the main tank, actually turned out to be the smallest in the Wehrmacht at that time. As for the other medium tank, the Pz.Kpfw.IV, it was designed as a support vehicle, but at the same time there were almost four times more such vehicles in the army than the Pz.Kpfw.III. German industry was able to equalize the number of tanks of these two types in the army only at the very end of 1939. By this time the series had already gone into production a new version support tank - Pz.Kpfw.IV Ausf.D, and in a sense it was a return to the original concept.

Return of the machine gun

The spring of 1938 turned out to be decisive for the future fate of the PzIV. The fact is that the 6th Department of the Armament Directorate is seriously thinking about removing the brainchild of the Krupp concern from the production program. Instead of the Pz.Kpfw.IV, it was planned to create a support tank based on the Pz.Kpfw.III, thus unifying both medium tanks in their main components and assemblies.

On the one hand, the idea was sound. However, it should be taken into account that the Pz.Kpfw.III at that time was far from experiencing better times. But the production of the Pz.Kpfw.IV was not without problems, but it still went on, and Krupp designers got into the weight category specified by the customers the first time.

Thus, when Erich Wolfert, Krupp's leading engineer, sharply criticized the idea of ​​combining two tanks on one platform on May 2, 1938, victory was on his side. The 6th Department of the Armament Directorate was forced to give in, because Wolfert had not only an industrial giant behind him, but also common sense.

The lesson, however, did not work out well, and the 6th Department of the Armament Directorate continued to struggle with the idea of ​​a single chassis for two types of tanks throughout the war. This impulse, one of the initiators of which was Heinrich Ernst Kniepkamp, ​​with enviable consistency turned into a rake race, and each time the proper conclusions were not drawn from what had happened earlier.

Pz.Kpfw.IV Ausf.D in its original configuration. In metal the car looked a little different

Meanwhile, the requirements for a support tank continued to grow. At the beginning of January 1938, discussions began on the characteristics of the fourth modification of the tank, designated 4.Serie/B.W.

One of the first items on the agenda was the return of the machine gun to its place. Someone at the top finally realized that you couldn't even shoot much from the pistol port, let alone hit anything. It was decided to use the Kugelblende 30 installation, developed for the Z.W.38 (future Pz.Kpfw.III Ausf.E). It had much better protection than the PzIV Ausf.A ball mount. In connection with the return of the course machine gun, the front plate of the turret box again received a characteristic step.

On March 10, 1938, a meeting was held in Berlin, where employees of the Krupp concern and the 6th Department of the Armament Directorate discussed the possibility of strengthening the armor of the tank. The thickness of the side armor of the hull, turret box and turret, amounting to 14.5 mm, was considered insufficient. It was necessary to increase it to 20 mm so that at long distances the tank would not be hit by fire from 20 mm automatic cannons. In addition, the military asked to increase the thickness of the bottom from 8 to 10 mm.

The response to the new demands came on April 12. According to engineers' calculations, increasing the thickness of the armor increased the tank's combat weight by 1256 kg, to almost 20 tons. This led to changes in individual elements of the body. The hatches in the area of ​​the support rollers received a different shape, and the air intakes of the engine compartment were changed. At the end of April, tracks with larger teeth were developed, and the number of suspension travel stops was increased to five per side (one each for the three front bogies and two for the rear).

Certain changes were also made to the design of the tower. First of all, the armor of the gun system was redesigned. The fact is that the previously used design turned out to be very vulnerable to enemy fire. A bullet or shell fragment falling into the gap between the armor elements could easily jam the gun in a vertical plane. At the end of May 1938, development of a new protection for the gun began. The new system armor was located on the outside of the tower and did its job much better. The thickness of the armor was increased to 35 mm.

In addition, the viewing devices on the side hatches and sides of the turret were replaced.

When, on July 4, 1938, a contract was finally signed with the Krupp concern for the production of tanks of the 4.Serie/B.W. modification, the vehicle was quite transformed. According to the contract, the factories of Grusonwerk, one of the divisions of Krupp, were to produce 200 tanks of this series. In October the contract was extended. The SS troops ordered 48 tanks, which were designated 5.Serie/B.W.. In fact, they were no different from 4.Serie/B.W. By the way, in the end, these vehicles never made it to the SS unit, since it was decided to order the StuG III assault self-propelled guns instead.

Tanks of the 4th and 5th series were designated Pz.Kpfw.IV Ausf.D. The vehicles were assigned serial numbers in the range 80501–80748.

Based on the experience of the first two campaigns

Serial production of the Pz.Kpfw.IV Ausf.D began in October 1939. Unlike the Pz.Kpfw.III, the production of which was forced by manufacturers, there were no special breakthroughs in the production of support tanks. By the end of 1939, 45 tanks had been assembled; subsequently, volumes averaged 20–25 vehicles per month. In total, by May 1, 1940, 129 vehicles of this modification were manufactured.

Meanwhile, back in March 1939, it was decided that in the future the Wehrmacht would continue to order these tanks, and the 6th series (6.Serie/B.W.) vehicles would henceforth be designated as Pz.Kpfw.IV Ausf.E. A new contract for the production of 223 tanks of this type was signed in July 1939. In general, this tank was supposed to repeat its predecessor, but already in May some changes began to appear.

To begin with, it was decided to change the driver's viewing device, which had not changed from the Pz.Kpfw.IV Ausf.B, to the Fahrersehklappe 30. This device was distinguished by the fact that instead of massive parts going up and down, it used a thick “eyelash” 30 mm. It covered the viewing slot covered with glass block much more reliably, and its design turned out to be much simpler.

The rather large ventilation hatch from the roof of the tower also disappeared, and a fan appeared in its place. The hatch for signal flags was moved to the place of the periscope device. The shape of the commander's cupola has also changed.

The fact that the Ausf.E in its planned form will definitely not go into production, and that the Ausf.D will face certain changes, became clear after the Polish campaign of September 1939. The fact is that Polish troops massively used 37-mm tanks against German tanks anti-tank guns Armata przeciwpancerna 37 mm wz. 36 Bofors. Even though the Polish shells turned out to be not the most best quality, they confidently punched through German vehicles in all projections. Strengthening the frontal part to 30 mm didn’t really help here either.

In the fall of 1939, research began to be carried out to identify the possibility of additionally loading the Pz.Kpfw.IV with another one and a half tons of armor and increasing its combat weight to 21.4 tons. Tests have shown that the tank can easily tolerate such an increase in mass.

On December 18, 1939, the 6th Department of the Armament Directorate adjusted the assignment for 4.Serie/B.W. and 5.Serie/B.W. The last 68 tanks were to receive hulls with frontal plates reinforced to 50 mm. But by the start of the campaign in France, which began on May 10, 1940, the PzIV Ausf.D was still in production with a 30 mm thick front plate.

The very first battles showed that such slowness was extremely reckless. Of course, the 37 mm short-barreled guns that were installed on a number of French tanks, including the FCM 36 and Renault R 35, could not penetrate 30 mm thick frontal armor. But they were not at all the main opponents of German tanks. The French were doing well with anti-tank artillery, and for it, armor 30 mm thick was by no means something prohibitive. Even worse for the Germans was that a number of French tanks had 47 mm guns as their main armament.

PzIV losses in France were even higher than in September 1939 in Poland. Of the 279 Pz.Kpfw.IVs available in units on May 10, 1939, 97, that is, more than a third, were irretrievably lost. The battles of May-June 1940 also showed that the 75-mm short-barreled gun was almost powerless against tanks with shell-proof armor.

It became clear that the problem had to be solved, and solved quickly. Back on May 15, the Krupp concern reported that shielding for the hull and turret box had been manufactured and tested. The forehead of the turret box received additional sheets 30 mm thick, due to which their total thickness increased to 60 mm. The sides were reinforced with 20 mm thick screens. Later, in addition to these screens, reinforcement was made for the frontal sheet of the hull, and corners were added at the top and bottom for additional reinforcement.

However, until the end of the French campaign, the troops did not receive a single set of shielding. Deliveries began only on June 25, when they were, in general, not really needed. Since July 1940, tanks began to be equipped with screens as standard. At the same time, the thickness of the frontal plate of the hull, turret and gun mantlet armor increased to 50 mm.

Another serious metamorphosis with the PzIV Ausf.D occurred in August 1940. According to the decision made on June 3 of the same year, the last 68 tanks 4.Serie/B.W. and 5.Serie/B.W. were manufactured with turrets and turret boxes 6.Serie/B.W. The last such vehicles were delivered to the troops in October 1940, after which tanks of the Pz.Kpfw.IV Ausf.E modification went into production.

Cars in this series received serial numbers 80801–81006. They can be distinguished from the last 68 Pz.Kpfw.IV Ausf.Ds only if the serial number of the vehicle is known. Additional confusion into what is happening is brought by the fact that not all Pz.Kpfw.IV Ausf.E, not to mention the Ausf.D, received screens on the frontal part of the turret box.

At the beginning of 1941, some tank units tried to do shielding themselves, but an order came from above to stop this activity. However, another modification was born, also known as the Vorpanzer. It differed in that quite massive screens were attached to the front of the tower. They were installed on tanks of modifications Ausf.D, E and F. Apparently, Vorpanzers were used exclusively by the Greater Germany (Großdeutschland) tank division. It is believed that the division used them only for exercises, but there are also front-line photographs that refute such claims.

For crossings and other purposes

Orders for Pz.Kpfw.IV tanks of the 4th, 5th and 6th series were not fulfilled in full. Some of the total number of PzIV Ausf.Ds ordered went to other purposes. 16 chassis produced in March-April 1940 were used for the production of bridge tanks Brückenleger IV b. These vehicles were included in the engineering battalions assigned to tank divisions. They were used by units that fought during the May-June 1940 campaign in France.

Meanwhile, in the summer of 1940, Krupp produced 16 sets of turret boxes and towers. Later, three bridge tanks with numbers 80685, 80686 and 80687 were converted into regular PzIV Ausf.D. According to a report from May 1941, of the 29 PzIVs produced, 13 were 4.Serie/B.W. Thus, 247 vehicles of the Ausf.D modification still went to the troops as regular tanks. The last, 248th car with serial number 80625 was used as a test chassis.

The situation was slightly different with the PzIV Ausf.E. Instead of the 223 tanks that were originally planned to be built, 206 vehicles were produced in one form or another, of which 200 were as regular tanks. In January 1941, 4 chassis 6.Serie/B.W. was sent to Magirus, where they were used to build the Brückenleger IV c. Like the vehicles of the previous series, they went to the 39th Tank Engineering Battalion, attached to the 3rd Tank Division. In this form they took part in battles on the Eastern Front in the summer of 1941.

The fate of the last two tanks of the 6th series, numbers 81005 and 81006, turned out to be even more interesting. On December 14, 1940, the 6th Department of the Armament Directorate gave the green light to the Krupp concern to develop a new chassis. Its main difference was that the diameter of the road wheels increased to 700 mm, and in order for them all to fit, they had to be placed in a checkerboard pattern. The width of the tracks increased to 422 mm. During 1941–42, these vehicles were actively tested, and then tank 81005 ended up in training center Wünsdorf. Also, at least one tank was converted into an ammunition carrier for the heavy self-propelled mortar Gerät 040 (“Karl”).

Finally, part serial tanks was converted into very specific special vehicles. In August-July 1940, 48 Pz.Kpfw.IV Ausf.D were converted into Tauchpanzer IV, a tank for crossing rivers along the bottom. Mounts for special sealed covers were installed on the tank, and covers were also placed on the air intakes. In addition, a special hose with a float was used, through which air was supplied to the machine. A number of Pz.Kpfw.IV Ausf.Es produced in January-March 1940 were similarly converted. Similar vehicles were used in June 1941 as part of the 18th Panzer Division.

Blitzkrieg support vehicle

In April 1941, production began of the 7.Serie/B.W., also known as the Pz.Kpfw.IV Ausf.F. This tank was created taking into account the experience of the campaigns of the first two years of the war. But it became the main support tank of the German army only in the fall of 1941. Of the 441 Pz.Kpfw.IV, which by June 22, 1941 were concentrated on the border with the USSR, they were a minority. The basis was the Pz.Kpfw.IV Ausf.D and Ausf.E.

By that time, the tanks of these modifications had changed somewhat. On February 14, 1941, the first German tanks arrived in Tripoli, and on the 16th the Afrika Korps was formed. In this regard, at the beginning of February, a “tropical” set for the ventilation system was developed.

Since March, tanks have been equipped with a turret box for personal belongings. Because it was originally developed for the Afrika Korps, it was nicknamed the "Rommel Box". It was not installed on all tanks. On many tanks, boxes on the turrets were not installed at all, and instead, an analogue was placed on the side of the hull. And in some units they developed their own “Rommel Box”, which differed in shape from the standard one.

And this was just the beginning of all sorts of alterations that were introduced at the level of tank divisions, and sometimes even at the battalion level. The “body kit” itself, which the Pz.Kpfw.IV received only in 1941, is a topic for a separate large article.

The PzIVs that arrived in Africa found themselves, figuratively speaking, in hothouse conditions. In February 1941, 20 tanks were sent there, 3 of which were lost on the way; another 20 arrived in April. The only truly dangerous enemy for them was the Matildas, which was primarily due to the thick armor of these British tanks. 2-pounder (40 mm) guns mounted on English cars, could only penetrate the shielded forehead of a PzIV at point-blank range, and such cases were rare.

Quite different conditions turned out to be on the Eastern Front. During the battles at the end of June 1941, only 15 Pz.Kpfw.IV were irretrievably lost. This is largely due to the fact that their opponents were T-26 and BT, which competed in a completely different weight category. The atmosphere of complete confusion in the first weeks of the Great Patriotic War also contributed. Patriotic War. However, already in July, 109 tanks, that is, a quarter of the original number, were scrapped. In August, another 68 vehicles were added to them. In total, in 1941, the Germans lost 348 Pz.Kpfw.IV on the Eastern Front, that is, more than 3/4 of their original number.

The German tank crews could quite rightly blame the 6th Department of the Armament Directorate for such significant losses, which approached the issue of strengthening the armor very frivolously. In fact, the shielding installed on the tanks corresponded to the experience of the September 1939 campaign. At the same time, attention was paid to the fact that the French already had 47-mm tank and anti-tank guns. And this was done completely in vain: even the 47-mm SA 35 tank gun with a 32-caliber barrel, as tests in the USSR showed, easily penetrated the 50 mm armor of German tanks at a distance of 400 meters.

The characteristics of the 47-mm Canon de 47 Mle.1937 anti-tank gun, which had a barrel length of 50 calibers, looked even more depressing for the Germans. At a distance of a kilometer, it penetrated armor 57 mm thick. The Germans could reasonably assume that the French were not the only ones who possessed more powerful anti-tank artillery and tank guns than the Poles.

Ultimately, the Wehrmacht had to pay for the miscalculations of the military leadership in assessing the enemy’s weapons with tanks and their crews. While the main opponents of the Pz.Kpfw.IV were the T-26 and BT, everything turned out relatively well for the German tankers. Later, more and more often they had to deal with T-34 and KV-1, armed with 76-mm cannons. In addition, some of the tanks turned out to have only partially thickened armor, which significantly reduced the chances of surviving even under fire from 45-mm tank and anti-tank guns.

They also made a certain contribution heavy tanks KV-2. The hit of his 152-mm shell on a German tank turned it into a pile of scrap metal. However, penetration by other shells did not bring anything good. Cases of ammunition explosions were quite common for Pz.Kpfw.IV. It is worth noting that German tanks were almost powerless against the T-34 and KV-1. Standard armor-piercing shells had almost no effect against new Soviet tanks, and the 7.5 cm Gr.Patr.38 Kw.K cumulative shells, developed and in service back in April 1941. Hitler allowed its use only in February 1942.

Already in August 1941, the captured Pz.Kpfw.IV Ausf.E from the 20th Tank Division was delivered to the training ground of the Scientific Research Testing Institute of Armored Vehicles (NIIBT Polygon) in Kubinka. The car was quite badly damaged: there were several hits in the frontal part of the hull, and the shielding in the area of ​​the driver's viewing device was partially knocked down. The Polygon staff compiled a brief description of, according to which the combat weight of a tank designated as “ Medium tank T-IV produced in 1939–40,” was estimated at 24 tons, and the maximum speed was 50 km/h. After preliminary calculations, the following conclusions were made:

.“Armor protection tank T-IV can be hit by artillery of all calibers.

The tank turret, inspection hatches, and the ball mount of the radio operator’s machine gun are hit by large-caliber small arms.”

Captured PzIVs have become quite common since the end of 1941. However, the Polygon was not involved in bringing the tank captured in the summer of 1941 back into working condition or trying to get the NIIBT running trophy.

This is largely due to the fact that the Soviet military did not show much interest in the tank. It seems that they considered it as an addition to the PzIII, despite the fact that the combat weight and engine of the two medium tanks were similar. For approximately the same reasons, the StuG III Ausf.B was not restored to running condition. More important task studying the driving characteristics of captured Pz.Kpfw.III and Pz.Kpfw.38(t) was considered, and wasting time on secondary vehicles was considered a pointless exercise.

In September 1942, tests took place, during which fire from various weapons was fired at the captured tank. The first thing they did was fire at him from a DShK machine gun. It turned out that the side of the DShK turret cannot be penetrated even from a distance of 50 meters, but at a distance of 100 meters it was possible to penetrate the side and stern of the hull.

Much more interesting were the tests fired from a 45-mm cannon installed in the T-70 tank. At a distance of 50 meters, the frontal hull sheet, 50 mm thick, was pierced. It is worth noting that the same gun did not penetrate the captured StuG III self-propelled gun. The 40 mm thick sides (20+20 mm) were penetrated at a distance of 400 meters.

The final verdict on the German tank was shelling from the 76-mm F-34 cannon installed in the T-34 medium tank. The frontal plate was pierced at a distance of 500 meters (the entrance diameter of the through hole was 90 mm, the exit diameter was 100 mm). The next shot, fired from a distance of 800 meters, split the sheet into two parts. When fired from a distance of 800 meters into the side of the hull, the shell penetrated 40 mm armor on the right side, exploded inside and came out on the left side. When firing a high-explosive shell into the side, the first hit tore off the side turret hatch, the second shell tore off the commander's cupola, and the hit on the side of the engine compartment (20 mm thick) led to the appearance of a hole measuring 130x350 mm. It was decided not to fire from long distances - and so everything was clear.

In addition to the shelling, NII-48 specialists studied the design of the hull and turret.

In July 1942, the few Ausf.D and Ausf.E tanks remaining in service were modernized. Instead of a standard gun, they were equipped with a long-barreled 7.5 cm KwK 40 gun. In addition, from May 1943, side screens began to be installed on the hull and turret. By that time, these vehicles had been withdrawn from the first line and transferred to training units, including NSKK (National Socialist Mechanized Corps) institutions.

Such tanks were also available in tank units stationed in France. One of them (Pz.Kpfw.IV Ausf.D, serial number 80732, released in July 1940) was captured by the British in the summer of 1944. It is now on display at the Bovington Tank Museum.

(Pz.III), the power plant is located at the rear, and the power transmission and drive wheels are located at the front. The control compartment housed the driver and gunner-radio operator, firing from a machine gun mounted in a ball joint. The fighting compartment was located in the middle of the hull. A multifaceted welded turret was mounted here, which housed three crew members and installed weapons.

T-IV tanks were produced with the following weapons:

• modifications A-F, assault tank with 75 mm howitzer;
• modification G, tank with a 75-mm cannon with a 43-caliber barrel;
• modifications N-K, a tank with a 75 mm cannon with a barrel length of 48 calibers.

Due to the constant increase in the thickness of the armor, the weight of the vehicle during production increased from 17.1 tons (modification A) to 24.6 tons (modifications NK). Since 1943, to enhance armor protection, armor screens were installed on tanks for the sides of the hull and turret. The long-barreled gun introduced on modifications G, NK allowed the T-IV to withstand enemy tanks of equal weight (a 75-mm sub-caliber projectile at a range of 1000 meters penetrated armor 110 mm thick), but its maneuverability, especially the overweight latest modifications, was unsatisfactory. In total, about 9,500 were produced during the war. T-IV tanks all modifications.

Tank PzKpfw IV. History of creation.

In the 20s and early 30s, the theory of the use of mechanized troops, in particular tanks, developed through trial and error; the views of theorists changed very often. A number of supporters of tanks believed that the appearance of armored vehicles would make positional warfare in the style of battles of 1914-1917 tactically impossible. In turn, the French relied on the construction of well-fortified long-term defensive positions, such as the Maginot Line. A number of experts believed that the main armament of a tank should be a machine gun, and the main task of armored vehicles is to fight enemy infantry and artillery; the most radically thinking representatives of this school considered a battle between tanks pointless, since, supposedly, neither side would be able to cause damage to the other. There was an opinion that the victory in the battle would be won by the side that could destroy the largest number of enemy tanks. Special guns with special shells - anti-tank guns with armor-piercing shells - were considered as the main means of fighting tanks. In fact, no one knew what the nature of hostilities would be in a future war. Experience civil war in Spain also did not clarify the situation.

The Treaty of Versailles prohibited Germany from having tracked combat vehicles, but could not prevent German specialists from working on studying various theories of using armored vehicles, and the creation of tanks was carried out by the Germans in secrecy. When Hitler threw away the restrictions of Versailles in March 1935, the young Panzerwaffe already had all the theoretical developments in the field of application and organizational structure tank regiments.

In mass production under the guise of "agricultural tractors" there were two types of light armed tanks, PzKpfw I and PzKpfw II.
The PzKpfw I tank was considered a training vehicle, while the PzKpfw II was intended for reconnaissance, but it turned out that the “two” remained the most popular tank of the panzer divisions until it was replaced by medium tanks PzKpfw III, armed with a 37 mm cannon and three machine guns.

The beginning of the development of the PzKpfw IV tank dates back to January 1934, when the army issued a specification to the industry for a new fire support tank weighing no more than 24 tons, the future vehicle received the official designation Gesch.Kpfw. (75 mm)(Vskfz.618). Over the next 18 months, specialists from Rheinmetall-Borzing, Krupp and MAN worked on three competing designs for the battalion commander's vehicle (Battalionführerswagnen, abbreviated BW). The VK 2001/K project, presented by the Krupp company, was recognized as the best, with a turret and hull shape similar to the PzKpfw III tank.

However, the VK 2001/K did not go into production, since the military was not satisfied with the six-wheel chassis with medium-diameter wheels on a spring suspension; it needed to be replaced with a torsion bar. The torsion bar suspension, compared to the spring one, ensured smoother movement of the tank and had a greater vertical travel of the road wheels. Krupp engineers, together with representatives of the Arms Procurement Directorate, agreed on the possibility of using an improved design of spring suspension on the tank with eight small-diameter road wheels on board. However, the Krupp company largely had to revise the proposed original design. In the final version, the PzKpfw IV was a combination of the hull and turret of the VK 2001/K with a chassis newly developed by Krupp.

The PzKpfw IV tank is designed according to the classic layout with a rear engine. The commander's position was located along the axis of the tower directly under the commander's cupola, the gunner was located to the left of the breech of the gun, and the loader was to the right. In the control compartment, located in the front part of the tank hull, there were workstations for the driver (to the left of the vehicle axis) and the radio operator (to the right). Between the driver's and gunner's seats there was a transmission. Interesting feature The design of the tank was to shift the turret approximately 8 cm to the left of the longitudinal axis of the vehicle, and the engine - 15 cm to the right to allow passage of the shaft connecting the engine and transmission. This design decision made it possible to increase the internal reserved volume on the right side of the hull to accommodate the first shots, which could be most easily reached by the loader. The turret rotation drive is electric.

Click on the tank picture to enlarge

The suspension and chassis consisted of eight small-diameter road wheels grouped into two-wheeled bogies suspended on leaf springs, drive wheels, sloths installed in the rear of the tank, and four rollers supporting the track. Throughout the entire history of operation of the PzKpfw IV tanks, their chassis remained unchanged, only minor improvements were introduced. The prototype of the tank was manufactured at the Krupp plant in Essen and was tested in 1935-36.

Description of the PzKpfw IV tank

Armor protection.
In 1942, consulting engineers Mertz and McLillan conducted a detailed examination of the captured PzKpfw IV Ausf.E tank, in particular, they carefully studied its armor.

Several armor plates were tested for hardness, all of them were machined. The hardness of the machined armor plates on the outside and inside was 300-460 Brinell.
- The 20 mm thick applied armor plates, which enhance the armor of the hull sides, are made of homogeneous steel and have a hardness of about 370 Brinell. The reinforced side armor is not capable of "holding" 2 pound shells fired from 1000 yards.

On the other hand, shelling of a tank carried out in the Middle East in June 1941 showed that a distance of 500 yards (457 m) can be considered as the limit for effectively hitting a PzKpfw IV in the frontal area with fire from a 2-pounder gun. A report prepared in Woolwich on a study of the armor protection of a German tank notes that “the armor is 10% better than similar machined English armor, and in some respects even better than homogeneous.”

At the same time, the method of connecting armor plates was criticized; a specialist from Leyland Motors commented on his research: “The welding quality is poor, the welds of two of the three armor plates in the area where the projectile hit came apart.”

Changing the design of the frontal part of the tank hull

Power point.
The Maybach engine is designed to operate in moderate climatic conditions, where its characteristics are satisfactory. At the same time, in tropical or highly dusty conditions, it breaks down and is prone to overheating. British intelligence, after studying the PzKpfw IV tank captured in 1942, concluded that engine failures were caused by sand getting into the oil system, distributor, dynamo and starter; air filters are inadequate. Celebrated frequent cases sand getting into the carburetor.

The Maybach engine operating manual requires the use of only 74 octane gasoline with a complete lubricant change after 200, 500, 1000 and 2000 km. Recommended engine speed at normal conditions operation - 2600 rpm, but in hot climates (southern regions of the USSR and North Africa) this number of revolutions does not provide normal cooling. Using the engine as a brake is permissible at 2200-2400 rpm; at a speed of 2600-3000 this mode should be avoided.

The main components of the cooling system were two radiators installed at an angle of 25 degrees to the horizontal. The radiators were cooled by an air flow forced by two fans; The fans are driven by a belt from the main engine shaft. Water circulation in the cooling system was ensured by a centrifuge pump. Air entered the engine compartment through an opening on the right side of the hull, covered by an armored damper, and was exhausted out through a similar opening on the left side.

The synchro-mechanical transmission proved efficient, although pulling force in high gears was low, so 6th gear was used only for highway driving. The output shafts are combined with the braking and turning mechanism into a single device. To cool this device, a fan was installed to the left of the clutch box. The simultaneous release of the steering control levers could be used as an effective parking brake.

On tanks of later versions, the spring suspension of the road wheels was heavily overloaded, but replacing the damaged two-wheeled bogie seemed to be a fairly simple operation. The track tension was regulated by the position of the idler mounted on the eccentric. On the Eastern Front, special track extenders, known as "Ostketten", were used, which improved the maneuverability of tanks in winter months of the year.

An extremely simple but effective device for dressing a slipped caterpillar was tested on experimental tank PzKpfw IV. It was a factory-made belt, which had the same width as the tracks, and was perforated for engagement with the ring gear of the drive wheel. One end of the tape was attached to the slipped track, and the other, after it was passed over the rollers, to the drive wheel. The motor turned on, the drive wheel began to rotate, pulling the tape and the tracks attached to it until the rims of the drive wheel entered the slots on the tracks. The whole operation took a few minutes.

The engine was started by a 24-volt electric starter. Since the auxiliary electric generator saved battery charge, it was possible to try to start the engine more times on the “four” than on tank PzKpfw III. In the event of a starter failure, or when severe frost Once the lubricant thickened, an inertial starter was used, the handle of which was connected to the engine shaft through a hole in the rear armor plate. The handle was turned by two people at the same time; the minimum number of turns of the handle required to start the engine was 60 rpm. Starting the engine from an inertia starter has become commonplace in the Russian winter. The minimum temperature of the engine at which it began to operate normally was t = 50 degrees C with a shaft rotation of 2000 rpm.

To facilitate engine starting in the cold climate of the Eastern Front, a special system was developed known as a "Kuhlwasserubertragung" - a cold water heat exchanger. After the engine of one tank was started and warmed up to normal temperature, warm water from it was pumped into the cooling system of the next tank, and cold water came to an already running motor - an exchange of coolants between the running and non-running motors took place. After the warm water warmed up the engine somewhat, you could try starting the engine with an electric starter. The "Kuhlwasserubertragung" system required minor modifications to the tank's cooling system.

Pz.Kpfw. IV Ausf. F2

Main characteristics

Briefly

Details

3.3 / 3.3 / 3.7 BR

5 people Crew

Mobility

22.7 tons Weight

6 forward
1 ago checkpoint

Armament

87 rounds of ammunition

10° / 20° UVN

3,000 rounds of ammunition

150 shells clip size

900 rounds/min rate of fire

Economy

Description

Panzerkampfwagen IV (7.5 cm) Ausführung F2 or Pz.Kpfw. IV Ausf. F2 - medium tank of the armed forces of the Third Reich. Unlike previous modifications, it was armed with a long-barreled 75-mm KwK 40 gun with a barrel length of 43 calibers and improved armor protection. Became the first German tank capable of resisting on equal terms Soviet tanks T-34 and KV-1, but this only concerned weapons; in terms of armor protection it was still inferior to its rivals and could easily be destroyed by Soviet 76-mm tank guns. For this reason, the vehicle’s armor was often strengthened by the crew themselves by attaching spare tracks and other improvised means.

Release of Pz.Kpfw. IV Ausf. F2 lasted from April to July 1942. During this period, 175 units were built and another 25 cars were converted from the F1 modification. The tank was used mainly on the Eastern Front; some of the vehicles of this modification were sent to the Afrika Korps, where they were used to suppress allied fire points and manpower due to a shortage of armor-piercing shells. The tank played a significant role in the war, countering the tanks and armored vehicles of the Allies, which the rest of the German tanks, which had weaker weapons, could not cope with. After production of the F2 modification ceased, the vehicle gave way to more advanced modifications of the Pz.Kpfw medium tank. IV.

Main characteristics

Armor protection and survivability

Location of the crew and modules inside the Pz.Kpfw. IV Ausf. F2

Pz.Kpfw. IV Ausf. The F2 does not have the best armor protection among similar tanks in its combat rating (BR). The entire frontal armor of the tank has a thickness of 50 mm, except for the section of armor under the driver's gap, which has a thickness of 20 mm, but is located at an angle of 73 degrees, which gives the reduced armor thickness the same 50 mm. In addition, having studied the "Applied Armor" modification, the frontal armor is reinforced with additional tracks 15 mm thick. The side and rear armor of the turret and hull is 30 mm and is easily damaged even heavy machine guns. The tank's survivability is negatively affected by the dense layout of the crew and modules. The downside is the high commander's turret, which can protrude from behind cover, even if the tank is completely hidden from the eyes of enemies.

Mobility

Pz.Kpfw. IV Ausf. F2 has high speed and mobility. The maximum speed of the car is 48 km/h, it picks up quickly and is almost not lost from small obstacles. The rear speed is 8 km/h and is quite enough to roll back after a shot or back up to drive behind cover. The maneuverability of the car is good both from a standstill and while driving. From a standstill, the tank turns vigorously, while moving even better and faster, but noticeably loses speed. Cross-country ability of Pz.Kpfw. IV Ausf. F2 high.

Armament

Main weapon

The most important advantage of the Pz.Kpfw. IV Ausf. F2 is its long-barreled 75 mm KwK40 L43 gun with 87 rounds of ammunition. The gun has simply amazing armor penetration. Due to the length of the barrel, unlike previous modifications with short-barreled guns, the KwK40 L43 has good projectile flight ballistics. According to the armor effect, Pz.Kpfw. IV Ausf. F2 is inferior to T-34 and KV-1 shells, but it is quite enough to destroy most of the enemy with one exact hit. The gun reloads quickly. Vertical aiming angles range from -10 to +20 degrees, which allows you to fire from behind hills and obstacles while hiding the body behind them. The tower rotates with average speed, so sometimes you have to turn your body towards a suddenly appearing enemy.

There are five types of shells available for the tank:

• PzGr 39- an armor-piercing projectile with an armor-piercing tip and a ballistic cap. It has excellent armor penetration and good armor protection. Recommended as the main projectile for this tank.

• Hl.Gr 38B- cumulative projectile. It has less armor penetration than the PzGr 39, but retains it at all distances. Recommended for shooting at enemies at particularly long distances.

• PzGr 40- armor-piercing sub-caliber projectile. It has the highest armor penetration, but much less armor penetration than the PzGr 39, and also significantly loses its armor penetration at long distances. In addition, the projectile is not very effective against opponents with sloped armor. Recommended for use at close range against well-armored opponents.

• Sprgr. 34 - high-explosive fragmentation projectile. It has the lowest armor penetration of all the presented shells. Can be effective against unarmored vehicles, for example against anti-aircraft guns self-propelled units(ZSU) based on trucks.

• K.Gr.Rot Nb.- smoke shell. It does not have armor penetration and can only cause damage by hitting the enemy crew directly. Temporarily releases a large cloud of smoke, through which the enemy will be unable to see the player's actions and movements.

Machine gun weapons

Pz.Kpfw. IV Ausf. The F2 is armed with a 7.92 mm MG34 machine gun with 3,000 rounds of ammunition, coaxial with a 75 mm gun. It can incapacitate the crew on vehicles that do not have armor, for example, a self-propelled gun based on trucks.

Use in combat

To protect the vulnerable hull of the Pz.Kpfw. IV Ausf. F2, it is better to choose positions that would completely cover the body from enemy shells

Playing on Pz.Kpfw. IV Ausf. F2, you should always remember about its weak armor and high vulnerability. Thanks to its high speed, the Pz.Kpfw. IV, you can be one of the first to arrive at the capture point, but if there is no cover at the point, then you can be easy prey for enemy tanks. The same applies to attacks, you need to avoid open areas of terrain where the vehicle will be easily destroyed and move only from cover to cover, destroying enemy tanks because of them. The car is also well suited for the role of a sniper. A good car for flanking, fast speed will allow you to easily enter the enemy’s flank or rear, and the effect of surprise and a good weapon will allow you to inflict significant damage on the enemy team.

Advantages and disadvantages

The armor does not have rational angles, so you need to turn the hull a little, but not too much, so as not to expose even weaker sides; good dynamics and mobility will allow you to take important positions quickly, and the UVN will shoot in most situations.

Advantages:

• Excellent armor penetration
• High flatness
• Good armor protection effect of shells
• Remarkable speed and maneuverability
• Good maneuverability
• Fast recharge

Flaws:

• Weak armor
• Dense layout

Historical reference

In January 1934, the Armament Directorate of the German War Department held a competition for designs for a new medium tank. Krupp, MAN, Daimler-Benz and Rheinmetall took part in the competition. The competition was won by the project of the Krupp company, under the designation VK 2001 (K). The new tank was conceived by the German command as a support tank for attacking forces; its main task was to suppress enemy firing points, mainly machine-gun nests and anti-tank gun crews, as well as fight against lightly armored enemy vehicles. In its design and layout, the tank was made in the classic German style - with the control and transmission compartment located in the front part, the fighting compartment in the middle and the engine compartment in the rear part of the hull. The tank was armed with a short-barreled 75 mm gun. Initially, observing secrecy from the prohibitions of the Treaty of Versailles, new car designated as Bataillonsführerwagen or B.W., which translated meant "battalion commander's vehicle", later the tank received its final designation - Pz.Kpfw. IV (Panzerkampfwagen IV) or Sd.Kfz. 161, in Soviet and domestic sources T-4 or T-IV.

The first modification of the Pz.Kpfw tank. IV Ausf. A

The first pre-production samples of Pz.Kpfw. IV, designated Ausf.A, they were released in late 1936 - early 1937. At the time of the outbreak of hostilities by Germany, on September 1, 1939, there were only 211 Pz.Kpfw tanks in the Wehrmacht tank fleet. IV of all modifications. Although these vehicles were not encountered in the Polish campaign worthy opponents, but also small-caliber anti-tank artillery Polish troops caused serious losses to German tanks. For this reason, in urgently, measures were taken to strengthen the armor protection of tanks. The French campaign, where German tank forces clashed with French and British armored vehicles, only confirmed that the Pz.Kpfw. IV still did not have sufficient armor, in addition, it also showed that short-barreled 75-mm guns were powerless against the heavy British Matilda tanks. But the final end to the production of Pz.Kpfw. IV with short-barreled guns was installed in the campaign against the USSR, which began on June 22, 1941. Already in July of the same year, faced with heavy KV-1 and medium T-34 tanks, the Germans realized that short guns could not do anything to the new Soviet tanks, even at point-blank range.

Pz.Kpfw. IV Ausf. F1 with short-barreled gun

For this reason, at the end of the autumn of 1941, the hasty development of a new, long-barreled 75-mm tank gun began, which could successfully resist the Soviet T-34 and KV-1. Previously, the idea of ​​​​installing a 50-mm gun with a barrel length of 42 calibers was put forward, but the experience of the war on the Eastern Front showed that Soviet 76-mm guns were superior to German 50-mm guns in all respects. To install the new gun, a modification of the Pz.Kpfw was taken. IV Ausf. F, which was produced from April 1941 and was the result of an analysis of the course of hostilities in Poland and France. Unlike all previous modifications, the Ausf. F the thickness of the armor of the turret and hull forehead increased to 50 mm, the sides to 30 mm, the hull front plate became straight, single-leaf hatch doors on the sides of the turret were replaced with double-leaf ones. Due to the increased mass of the tank and specific ground pressure, the vehicle received new tracks with a width of 400 mm, instead of 360 mm, as on all previous modifications.

With the installation of a 75-mm long-barreled KwK 40 gun with a barrel length of 43 calibers on the tank, the designation of the tank Pz.Kpfw. IV Ausf. F, at the end, the numbers 1 and 2 were added, where the number 1 meant that the vehicle had a short-barreled gun, and 2 - with a long-barreled gun. The combat weight of the tank reached 23.6 tons. Production of Pz.Kpfw. IV Ausf. F2 began in March 1942 and ended in July of the same year, giving way to other, more advanced modifications. During this period, 175 Ausf vehicles were produced. F2 and 25 others were converted from F1. With the advent of long-barreled guns, Pz.Kpfw. IV was able to compete on equal terms with Soviet heavy and medium tanks, but this only concerned weapons; in terms of armor protection, the vehicle was still inferior to the Soviet T-34 and, even more so, the KV-1. In addition, the increased weight of the vehicle reduced its speed and maneuverability, and the installation of a long-barreled gun increased the weight on the front part of the hull, which led to rapid wear of the front rollers and led to strong rocking of the tank during a sudden stop and after a shot.

Media

Pz.Kpfw. IV Ausf. F2



Pz.Kpfw. IV Ausf. F2 before being sent to the front



Pz.Kpfw. IV Ausf. F2 in the open air armored vehicles museum

PzKpfw IV ausf F2 review from BlackCross

PzKpfw IV ausf F2 review by Ezida

PzKpfw IV ausf F2 review from Omero

see also

• link to the family of equipment;
• links to approximate analogues in other nations and branches.

• topic at the office game forum;
• Wikipedia page;
• page on Aviarmor.net;
• other literature.