Sample questions

1. Society as a complex dynamic system. public relations. 2 Development of views on society. 3. Formational and civilizational approaches to the study of society. 4 Social progress and its criteria. 5. Global problems modernity.

1. Society as a complex dynamic system. Public relations

The existence of people in society is characterized by various forms of life activity and communication. Everything that is created in society is the result of the combined joint activities of many generations of people. Actually, society itself is a product of interaction between people; it exists only where and when people are connected with each other by common interests.

In philosophical science, many definitions of the concept “society” are offered. In a narrow sense society can be understood as a certain group of people united to communicate and jointly perform some activity, or a specific stage in the historical development of a people or country.

In a broad sense society- it is a part of the material world isolated from nature, but closely connected with it, which consists of individuals with will and consciousness, and includes ways of interaction of people and forms of their association.

In philosophical science, society is characterized as a dynamic self-developing system, i.e., a system that is capable of seriously changing and at the same time maintaining its essence and qualitative certainty. In this case, the system is understood as a complex of interacting elements. In turn, an element is some further indecomposable component of the system that is directly involved in its creation.

To analyze complex systems, such as the one that society represents, scientists have developed the concept of “subsystem”. Subsystems are “intermediate” complexes that are more complex than the elements, but less complex than the system itself.

1) economic, the elements of which are material production and relationships that arise between people in the process of production of material goods, their exchange and distribution;

2) social, consisting of such structural formations as classes, social strata, nations, taken in their relationship and interaction with each other;

3) political, which includes politics, state, law, their relationship and functioning;

4) spiritual, embracing various shapes and levels of social consciousness, which, being embodied in the real process of social life, form what is commonly called spiritual culture.

Each of these spheres, being an element of the system called “society”, in turn, turns out to be a system in relation to the elements that make it up. All four spheres of social life not only interconnect, but also mutually determine each other. The division of society into spheres is somewhat arbitrary, but it helps to isolate and study individual areas of a truly integral society, diverse and complex social life.

Sociologists offer several classifications of society. Societies are:

a) pre-written and written;

b) simple and complex (the criterion in this typology is the number of levels of management of society, as well as the degree of its differentiation: in simple societies there are no leaders and subordinates, rich and poor, and in complex societies there are several levels of management and several social strata of the population, arranged from top to bottom in descending order of income);

c) society of primitive hunters and gatherers, traditional (agrarian) society, industrial society and post-industrial society;

G) primitive society, slave society, feudal society, capitalist society and communist society.

In Western scientific literature in the 1960s. The division of all societies into traditional and industrial became widespread (while capitalism and socialism were considered as two types of industrial society).

The German sociologist F. Tönnies, the French sociologist R. Aron, and the American economist W. Rostou made a great contribution to the formation of this concept.

Traditional (agrarian) society represented the pre-industrial stage of civilizational development. All societies of antiquity and the Middle Ages were traditional. Their economy was characterized by the dominance of rural subsistence farming and primitive crafts. Extensive technology and hand tools prevailed, initially ensuring economic progress. In his production activities, man sought to adapt to the environment as much as possible and obey the rhythms of nature. Property relations were characterized by the dominance of communal, corporate, conditional, and state forms of ownership. Private property was neither sacred nor inviolable. The distribution of material goods and manufactured goods depended on a person’s position in the social hierarchy. The social structure of traditional society is class-based, corporate, stable and immobile. Social mobility was virtually absent: a person was born and died, remaining in the same social group. The main social units were the community and the family. Human behavior in society was regulated by corporate norms and principles, customs, beliefs, and unwritten laws. Providentialism dominated in the public consciousness: social reality, human life were perceived as the implementation of divine providence.

The spiritual world of a person in a traditional society, his system of value orientations, and way of thinking are special and noticeably different from modern ones. Individuality and independence were not encouraged: the social group dictated norms of behavior to the individual. One can even talk about a “group person” who did not analyze his position in the world, and in general rarely analyzed the phenomena of the surrounding reality. He rather moralizes and evaluates life situations from the perspective of his social group. The number of educated people was extremely limited (“literacy for the few”), oral information prevailed over written information. The political sphere of a traditional society is dominated by the church and the army. The person is completely alienated from politics. Power seems to him to be of greater value than right and law. In general, this society is extremely conservative, stable, impervious to innovations and impulses from the outside, representing a “self-sustaining self-regulating immutability.” Changes in it occur spontaneously, slowly, without the conscious intervention of people. The spiritual sphere of human existence has priority over the economic

Traditional societies have survived to this day mainly in the countries of the so-called “third world” (Asia, Africa) (therefore, the concept of “non-Western civilizations”, which also claims to be well-known sociological generalizations, is often synonymous with “traditional society”). From a Eurocentric point of view, traditional societies are backward, primitive, closed, unfree social organisms, to which Western sociology contrasts industrial and post-industrial civilizations.

As a result of modernization, understood as a complex, contradictory, complex process of transition from a traditional society to an industrial one, the foundations of a new civilization were laid in the countries of Western Europe. They call her industrial, technogenic, scientific and technical or economic. The economic basis of an industrial society is industry based on machine technology. The volume of fixed capital increases, long-term average costs per unit of output decrease. In agriculture

When labor productivity increases sharply, natural isolation is destroyed. Extensive farming is being replaced by intensive farming, and simple reproduction is being replaced by expanded farming. All these processes occur through the implementation of the principles and structures of a market economy, based on scientific and technological progress. Man is freed from direct dependence on nature and partially subjugates it to himself. Stable economic growth is accompanied by an increase in real income per capita. If the pre-industrial period is filled with fear of hunger and disease, then industrial society is characterized by an increase in the well-being of the population. In the social sphere of industrial society, traditional structures and social barriers are also collapsing. Social mobility is significant. As a result of the development of agriculture and industry, the share of the peasantry in the population is sharply reduced, and urbanization occurs. New classes are emerging - the industrial proletariat and the bourgeoisie, and the middle strata are strengthening. The aristocracy is in decline.

In the spiritual sphere, there is a significant transformation of the value system. A person in a new society is autonomous within a social group and is guided by his own personal interests. Individualism, rationalism (a person analyzes the world around him and makes decisions on this basis) and utilitarianism (a person acts not in the name of some global goals, but for a specific benefit) are new coordinate systems for the individual. There is a secularization of consciousness (liberation from direct dependence on religion). A person in an industrial society strives for self-development and self-improvement. Global changes are also taking place in the political sphere. The role of the state is sharply increasing, and a democratic regime is gradually taking shape. Law and law dominate in society, and a person is involved in power relations as an active subject.

A number of sociologists somewhat clarify the above diagram. From their point of view, the main content of the modernization process is a change in the model (stereotype) of behavior, in the transition from irrational (characteristic of a traditional society) to rational (characteristic of an industrial society) behavior. The economic aspects of rational behavior include the development of commodity-money relations, the determining role of money as a general equivalent of values, the displacement of barter transactions, the wide scope of market transactions, etc. The most important social consequence of modernization is considered to be a change in the principle of distribution of roles. Previously, society imposed sanctions on social choice, limiting the possibility of a person occupying certain social positions depending on his membership in a certain group (origin, birth, nationality). After modernization, a rational principle of distribution of roles is established, in which the main and only criterion for occupying a particular position is the candidate’s preparedness to perform these functions.

Thus, industrial civilization opposes traditional society on all fronts. Most modern industrialized countries (including Russia) are classified as industrial societies.

But modernization gave rise to many new contradictions, which over time turned into global problems (ecological, energy, and other crises). Resolving them and progressively developing, some modern societies are approaching the stage of post-industrial society, the theoretical parameters of which were developed in

1970s American sociologists D. Bell, E. Toffler and others. This society is characterized by the foregrounding of the service sector, the individualization of production and consumption, an increase in the share of small-scale production while mass production has lost its dominant position, and the leading role of science, knowledge and information in society. In the social structure of post-industrial society, there is an erasure of class differences, and the convergence of income levels of various population groups leads to the elimination of social polarization and an increase in the share of the middle class. The new civilization can be characterized as anthropogenic, with man and his individuality at its center. Sometimes it is also called informational, which reflects the ever-increasing dependence Everyday life society from information. The transition to a post-industrial society for most countries of the modern world is a very distant prospect.

In the course of his activity, a person enters into various relationships with other people. Such diverse forms of interaction between people, as well as connections that arise between different social groups (or within them), are usually called social relations.

All social relations can be conditionally divided into two large groups - material relations and spiritual (or ideal) relations. Fundamental difference The difference between them is that material relations arise and develop directly in the course of a person’s practical activity, outside of a person’s consciousness and independently of him, and spiritual relationships are formed by first “passing through the consciousness” of people and are determined by their spiritual values. In turn, material relations are divided into production, environmental and office relations; spiritual to moral, political, legal, artistic, philosophical and religious social relations.

A special type of social relations are interpersonal relations. Interpersonal relationships refer to relationships between individuals. At In this case, individuals, as a rule, belong to different social strata, have different cultural and educational levels, but they are united by common needs and interests in the sphere of leisure or everyday life. The famous sociologist Pitirim Sorokin highlighted the following types interpersonal interaction:

a) between two individuals (husband and wife, teacher and student, two comrades);

b) between three individuals (father, mother, child) -

c) between four, five or more people (the singer and his listeners);

d) between many, many people (members of an unorganized crowd).

Interpersonal relationships arise and are realized in society and are social relationships even if they are of the nature of purely individual communication. They act as a personalized form of social relations.

2. Development of views on society

For a long time, people have tried to explain the reasons for the emergence of society, the driving forces of its development. Initially, such explanations were given by them in the form of myths. Myths are the tales of ancient peoples about the origin of the world, about gods, heroes, etc. The set of myths is called mythology. Along with mythology, religion and philosophy also tried to find their answers to questions about pressing social problems, about the relationship of the universe with its laws and people. It is the philosophical doctrine of society that is the most developed today.

Many of its main provisions were formulated back in the ancient world, when attempts were first made to substantiate the view of society as specific form existence, which has its own laws. Thus, Aristotle defined society as a collection of human individuals who united to satisfy social instincts.

In the Middle Ages, all explanations of social life were based on religious dogmas. The most outstanding philosophers of this period - Aurelius Augustine and Thomas of Aquicus - understood human society as a special kind of being, as a type of human activity, the meaning of which is predetermined by God and which develops in accordance with the will of God.

In the modern period, a number of thinkers who did not share religious views put forward the thesis that society arose and is developing in a natural way. They developed the concept of contractual organization of public life. Its founder can be considered the ancient Greek philosopher Epicurus, who believed that the state rests on a social contract concluded by people to ensure general justice. Later representatives of the contract theory (T. Hobbes, D. Locke, J.-J. Rousseau, etc.) developed the views of Epicurus, putting forward the idea of ​​so-called “natural rights,” i.e., those rights that a person receives from birth.

During the same period, philosophers also developed the concept of “civil society”. They viewed civil society as a “system of universal dependence,” in which “the food and well-being of an individual person and his existence are intertwined with the food and well-being of all, are based on them, and only in this connection are they valid and ensured.” (G. Hegel).

In the 19th century part of the knowledge about society, which gradually accumulated in the depths of philosophy, stood out and began to constitute a separate science about society - sociology. The very concept of “sociology” was introduced into scientific circulation by the French philosopher and sociologist O. Comte. He divided sociology into two large parts: social statics and social dynamics. Social statics studies the conditions and laws of functioning of the entire social system as a whole, considers the main social institutions: family, state, religion, the functions they perform in society, as well as their role in establishing social harmony. The subject of the study of social dynamics is social progress, the decisive factor of which, according to O. Comte, is the spiritual and mental development of humanity.

A new stage in the development of problems social development became the materialist theory of Marxism, according to which society was viewed not as a simple sum of individuals, but as a set of “those connections and relationships in which these individuals are related to each other.” Defining the nature of the process of development of society as natural-historical, with its own specific social laws, K. Marx and F. Engels developed the doctrine of socio-economic formations, the determining role of material production in the life of society and the decisive role of the masses in social development. They see the source of the development of society in society itself, in the development of its material production, believing that social development is determined by its economic sphere. According to K. Marx and F. Engels, people are in the process

joint activities produce the means of subsistence they need - thereby they produce their material life, which is the basis of society, its foundation. Material life, material social relations, formed in the process of production of material goods, determine all other forms of human activity - political, spiritual, social And etc. And morality, religion, philosophy are only a reflection of the material life of people.

Human society goes through five socio-economic formations in its development: primitive communal, slaveholding, feudal, capitalist and communist. By socio-economic formation, Marx understood a historically specific type of society, representing a special stage in its development.

The main provisions of the materialistic understanding of the history of human society boil down to the following:

1. This understanding comes from the decisive, determining role of material production in real life. It is necessary to study the real process of production and the form of communication generated by it, i.e. civil society.

2. It shows how various forms of social consciousness arise: religion, philosophy, morality, law, etc., and what influence material production has on them.

3. It believes that each stage of development of society sets a certain material result, a certain level of productive forces, certain production relations. New generations use the productive forces, the capital acquired by the previous generation and at the same time create new values ​​and change the productive forces. Thus, the method of production of material life determines the social, political and spiritual processes occurring in society.

Even during Marx's lifetime, the materialist understanding of history was subject to various interpretations, with which he himself was very dissatisfied. At the end of the 19th century, when Marxism took one of the leading places in the European theory of social development, many researchers began to reproach Marx for reducing all the diversity of history to an economic factor and thereby simplifying the process of development of society, consisting of the most diverse facts and events.

In the 20th century the materialist theory of social life was supplemented. R. Aron, D. Bell, W. Rostow and others put forward a number of theories, including theories of industrial and post-industrial society, which explained the processes occurring in society not just by the development of its economy, but by specific changes in technology and the economic activities of people. The theory of industrial society (R. Aron) describes the process of progressive development of society as a transition from a backward agrarian “traditional” society, dominated by subsistence farming and class hierarchy, to an advanced, industrialized “industrial” society. The main features of an industrial society:

a) widespread production of consumer goods, combined with a complex system of division of labor among members of society;

b) mechanization and automation of production and management;

c) scientific and technological revolution;

d) high level of development of communications and transport;

d) high degree urbanization;

f) high level of social mobility.

From the point of view of supporters of this theory, it is these characteristics of large industry - industry - that determine processes in all other spheres of social life.

This theory was popular in the 60s. XX century In the 70s she received further development in her views American sociologists and political scientists D. Bell, Z. Brzezinski, A. Toffler. They believed that any society goes through three stages in its development:

1st stage - pre-industrial (agrarian);

2nd stage - industrial;

3rd stage - post-industrial (D. Bell), or technotronic (A. Toffler), or technological (Z. Brzezinski).

At the first stage, the main area of ​​economic activity is Agriculture, on the second - industry, on the third - the service sector. Each stage has its own special forms of social organization and its own social structure.

Although these theories, as already indicated, were within the framework materialistic understanding processes of social development, they had a significant difference from the views of Marx and Engels. According to the Marxist concept, the transition from one socio-economic formation to another was carried out on the basis of a social revolution, which was understood as a radical qualitative revolution in the entire system of social life. As for the theories of industrial and post-industrial society, they are within the framework of a movement called social evolutionism: according to them, technological revolutions occurring in the economy, although they entail revolutions in other spheres of social life, are not accompanied by social conflicts and social revolutions.

1. Formational and civilizational approaches to the study of society

Most The approaches to explaining the essence and features of the historical process developed in domestic historical and philosophical science are formational and civilizational.

The first of them belongs to the Marxist school of social science. Its key concept is the category “socio-economic formation”

Formation was understood as a historically specific type of society, considered in the organic interconnection of all his parties and spheres, arising on the basis of a certain method of production of material goods. In the structure of each formation, an economic base and a superstructure were distinguished. The basis (otherwise it was called production relations) is a set of social relations that develop between people in the process of production, distribution, exchange and consumption of material goods (the main ones among them are relations of ownership of the means of production). The superstructure was understood as a set of political, legal, ideological, religious, cultural and other views, institutions and relations not covered by the base. Despite the relative independence, the type of superstructure was determined by the nature of the base. It also represented the basis of the formation, determining the formational affiliation of a particular society. Production relations (the economic basis of society) and productive forces constituted the mode of production, often understood as a synonym for socio-economic formation. The concept of “productive forces” included people as producers material goods with their knowledge, skills and labor experience, and means of production: tools, objects, means of labor. Productive forces are a dynamic, constantly developing element of the method of production, while production relations are static and rigid, not changing for centuries. At a certain stage, a conflict arises between the productive forces and production relations, which is resolved during the social revolution, the breaking of the old basis and the transition to a new stage of social development, to a new socio-economic formation. Old relations of production are being replaced by new ones, which open up space for the development of productive forces. Thus, Marxism understands the historical process as a natural, objectively determined, natural-historical change of socio-economic formations.

In some of the works of K. Marx himself, only two large formations are identified - primary (archaic) and secondary (economic), which includes all societies based on private property. The third formation will be represented by communism. In other works of the classics of Marxism, a socio-economic formation is understood as a specific stage of development of a mode of production with its corresponding superstructure. It was on their basis that in Soviet social science by 1930 the so-called “five-member group” was formed and acquired the character of an indisputable dogma. According to this concept, all societies in their development alternately pass through five socio-economic formations: primitive, slaveholding, feudal, capitalist and communist, the first phase of which is socialism. The formational approach is based on several postulates:

1) the idea of ​​history as a natural, internally determined, progressive, world-historical and teleological (directed towards the goal - the construction of communism) process. The formational approach practically denied the national specificity and originality of individual states, focusing on what was common to all societies;

2) the decisive role of material production in the life of society, the idea of ​​economic factors as basic for other social relations;

3) the need to match production relations with productive forces;

4) the inevitability of transition from one socio-economic formation to another.

At the present stage of development of social science in our country, the theory of socio-economic formations is experiencing an obvious crisis; many authors have brought to the fore civilizational approach to the analysis of the historical process.

The concept of “civilization” is one of the most complex in modern science: Many definitions have been proposed. The term itself comes from Latin words"civil". In a broad sense Civilization is understood as the level, stage of development of society, material and spiritual culture, following barbarism and savagery. This concept is also used to designate a set of unique manifestations of social orders inherent in a certain historical community. In this sense, civilization is characterized as the qualitative specificity (originality of material, spiritual, social life) of a particular group of countries and peoples at a certain stage of development. The famous Russian historian M.A. Barg defined civilization this way: “...This is the way in which a given society resolves its material, socio-political and spiritual-ethical problems.” Different civilizations are fundamentally different from each other, since they are based not on similar production techniques and technology (as societies of the same Formation), but on incompatible systems of social and spiritual values. Any civilization is characterized not so much by its production base as by its specific way of life, value system, vision and ways of interrelating with the outside world.

In the modern theory of civilizations, both linear-stage concepts (in which civilization is understood as a certain stage of world development, contrasted with “uncivilized” societies) and concepts of local civilizations are common. The existence of the former is explained by the Eurocentrism of their authors, who represent the world historical process as the gradual introduction of barbarian peoples and societies to the Western European system of values ​​and the gradual advancement of humanity towards a single world civilization based on these same values. Proponents of the second group of concepts use the term “civilization” in plural and proceed from the idea of ​​the diversity of development paths for different civilizations.

Various historians have identified many local civilizations, which may coincide with the borders of states (Chinese civilization) or cover several countries (ancient, Western European civilization). Over time, civilizations change, but their “core,” which makes one civilization different from another, remains. The uniqueness of each civilization should not be absolutized: they all go through stages common to the world historical process. Usually, the entire diversity of local civilizations is divided into two large groups - eastern and western. The former are characterized by a high degree of dependence of the individual on nature and the geographical environment, a close connection between a person and his social group, low social mobility, and the dominance of traditions and customs among the regulators of social relations. Western civilizations, on the contrary, are characterized by the desire to subordinate nature to human power, the priority of individual rights and freedoms over social communities, high social mobility, a democratic political regime and the rule of law.

Thus, if a formation concentrates attention on the universal, general, repeating, then civilization focuses on the local-regional, unique, and peculiar. These approaches are not mutually exclusive. In modern social science there is a search in the direction of their mutual synthesis.

1. Social progress and its criteria

It is fundamentally important to find out in which direction a society is moving, which is in a state of continuous development and change.

Progress is understood as a direction of development, which is characterized by the progressive movement of society from lower and simpler forms of social organization to higher and more complex ones. The concept of progress is opposite to the concept regression, which is characterized by reverse movement- from higher to lower, degradation, return to already outdated structures and relationships. The idea of ​​the development of society as a progressive process appeared in ancient times, but finally took shape in the works of French enlighteners (A. Turgot, M. Condorcet, etc.). They saw the criteria for progress in the development of the human mind and in the spread of enlightenment. Such an optimistic view of history changed in the 19th century. more complex ideas. Thus, Marxism sees progress in the transition from one socio-economic formation to another, higher one. Some sociologists considered the essence of progress to be the complication of the social structure and the growth of social heterogeneity. In modern sociology. historical progress is associated with the process of modernization, i.e. the transition from an agrarian society to an industrial one, and then to a post-industrial one -

Some thinkers reject the idea of ​​progress in social development, either viewing history as a cyclical cycle with a series of ups and downs (G. Vico), predicting the imminent “end of history,” or affirming ideas about a multilinear, independent from each other, parallel movement of different societies (N J. Danilevsky, O. Spengler, A. Toynbee). Thus, A. Toynbee, abandoning the thesis about the unity of world history, identified 21 civilizations, in the development of each of which he distinguished the phases of emergence, growth, breakdown, decline and decay. O. Spengler also wrote about the “decline of Europe”. K. Popper’s “anti-progressism” is especially striking. Understanding progress as movement towards any goal, he considered it possible only for an individual, but not for history. The latter can be explained both as a progressive process and as a regression.

It is obvious that the progressive development of society does not exclude return movements, regression, civilizational dead ends and even breakdowns. And the development of humanity itself is unlikely to have an unambiguously linear character; accelerated leaps forward and rollbacks are possible in it. Moreover, progress in one area of ​​social relations may cause regression in another. The development of tools, technical and technological revolutions are clear evidence of economic progress, but they have brought the world to the brink of an environmental disaster and have depleted the Earth's natural resources. Modern society is accused of a decline in morality, a family crisis, and lack of spirituality. The price of progress is also high: the conveniences of city life, for example, are accompanied by numerous “diseases of urbanization.” Sometimes the costs of progress are so great that the question arises: is it even possible to talk about humanity moving forward?

In this regard, the question of the criteria for progress is relevant. There is no agreement among scientists here either. French enlighteners saw the criterion in the development of reason, in the degree of rationality of the social structure. A number of thinkers (for example, A. Saint-Simon) assessed the movement forward in terms of the state of public morality and its approach to early Christian ideals. G. Hegel connected progress with the degree of consciousness of freedom. Marxism also proposed a universal criterion of progress - the development of productive forces. Seeing the essence of forward movement in the increasing subordination of the forces of nature to man, K. Marx reduced social development to progress in the production sphere. He considered progressive only those social relations that corresponded to the level of productive forces and opened up scope for the development of man (as the main productive force). The applicability of such a criterion is disputed in modern social science. The state of the economic basis does not determine the nature of development of all other spheres of society. The goal, and not the means, of any social progress is to create conditions for the comprehensive and harmonious development of man.

Consequently, the criterion of progress should be the measure of freedom that society is able to provide to an individual for the maximum development of his potential. The degree of progressiveness of a particular social system must be assessed by the conditions created in it to satisfy all the needs of the individual, for the free development of man (or, as they say, by the degree of humanity of the social system).

There are two forms of social progress: revolution And reform.

Revolution- This is a complete or comprehensive change in all or most aspects of social life, affecting the foundations of the existing social system. Until recently, revolution was viewed as a universal “law of transition” from one socio-economic formation to another. But scientists have never been able to detect signs of a social revolution during the transition from a primitive communal system to a class one. It was necessary to expand the concept of revolution so much that it was suitable for any formational transition, but this led to the emasculation of the original content of the term. The “mechanism” of a real revolution could only be discovered in the social revolutions of modern times (during the transition from feudalism to capitalism).

According to Marxist methodology, a social revolution is understood as a radical revolution in the life of society, changing its structure and meaning a qualitative leap in its progressive development. The most common, deep-seated reason for the onset of the era of social revolution is the conflict between the growing productive forces and the existing system of social relations and institutions. The aggravation of economic, political and other contradictions in society on this objective basis leads to revolution.

A revolution always represents an active political action of the masses and has the first goal of transferring the leadership of society into the hands of a new class. A social revolution differs from evolutionary transformations in that it is concentrated in time and the masses directly act in it.

The dialectic of the concepts “reform - revolution” is very complex. A revolution, as a deeper action, usually “absorbs” reform: action “from below” is complemented by action “from above”.

Today, many scientists call for abandoning the exaggeration in history of the role of the social phenomenon called “social revolution”, and for declaring it a mandatory pattern in solving pressing historical problems, since revolution has not always been the main form of social transformation. Much more often, changes in society occurred as a result of reforms.

Reform- this is a transformation, reorganization, change in any aspect of social life that does not destroy the foundations of the existing social structure, leaving power in the hands of the former ruling class. Understood in this sense, the path of gradual transformation of existing relations is contrasted with revolutionary explosions that sweep away the old order, the old system to the ground. Marxism considered an evolutionary process that preserved for a long time many relics of the past are too painful for the people. And he argued that since reforms are always carried out “from above” by forces that already have power and do not want to part with it, the result of reforms is always lower than expected: the transformations are half-hearted and inconsistent.

The disdainful attitude towards reforms as forms of social progress was also explained by the famous position of V. I. Ulyanov-Lenin about reforms as a “by-product of the revolutionary struggle.” Actually, K. Marx already noted that “social reforms are never conditioned by the weakness of the strong, they must and will be brought to life by the strength of the “weak.” The denial of the possibility of the “top” having incentives to begin transformations was strengthened by his Russian follower: “The real engine of history is the revolutionary struggle of classes; reforms are a by-product of this struggle, a by-product because they express unsuccessful attempts to weaken and extinguish this struggle.” Even in cases where reforms were clearly not the result of mass uprisings, Soviet historians explained them by the desire of the ruling classes to prevent any encroachments on the ruling system in the future. Reforms in these cases were the result of a potential threat from the revolutionary movement of the masses.

Gradually, Russian scientists freed themselves from traditional nihilism in relation to evolutionary transformations, first recognizing the equivalence of reforms and revolutions, and then, changing signs, attacked revolutions with crushing criticism as extremely ineffective, bloody, replete with numerous costs and leading to dictatorship path.

Today, great reforms (i.e., revolutions “from above”) are recognized as the same social anomalies as great revolutions. Both of these ways of solving social contradictions are opposed to the normal, healthy practice of “permanent reform in a self-regulating society.” The “reform - revolution” dilemma is being replaced by clarifying the relationship between permanent regulation and reform. In this context, both reform and revolution “treat” an already advanced disease (the first with therapeutic methods, the second with surgical intervention), while constant and possibly early prevention is necessary. Therefore, in modern social science, the emphasis is shifted from the antinomy “reform - revolution” to “reform - innovation”. Innovation is understood as an ordinary, one-time improvement associated with an increase in the adaptive capabilities of a social organism in given conditions.

1. Global problems of our time

Global problems are the totality of problems that humanity faced in the second half of the 20th century. and on the solution of which the existence of civilization depends. These problems were the result of contradictions that had accumulated in the relationship between man and nature for a long time.

The first people who appeared on Earth, while obtaining food for themselves, did not violate natural laws and natural cycles. But in the process of evolution, the relationship between man and the environment has changed significantly. With the development of tools, man increasingly increased his “pressure” on nature. Already in ancient times, this led to the desertification of vast areas of Asia Minor and Central Asia and the Mediterranean.

The period of great geographical discoveries was marked by the beginning of the predatory exploitation of the natural resources of Africa, America and Australia, which seriously affected the state of the biosphere on the entire planet. And the development of capitalism and industrial revolutions that occurred in Europe gave rise to environmental problems in this region. The impact of the human community on nature reached global proportions in the second half of the 20th century. And today the problem of overcoming the environmental crisis and its consequences is perhaps the most pressing and serious.

In the process of his economic activity, man for a long time occupied the position of a consumer in relation to nature, mercilessly exploited it,

believing that natural reserves are inexhaustible.

One of the negative results of human activity has been the depletion of natural resources. Thus, in the process of historical development, people gradually mastered more and more new types of energy: physical strength (first their own, and then animals), wind energy, falling or flowing water, steam, electricity and, finally, atomic energy.

Currently, work is underway to obtain energy through thermonuclear fusion. However, the development of nuclear energy is hampered by public opinion, which is seriously concerned about the problem of ensuring the safety of nuclear power plants. As for other common energy sources - oil, gas, peat, coal, the danger of their depletion in the very near future is very great. So, if the growth rate of modern oil consumption does not increase (which is unlikely), then its proven reserves will last, at best, for the next fifty years. Meanwhile, most scientists do not confirm predictions according to which in the near future it will be possible to create a type of energy whose resources will become practically inexhaustible. Even if we assume that thermonuclear fusion can still be “tamed” in the next 15-20 years, its widespread implementation (with the creation of the necessary infrastructure for this) will take more than one decade. Therefore, humanity, apparently, should listen to the opinion of those scientists who recommend voluntary self-restraint in both production and consumption

The second aspect of this problem is environmental pollution. Every year, industrial enterprises, energy and transport complexes emit more than 30 billion tons of carbon dioxide and up to 700 million tons of vapor and gaseous compounds harmful to the human body into the Earth’s atmosphere.

The most powerful accumulations of harmful substances lead to the appearance of so-called “ozone holes” - places in the atmosphere through which depleted ozone layer allows ultraviolet rays from sunlight to reach the Earth's surface more freely. This has a negative impact

on the health of the planet's population. “Ozone holes” are one of the reasons for the increase in the number of cancer diseases in humans. The tragedy of the situation, according to scientists, also lies in the fact that if the ozone layer is completely depleted, humanity will not have the means to restore it.

Not only the air and land are polluted, but also the waters of the World Ocean. From 6 to 10 million tons of crude oil and petroleum products fall into it annually (and taking into account their waste, this figure can be doubled). All this leads to both the destruction (extinction) of entire species of animals and plants, and to the deterioration of the gene pool of all humanity. It is obvious that the problem of general environmental degradation, the consequence of which is the deterioration of people’s living conditions, is a universal human problem. Humanity can only solve it together. In 1982, the UN adopted a special document - the World Conservation Charter, and then created a special commission on the environment. In addition to the UN, non-governmental organizations such as Greenpeace, the Club of Rome, etc. play a major role in developing and ensuring the environmental safety of mankind. As for the governments of the world's leading powers, they are trying to combat environmental pollution by adopting special environmental legislation.

Another problem is the problem of population growth globe(demographic problem). It is associated with the continuous increase in the population living on the planet and has its own background. Approximately 7 thousand years ago, during the Neolithic era, according to scientists, no more than 10 million people lived on the planet. By the beginning of the 15th century. this figure doubled, and by the beginning of the 19th century. - approached a billion. The two billion mark was crossed in the 20s. XX century, and as of 2000, the world's population had already exceeded 6 billion people.

The demographic problem is generated by two global demographic processes: the so-called population explosion in developing countries and under-reproduction of the population in developed countries. However, it is obvious that the Earth's resources (primarily food) are limited, and already today a number of developing countries have had to face the problem of limiting the birth rate. But, according to scientists’ forecasts, the birth rate will reach simple reproduction (i.e., replacement of generations without population growth) in Latin America no earlier than 2035, in South Asia no earlier than 2060, and in Africa no earlier than 2070. Between Therefore, it is necessary to solve the demographic problem now, because the current population size is hardly feasible for a planet that is not able to provide such a number of people with the food necessary for survival.

Some demographers also point to such an aspect of the demographic problem as a change in the structure of the world population, occurring as a result of the demographic explosion of the second half of the 20th century. In this structure, the number of residents and immigrants from developing countries is growing - people who are poorly educated, unsettled, who do not have positive life guidelines and the habit of observing the norms of civilized behavior. this leads to a significant decrease in the intelligence and social level of humanity and the spread of such antisocial phenomena as drug addiction, vagrancy, crime, etc.

Closely intertwined with the demographic problem is the problem of reducing the gap in the level of economic development between developed Western countries and developing countries of the Third World (the so-called North-South problem).

The essence of this problem is that the majority of those released in the second half of the 20th century. From the colonial dependence of the countries, having taken the path of catching-up economic development, they were unable, despite relative successes, to catch up with the developed countries in terms of basic economic indicators (primarily in terms of GNP per capita). This was largely due to the demographic situation: population growth in these countries actually offset the economic successes achieved.

And finally, another global problem, which has long been considered the most important, is the problem of preventing a new - third world war.

The search for ways to prevent world conflicts began almost immediately after the end of the World War of 1939-1945. It was then that the countries of the anti-Hitler coalition decided to create the UN - a universal international organization, the main purpose of which was to develop interstate cooperation and, in the event of a conflict between countries, to assist the opposing parties in resolving controversial issues peacefully. However, the final division of the world into two systems, capitalist and socialist, which soon occurred, as well as the beginning of the Cold War

and the new arms race have more than once brought the world to the brink of nuclear disaster. The threat of the outbreak of a third world war was especially real during the so-called Caribbean crisis of 1962 caused by the deployment of Soviet nuclear missiles in Cuba. But thanks to the reasonable position of the leaders of the USSR and the USA, the crisis was resolved peacefully. In subsequent decades, a number of agreements on the limitation of nuclear weapons were signed by the leading nuclear powers of the world, and some of them nuclear powers committed to stopping nuclear testing. In many ways, the decision of governments to accept such obligations was influenced by the social movement for peace, as well as such an authoritative interstate association of scientists who advocated general and complete disarmament, such as the Pugwash movement. It was scientists who, with the help of scientific models, convincingly proved that the main consequence nuclear war there will be an environmental disaster, which will result in climate change on Earth. The latter could lead to genetic changes in human nature and, possibly, to the complete extinction of humanity.

Today we can state the fact that the likelihood of conflict between the leading powers of the world is much less than before. However, there is a possibility that nuclear weapons could fall into the hands of authoritarian regimes (Iraq) or individual terrorists. On the other hand, recent events related to the activities of the UN commission in Iraq and the new aggravation of the Middle East crisis once again prove that, despite the end of the Cold War, the threat of a third world war still exists.

Due to the end of the Cold War in the mid-1980s. a global conversion problem has arisen. Conversion is the gradual transfer of excess resources (capital, technology) work force etc.), who were previously employed in the military sphere, into the civilian sphere. Conversion is in the interests of most people because it significantly reduces the threat of military conflict.

All global problems are interconnected. It is impossible to solve each of them separately: humanity must solve them together in order to preserve life on the planet.

Society is a system .

What is the system? “System” is a Greek word, from ancient Greek. σύστημα - a whole made up of parts, a compound.

So, if we are talking about society as a system, then it is meant that society consists of separate but interconnected, complementary and developing parts and elements. Such elements are spheres of social life (subsystems), which, in turn, are a system for their constituent elements.

EXPLANATION:

Finding an answer to a question about society as a system, it is necessary to find an answer that contains the elements of society: spheres, subsystems, social institutions, that is, parts of this system.

Society is a dynamic system

Let's remember the meaning of the word "dynamic". It is derived from the word “dynamics”, which denotes movement, the course of development of a phenomenon, something. This development can go both forward and backward, the main thing is that it happens.

Society - dynamic system. It does not stand still, it is in constant motion. Not all areas develop equally. Some change faster, some change more slowly. But everything is moving. Even a period of stagnation, that is, a pause in movement, is not an absolute stop. Today is not like yesterday. “Everything flows, everything changes,” he said ancient Greek philosopher Heraclitus.

EXPLANATION:

The correct answer to the question about society as a dynamic system there will be one in which we are talking about any kind of movement, interaction, mutual influence of any elements in society.

Spheres of public life (subsystems)

EXPLANATION

It will be presented at the Unified State Exam two types of tasks on this topic.

1. It is necessary to find out by the signs which area we are talking about (remember this table).

1. The second type of task is more difficult when it is necessary, after analyzing the situation, to determine the connection and interaction of which spheres of social life are represented here.

Example: The State Duma adopted the Law “On Competition”.

In this case, we are talking about the relationship between the political sphere (the State Duma) and the economic sphere (the law concerns competition).

Material prepared by: Melnikova Vera Aleksandrovna

Ticket No. 1

Society is the social organization of a country that ensures the joint functioning of people.

This a part of the material world isolated from nature, which represents a historically developing form of connections and relationships of people in the process of their life.

Character traits societies:

1. Territory- a certain physical space in which connections are formed and developed (most often within one state).

2 .Population - a large social group that shares common social characteristics.

3. Autonomy and self-sufficiency.

Autonomy means that society has its own territory, own history, own control system.
Self-sufficiency- society’s ability to self-regulate, that is, to ensure the functioning of all vital spheres without outside interference, for example, to reproduce the numerical composition of the population.

Common history (formation, common overcoming of obstacles, solving common problems, common heroes)

Shared values ​​and culture

Economics (allowing society to be self-sufficient)

Must last for 1 generation (20-25 years)

8. Social structure ( a set of interconnected and interacting social communities, social institutions and the relationships between them)

Systematicity.

System (Greek)- a whole made up of parts, a compound, a set of elements that are in relationships and connections with each other, which form a certain unity.

Society is a complex system that unites people. They are in close unity and interconnection.

The main element of society as a system is a person who has the ability to set goals and choose the means to carry out his activities.

There are different subsystems in society. Subsystems close in direction are usually called spheres human life:

· Economic (material - production): production, property, distribution of goods, money circulation, etc.)

· Political (management, politics, state, law, their relationship and functioning).

· Social (classes, social groups, nations, taken in their relationships and interactions with each other).

· Spiritually - moral (religion, science, art).

There is a close relationship between all spheres of human life. Each of these spheres, being an element of the system called “society”, in turn, turns out to be a system in relation to the elements that make it up. All four spheres of social life not only interconnect, but also mutually determine each other. The division of society into spheres is somewhat arbitrary, but it helps to isolate and study individual areas of a truly integral society, diverse and complex social life.

Public relations– a set of various connections, contacts, dependencies that arise between people (the relationship of property, power and subordination, the relationship of rights and freedoms).

Determine the role of law in the system of social regulators. Describe the main elements of the legal system.

Law is a system of generally binding rules of behavior established by the state, norms, the implementation of which is ensured by the power of state coercion.

Right is social phenomenon. It arises as a product of society at a certain stage of its development.

There is a right regulator of socially significant human behavior, variety social norms. It deals with the social sphere, which includes:

b) relations between people (social relations);

c) behavior of subjects of social relations.

SIGNS OF RIGHT

universal obligatory; normativity; consistency; connection with the state; regulativeness.

Right is considered social regulator Social regulation is necessary because it ensures the normal functioning of society. The essence of social regulation is to influence the behavior of people and the activities of organizations . But in addition to social purpose, the right also has functional purpose . The functional purpose of law is best expressed in the fact that law acts as regulator of public relations .

OTHER REGULATORS OF PUBLIC RELATIONS

Social norm- these are, simply put, the rules of human behavior in society, so that both he and society are in harmony. But these rules apply not to a specific person, but to all people in a given society, and they are not only general, but also mandatory. Social norms that operate in modern society are divided by the method of their establishment And on means of protecting their claims from violations .

The following types of social norms are distinguished:

1. Rules of law- rules of behavior that are established and protected by the state.

2. Standards of morality (ethics)- rules of behavior that are established in society in accordance with the moral ideas of people and are protected by the power of public opinion or internal conviction.

3. Corporate standards- rules of behavior that are established by ourselves public organizations and they are protected by them.

4. Norms of customs- rules of behavior that have developed in a certain social environment and, as a result of their repeated repetition, have become a habit of people.

5. Norms of tradition - the most generalized and stable rules of behavior that arise in a certain area of ​​human life (family, professional, military, national and other traditions).

6. Religious norms- a type of social norms that determines the rules of behavior of people when performing rituals and is protected by measures of moral influence.

7. Aesthetic standards– the concept of beautiful and terrible, harmonious and disharmonious, proportional, absurd, etc. in the public consciousness.

ELEMENTS OF THE LEGAL SYSTEM

Structure of the legal system- it is objectively existing internal structure rights of this state. The main structural elements of the legal system:

A) Rules of law- the initial component, those “bricks” from which the entire “building” of the legal system is ultimately composed. A rule of law is always a structural element of a certain institution of law and a certain branch of law

A norm is a complex formation, structurally consisting of three elements: hypothesis, disposition and sanctions.

-Hypothesis– part of a norm that contains an indication of the conditions or circumstances in the presence or absence of which the norm is implemented. For example, in the event of the birth of a child, the right to receive a one-time childbirth benefit arises. The hypothesis here is the birth of a child.

-Disposition- this is the very rule of behavior according to which participants in a legal relationship must act. This part of the norm contains the rights and obligations of subjects, i.e. it determines the measure of permissible and proper behavior. In the example above, the disposition is the right to receive benefits.

-Sanction– part of a norm that indicates the adverse consequences arising from a violation of the disposition of a legal norm. These consequences can be of various types: punishment (measure of responsibility) in the form of a reprimand, fine, arrest, imprisonment, etc.; various types of coercive measures (precautionary – arrest, seizure of property; protective measures – reinstatement of an illegally dismissed employee at his previous job, collection of alimony), etc.

b) Institute of Law- is a separate part of the branch of law, a set legal norms regulating a certain aspect of qualitatively homogeneous social relations (for example, property rights, inheritance law - civil law institutions).

V) Branch of law- this is an independent part of the legal system, a set of legal norms regulating a certain area of ​​qualitatively homogeneous social relations (for example, civil law regulates property relations).

Ticket number 2

Population

3. Public power(professionally involved in the management and protection of society (state apparatus)

4. Legislation(a system of legal norms binding on the entire population)

5. Army(protection of the population and state sovereignty)

6 . The right to establish obligations for all taxes and fees(for the maintenance of the state apparatus, the army, budget payments)

7. Legal right to legal coercion(from various administrative, criminal penalties, restriction of freedom). To perform the functions of coercion, the state has special bodies: the army, the police, the security service, the court, and the prosecutor's office.

8. Sovereignty(the right and ability to independently, without the interference of any other force, manage one’s internal and external life).

TASKS OF THE ECONOMY

Economic activity is necessary in order to transform resources into the necessary economic benefits, goods and services that satisfy one or another human need.

The process of transforming natural objects into consumer goods:

Every economic system is faced with the need to perform certain basic types of choice.

Among them, the most important are the following:

1 TO what goods to produce. The inability to produce as many goods as people would like is a consequence of the scarcity of resources used to produce these goods. The need for each of these choices is dictated by limited resources.

2. How they should be produced ( For almost any product or service, there are several production methods: manual and automatic vehicle assembly; nuclear or thermal power plant). Everything depends on the availability of means of production and its efficiency.

3. Who should do what work. The question of who should do what work is related to the organization of the social division of labor - specialty, qualifications, etc.

4. For whom are the results of this work intended? The distribution of any given quantity of a good can be improved through an exchange that results in the preferences of several people being more fully satisfied. According to the concept of equality, all people, by the very fact of belonging to humanity, deserve to receive a portion of the goods and services produced by the economy.

Ticket number 3

Subordinate

NLA |5. Decrees and resolutions of the Head of the LPR(Decree “On the curfew regime”)

|6. Resolutions and orders of the Council of Ministers of the LPR(Resolution “On approval of Sanitary Rules in the forests of the Lugansk People’s Republic”)

|7. Acts of the executive bodies of the LPR(Order of the Ministry of Justice of the LPR “On approval of registration card forms”)

|7. Legal acts of local government bodies(Order of the Head of the Administration of Alchevsk “On the organization of work on spring sanitary cleaning and improvement of the territory of the city of Alchevsk”

|8. Local legal acts ( Order of the director of LEPLI “On the enrollment of NNN in the 10-B class contingent” ).

Ticket number 4

LAWS OF DEMAND AND SUPPLY

In the market there is a relationship between price and demand, as well as between price and supply.

Law of supply and demand -an economic law that establishes the dependence of the magnitude of demand and supply of goods on the market on their prices.

Demand– the buyer's need for the goods and services he needs, for the purchase of which he is willing to pay.

Demand is affected: income of buyers, their tastes and preferences, quantity of goods on the market, prices of goods.

The market provides alternatives at different prices. People may buy more products if the price decreases and vice versa. The higher the price of a product, the less demand.

Offer – a set of goods that producers are willing to sell at alternative prices.

The offer is influenced by: number of sellers on the market, manufacturing technologies, product prices, costs, taxes, number of sellers.

The higher the price, the more the supply of products from sellers increases.

When the supply of goods exceeds the demand of buyers, the market becomes overstocked with excess products that cannot be sold - a crisis of overproduction occurs. The solution is to reduce prices (markdown of goods, seasonal sales).

The offer applies exclusively to goods produced for sale. For example, a farmer can use part of his products for his own needs (this is not an offer), and send part to a storage warehouse for subsequent sale or sell at the moment.

When demand exceeds supply, a commodity shortage occurs(if the monetary income of the population grows faster than the output of goods in demand).

Exceptions: price increases may not reduce sales of products, but sometimes stimulate them on the contrary. This phenomenon in the market manifests itself in conditions of expectation of price growth. The buyer strives to stock up on goods at prices that are not yet extremely high. For example: the expectation of a price decrease may reduce the demand for gold or foreign currency.

To circumvent the law of supply and demand in the European Union, the overproduction of oil is stored in warehouses, on the so-called “butter mountain”. Thus, supply is artificially restrained and the price remains stable.

Ticket number 5

1. Reveal the relationship between the biological and the social in a person. Give examples of the relationship between nature, man and society.

In June 2014, the LPR Law “On urgent measures of social protection of citizens living on the territory of the Lugansk People’s Republic in the conditions of aggression of the armed forces and armed formations of Ukraine” was adopted.

Where installed (Article 1) one-time compensation to the families of those killed as a result of the aggression of the Ukrainian Armed Forces, wounded and shell-shocked civilians, and military personnel who were maimed or wounded.

Established (Article 2) surcharge medical workers, students, graduate students - 25% of salary, scholarships.

Ticket No. 1

Describe society as a complex dynamic system. Name the main spheres of society.

Main types (species) social activities

So there are 4 element human activity: people, things, symbols, connections between them. Implementation of any type of joint activity of people without them is impossible.

Highlight 4 main type (type) of social activity:

Main types of social activities:

Material production;

Spiritual activity (production)

Regulatory activities

Social activity (in the narrow sense of the word)

1. Material production– creates practical means of activity that are used in all its types. Allows people physically transform natural and social reality. Everything necessary for everyday people's lives (housing, food, clothing, etc.).

However, we cannot talk about absolutization the role of material production in social activities. The role is constantly increasing information resources. IN post-industrial society is growing sharply the role of culture and science, transition from the production of goods to the service sector. Therefore, the role of material production will gradually decline.

2. Spiritual production (activity) – does not produce things, ideas, images, values ​​(paintings, books, etc.).

In the process of spiritual activity, a person learns the world, its diversity and essence, develops a system of value concepts, determining the meaning (value) of certain phenomena.

“Mumu”, L. Tolstoy “Vanya and the plums”, sausage in the toilet.

His role is constantly growing.

3. Regulatory activities – the activities of administrators, managers, politicians.

It aims to ensure consistency and orderliness various fields public life.

4. Social activities (in the narrow sense of the word) – activities aimed at directly serving people. This is the activity of a doctor, a teacher, an artist, workers in the service sector, recreation, and tourism.

Creates conditions for maintaining the activity and life of people.

These four basic types of activity exist in any society and form basis spheres of public life.

Society as a dynamic system

Basic Concepts

Society is constantly changing, dynamic system.

Process(P. Sorokin) – yes any change to an object for a certain time

(whether it is a change in its place in space or a modification of its quantitative or qualitative characteristics).

Social process – sequential change in the state of society or its subsystems.

Types of social processes:

They differ:

1. By the nature of the changes:

A. Functioning of society - happening in society reversible changes related to everyday activities of society (with reproduction and maintaining it in a state of balance and stability).

B. Change –First stage internal rebirth in society or in its individual parts and their properties, bearing quantitative character.

B. Development –irreversible quality shifts as a result of gradual quantitative changes (see Hegel's law).

2. According to the degree of awareness of people:

A. Natural– not realized by people (riots).

B. Conscious – purposeful human activity.

3. By scale:

A. Global– covering all of humanity as a whole or a large group of societies (information revolution, computerization, Internet).

B. Local– affecting individual regions or countries.

B. Single- associated with specific groups of people.

4. By direction:

A. Progress– progressive development society from less perfect to more, increasing vitality, complication systemic organization.

B. Regression- movement of society along descending lines with simplification and, in the long term, with the destruction of the system.

SOCIETY

Society and nature

Culture and civilization

The most important institutions of society

society- This certain group of people

Can be determined society and how big

society and nature.

Society and nature

culture

1. “Exactly

the question arose about legal protection of nature .

Legal protection of nature

.

.

Public relations

Play an important role in the functioning of society public relations. This concept denotes the diverse connections that arise between social groups, classes, nations, as well as within them in the process of economic, social, political, cultural life and activity.

Material social relations develop in the sphere of production, in the course of practical activities. Material relations are divided into production, environmental and office relations.

Spiritual Relationships are formed as a result of the interaction of people in the process of creating and disseminating spiritual and cultural values. They are divided into moral, political, legal, artistic, philosophical and religious social relations.

A special type of social relations are interpersonal(i.e. relationships between individuals).

Evolution and revolution

There are two main ways of change - evolution and revolution. Evolution comes from the Latin word for “unfolding” -

these are slow, constant changes from a previous state. Revolution(from Latin turn, change) is a change in all or most aspects of social life, affecting the foundations of the existing social system.

At first glance, revolution differs from evolution only in the pace of change. However, in philosophy there is a point of view about the relationship between these two phenomena: the increase in quantitative changes in development (evolution) ultimately leads to a qualitative change (revolution).

In this regard, the concept is close to the evolutionary path in social development reform. Reform- this is a transformation, reorganization, change in any aspect of social life that does not destroy the foundations of the existing social structure.

Reforms in Marxism were opposed to political revolution, as an active political action of the masses, leading to the transfer of the leadership of society into the hands of a new class. At the same time, revolutions have always been recognized as a more radical and progressive path of transformation in Marxism, and reforms have been viewed as half-hearted, painful for the masses, transformations, which for the most part were supposedly caused by the potential threat of revolution. Revolutions are inevitable and natural in a society where timely reforms are not carried out.

However, political revolutions usually lead to great social upheaval and casualties. Some scientists generally denied revolutions the possibility of creative activity. Thus, one of the historians of the 19th century compared the Great French Revolution with a hammer that only smashed old clay molds, revealing to the world the already cast bell of a new social system. That is, in his opinion, a new social system was born in the course of evolutionary transformations, and the revolution only swept away obstacles for it,

On the other hand, history knows reforms that led to radical changes in society. F. Engels, for example, called Bismarck's reforms in Germany a “revolution from above.” The reforms of the late 80s and early 90s can also be considered a “revolution from above.” XX century, which led to a change in the existing system in our country.

Modern Russian scientists have recognized the equivalence of reforms and revolutions. At the same time, there was criticism of revolutions as an extremely ineffective, bloody path, replete with numerous costs and leading to dictatorship. Moreover, great reforms (i.e. revolutions from above) are recognized as the same social anomalies as great revolutions. Both of these ways of solving social contradictions are opposed to the normal, healthy practice of “permanent reform in a self-regulating society.”

Both reforms and revolutions treat an already advanced disease (the former with therapeutic methods, the latter with surgical intervention. Therefore, constant innovation– as a one-time, one-time improvement associated with increasing the adaptability of society to changing conditions. In this sense, innovation is similar to preventing the occurrence of a disease (i.e., social contradiction). Innovation in this regard belongs to the evolutionary path of development.

This point of view comes from possibilities for alternative social development. Neither revolutionary nor evolutionary path development cannot be accepted as the only natural one.

Culture and civilization have long been identified. However Culture and civilization

Already in the 19th century, the scientific meaning of these concepts differed. And at the beginning of XX

century, German philosopher O. Spengler in his work “The Decline of Europe”

and completely opposed them. Civilization appeared to him as the highest stage of culture, at which its final decline occurs. Culture is a civilization that has not reached its maturity and has not ensured its growth.

The differences between the concepts of “culture” and “civilization” were also emphasized by other thinkers. Thus, N.K. Roerich reduced the difference between culture and civilization to the opposition of heart to mind. He connected culture with the self-organization of the spirit, the world of spirituality, and civilization with the civil, social structure of our life. Indeed, the word “culture” goes back to the Latin word meaning cultivation, cultivation, processing. However, the word education, veneration, as well as cult (as worship and veneration of something) also goes back to the same root (cult-). The word “civilization” comes from the Latin civilis – civil, state, but the word “citizen, city dweller” also goes back to the same root.

Culture is the core, the soul, and civilization is the shell, the body. P.K. Grechko believes that civilization fixes the level and result of the progressive development of society, and culture expresses the mechanism and process of mastering this level - the result. Civilization arranges the earth, our life, makes it convenient, comfortable, pleasant. Culture is “responsible” for constant dissatisfaction with what has been achieved, the search for something unattainable, worthy primarily of the soul, not the body. Culture is the process of humanization of social relations and human life, while civilization is their gradual but steady technologization.

Without culture, civilization cannot exist, because the system of cultural values ​​is the feature that distinguishes one civilization from another. However, culture is a complex concept; it includes the culture of production, material relations, political culture and spiritual values. Depending on what feature we highlight as the main criterion, the division of civilizations into separate types also changes.

Types of civilization

Depending on their concept and put forward criteria, various researchers offer their own versions of the typology of civilization.

Types of civilizations

However, in journalistic literature the division into civilizations has been widely established Western (innovative, rationalistic) and Eastern (traditional) type. Sometimes so-called intermediate civilizations are added to them. What features characterize them? Let's look at this using the following table as an example.

Main features of traditional society and Western society

Modern civilizations

Currently, there are different types of civilizations on Earth. In remote corners of the planet, the development of a number of peoples still retained the features of a primitive society, where life was entirely subordinate to the natural cycle (Central Africa, Amazonia, Oceania, etc.). Some peoples have retained the features of eastern (traditional) civilizations in their way of life. The influence of post-industrial society on these countries is reflected in the growth of crisis phenomena and instability of life.

Active propaganda by means mass media values ​​of post-industrial society, their elevation to the rank of universal human values ​​causes a certain negative reaction on the part of traditional civilizations, striving not only to preserve their values, but also to revive the values ​​of the bygone past.

Thus, the Arab-Islamic civilization includes Iran, Afghanistan, Pakistan, UAE, Saudi Arabia etc. Between individual Islamic countries and even within these countries, the struggle between supporters of rapprochement with Western civilization and Islamic fundamentalists is intensifying. If the former allow the expansion of secular education, the rationalization of life, the widespread introduction of modern achievements of science and technology, then the latter believe that the basis (foundation) of all spheres of life are the religious values ​​of Islam and take an aggressive position in relation to any innovations and borrowings from Western civilization.

The Hindu-Buddhist civilization includes India, Mongolia, Nepal, Thailand, etc. The traditions of Hinduism and Buddhism predominate here, and religious tolerance is characteristic. In these countries, on the one hand, economic and political structures characteristic of an industrial society have developed, on the other, a significant part of the population lives by the values ​​of a traditional society.

The Far Eastern Confucian civilization includes China, Korea, Japan, etc. The cultural traditions of Taoism, Confucianism and Shinto predominate here. Despite the preserved traditions, these countries have in recent years become closer to developed Western countries (especially in the economic sphere).

What type of civilizational development can Russia be classified as? There are several points of view in science on this matter:

Russia is a European country and Russian civilization is close to the Western type, although it has its own characteristics;

Russia is an original and self-sufficient civilization that occupies its own special place in the world. This is neither eastern nor western, but a Eurasian civilization, which is characterized by super-ethnicity, intercultural exchange, and the supranational nature of spiritual values;

Russia is an internally split, “pendulum” civilization, which is characterized by a constant confrontation between Western and Eastern features. Its history clearly marks cycles of rapprochement with either Western or Eastern civilizations;

To determine which point of view is more objective, let us turn to the characteristics of Western civilization. Researchers believe that there are several local civilizations within it (Western European, North American, Latin American, etc.). Modern Western civilization is a post-industrial civilization. Its features are determined by the consequences of the scientific and technological revolution (STR), which occurred in the 60-70s. XX century.

Global problems

Global problems of humanity are problems affecting all people living on Earth, on the solution of which not only further social progress, but also the fate of all humanity depends.

Global problems emerged under the conditions of the scientific and technological revolution in the second half of the twentieth century; they are interconnected, cover all aspects of people’s lives and affect all countries of the world without exception.

Let us list the main problems and show their relationship with each other.

The threat of a thermonuclear catastrophe is closely related to the threat of nuclear war, as well as man-made disasters. In turn, these problems are interconnected with the threat of a third world war. All this is due to the depletion of traditional sources of raw materials and the search for alternative types of energy. Failure to resolve this problem leads to an environmental disaster (depletion of natural resources, environmental pollution, food problem, shortage of drinking water etc.). The problem of climate change on the planet is acute, which can lead to catastrophic consequences. Ecological crisis in turn associated with the demographic problem. The demographic problem is characterized by a deep contradiction: in developing countries there is intensive population growth, while in developed countries there is a demographic decline, which creates enormous difficulties for economic and social development.

At the same time, the “North-South” problem is worsening, i.e. contradictions between developed countries and developing countries of the “third world” are growing. The problems of protecting health and preventing the spread of AIDS and drug addiction are also becoming increasingly important. The problem of reviving cultural and moral values ​​is important.

After the events in New York on September 11, 2001, the problem of combating international terrorism sharply worsened. The next innocent victims of terrorists could be residents of any country in the world.

In general, the global problems of humanity can be schematically represented as a tangle of contradictions, where from each problem various threads stretch to all other problems. What is it strategy for the survival of humanity in the face of worsening global problems? Solving global problems is only possible through the joint efforts of all countries coordinating their actions at the international level. Self-isolation and development features will not allow individual countries to remain aloof from the economic crisis, nuclear war, the threat of terrorism or the AIDS epidemic. To solve global problems and overcome the danger that threatens all of humanity, it is necessary to further strengthen the interconnection of the diverse modern world, change the interaction with the environment, abandon the cult of consumption, and develop new values.

In preparing this chapter, materials from the following textbooks were used:

1. Grechko P.K. Introduction to social studies. – M.: Pomatur, 2000.
2. Kravchenko A.I. Social science. – M.: “Russian Word – RS” - 2001.
3. Kurbatov V.I. Social science. – Rostov-on-Don: “Phoenix”, 1999.
4. Human and society: Tutorial in social studies for students of grades 10-11 / Ed. L.N. Bogolyubova, A.Yu. Lazebnikova. M., 2001
5. Lazebnikova A.Yu. Modern school social studies. Questions of theory and methodology. – M.: School – Press, 2000.
6. Klimenko A.V., Romanina V.V. Social Studies Exam: Answer Notes. – M.: 2000.
7. Social science. 100 exam answers./Ed. B.Yu. Serbinovsky. Rostov-on-Don: “Mar.T”, 2000.

SOCIETY

Society as a dynamic system

Society and nature

Culture and civilization

The relationship between the economic, social, political and spiritual spheres of society

The most important institutions of society

Diversity of ways and forms of social development

The Problem of Social Progress

The integrity of the modern world, its contradictions

Global problems of humanity

The concept of “society” has many meanings. In its original meaning, it is a kind of community, union, cooperation, association of individual people.

From a sociological point of view society- This certain group of people, united by common interests (goals) for joint activities (for example, a society for the protection of animals or, conversely, a society of hunters and fishermen).

The historical approach to understanding society is associated with the identification a specific stage in the historical development of a nation or all of humanity(for example: primitive society, medieval society, etc.).

The ethnographic meaning of the concept “society” focuses on ethnic characteristics and cultural traditions of a certain population of people(for example: Bushman society, American Indian society, etc.).

Can be determined society and how big a stable group of people occupying a certain territory, having a common culture, experiencing a sense of unity and considering themselves as a completely independent entity(For example, Russian society, European society, etc.).

What unites the above interpretations of society?

• society consists of individual people with will and consciousness;
• You can't just call a certain number of people a society. People are united in society by joint activities, common interests and goals;
• any society is a way of organizing human life;
• The connecting link of society, its framework, are the connections established between people in the process of their interaction (social relations).

Society as a complex dynamic system

In general, a system is a collection of interconnected elements. For example, a pile of bricks cannot be called a system, but a house built from them is a system where each brick takes its place, is interconnected with other elements, has its own functional meaning and serves a common goal - the existence of a durable, warm, beautiful building. But a building is an example of a static system. After all, a house cannot improve or develop on its own (it can only collapse if the functional connections between the elements - the bricks) are broken.

An example of a dynamic self-developing system is a living organism. Already in the embryo of any living organism there are basic characteristics that, under the influence of the environment, determine the significant aspects of changes in the organism throughout life.

Likewise, society is a complex dynamic system that can only exist by constantly changing, but at the same time maintaining its main features and qualitative certainty.

There is also a broad, philosophical point of view on society.

Society is a form of organization of individuals that arose in opposition to the environment (nature), lives and develops according to its own objective laws. In this sense, society is a set of forms of association of people, a “collective of collectives,” all of humanity in its past, present and future.

Based on this broad interpretation, let us consider the relationship society and nature.

Society and nature

Both society and nature are part real world. Nature is the basis on which society arose and develops. If we understand nature as the whole of reality, the world as a whole, then society is a part of it. But often the word “nature” refers to the natural habitat of people. With this understanding of nature, society can be considered as a part of the real world separated from it. But society and nature have not lost their relationship. This relationship has always existed, but has changed over the centuries.

Once upon a time in primitive times, small societies of hunters and gatherers were completely dependent on the disasters of nature. Trying to protect themselves from these disasters, people created culture, as the totality of all material and spiritual values ​​of society that have artificial (i.e. not natural) origin. Below we will talk more than once about the diversity of the concept of “culture”. Now let us emphasize that culture is something that is created by society, but is the opposite natural environment, nature. Thus, the production of the first tools and the skills of making fire are the first cultural achievements of mankind. The emergence of agriculture and cattle breeding are also the fruits of culture (the word culture itself comes from the Latin “tillage”, “cultivation”).

1. “Exactly Because of the dangers that nature threatens us with, we united and created a culture, designed, among other things, to make our social life possible. – wrote S. Freud. “In the end, the main task of culture, the true justification, is to protect us from nature.”

2. As cultural achievements developed, society was no longer so dependent on nature. Wherein society did not adapt to nature, but actively changed environment transforming it to your advantage. This change in nature has led to impressive results. Let's remember thousands of species of cultivated plants, new species of animals, drained swamps and blooming deserts. However, society transforming nature, exposing it to cultural influence, often guided by immediate benefits. Thus, the first environmental problems began to arise in ancient times: many species of plants and animals completely disappeared, most of the forests in Western Europe were cut down in the Middle Ages. In the twentieth century, the negative impact of society on nature became especially noticeable. Now we are talking about an environmental disaster that could lead to the destruction of both nature and society. That's why the question arose about legal protection of nature .

The protection of the natural environment means the preservation of its quality, which makes it possible, firstly, to preserve, protect and restore the healthy state and integrity of the Earth's ecosystem, and secondly, to preserve the biological diversity of the planet.

Environmental law deals with the legal protection of nature. Ecology (from the word “ecos” - house, residence; and “logos” knowledge) is the science of the interaction of man and society with the natural environment.

The environmental legislation of the Russian Federation includes a number of provisions of the Constitution, 5 federal laws on environmental protection, 11 natural resource legislative acts, as well as decrees of the President of the Russian Federation, decrees of the Government of the Russian Federation, etc.

Legal protection of nature

So in the Constitution of the Russian Federation in Art. 42 talks about the right of every person to a favorable environment and to reliable information about its condition. Article 58 speaks of the obligation of everyone to preserve nature and the environment, to take care of natural resources Russia.

Dedicated to the legal protection of nature federal laws“On the protection of the natural environment” (1991), “On environmental assessment” (1995), “On the protection atmospheric air” (1999), etc. Attempts are being made to conclude international treaty about protecting nature. On December 12, 1997, the International Protocol on the Regulation of Emissions of Industrial Wastes into the Atmosphere (Kyoto Protocol) was signed in the city of Kyoto.

Thus, the relationship between nature, society and culture can be described as follows:

society and nature in interrelation form the material world. However, society isolated itself from nature, creating culture as a second artificial nature, a new habitat. However, even having protected itself from nature with a kind of boundary of cultural traditions, society is not able to sever ties with nature.

V.I. Vernadsky wrote that with the advent and development of society the biosphere (the earth's shell covered by life) passes into the noosphere (the area of ​​the planet covered by intelligent human activity).

Nature still has an active impact on society. Thus, A.L. Chizhevsky established a relationship between the solar activity cycles and social upheavals in society (wars, uprisings, revolutions, social transformations, etc.). L.N. Gumilyov wrote about the impact of nature on society in his work “Ethnogenesis and the Biosphere of the Earth.”

The relationship between society and nature we see in various manifestations. So, improvement of agrotechnical methods of soil cultivation leads to increased productivity, but increase in air pollution industrial waste can lead to plant death.

Society is a complex dynamic system.