32. Organization of the implementation of management decisions. Implementation mechanism.

In concept "decision technology" includes the following elements:

What to do (quantity and quality of the object)? At what cost (resources)? How to do it (using what technology)? Who to do it (performers)? When to do it (terms)? For whom to do (consumers)? Where to do (place)? What does it give (economic, social, environmental, technical effect)?

Stages of the decision-making process:

1. awareness of the problem 2. development and goal setting 3. collection of information 4. consideration of solution options (generation of alternatives) 5. selection and justification of the criteria for efficiency and consequences of the decision 6. choice and formulation of the decision 7. acceptance 8. bringing to the performer

9. analysis and control, feedback .

Management decision development process belongs to the category of management processes.

Similar to production processes, which are divided into main, auxiliary and service are subdivided managerial processes. Only here, as the subject of labor, is a managerial decision, information, a normative-technical or managerial document. If the operation is aimed at changing any parameter of the control object of labor, then this process will be the main one. Servicing management processes include processes for the accumulation, control and transfer of the object of labor. To the auxiliary - all those that create normal conditions for the flow of basic and service processes: the manufacture, purchase or repair of technical equipment, etc.

Basic requirements for the quality of informationfor making a management decision:

timeliness; reliability (with a certain probability); adequacy; reliability (with a certain degree of risk); completeness of the information system (in terms of quality and resource intensity of the goods, conditions for the stages of the life cycle of the goods of the company and competitors, etc.); targeting; legal correctness of information; repeated use; high speed of collection, processing and transmission; possibility of coding; relevance of information.

UR can be issued in writing in the form of documents, on electronic media, or transmitted verbally (oral instructions).

33. The essence and significance of the managerial hierarchy in the management of the production process.

Hierarchy - the order of subordination of the lower (positions) to the higher.

Transfer of authority from hands to a subordinate, and from him to his subordinate, etc. forms in the org-tion hierarchically ordered with the delegation of authority. Orders, orders, tasks in this s-me are transferred along the management chain. Sometimes it is called a scalar chain, or a chain of commands. The size of the management chain depends on the size of the organization, the nature of its activities, org. str-ry, the place of the linear hand-la in the upr-coy hierarchy of the organization. The length of the chain affects the entire s-me board org-tion. If the chain from the hand-la to the worker is long, then both the direct and the feedback between the m / d hand-lem and the worker will be complicated. The length of the control chain sometimes affects the quality of the information that comes along it from top to bottom, and even more so from bottom to top. Excessive centralization of the management system deprives it of mobility in decision-making, leading to excessive workload of the upper hierarchical levels with-we control. and reduce their throughput.

It is advisable to enable leaders belonging to the same hierarchical level to coordinate and make joint decisions on a certain range of issues in the process of direct interaction, without resorting to the help of leaders and str-r, belonging. to a higher management hierarchy.

In modern management practice to ensure the horizon-th interaction of hands-lei, belonging. to different resilient chains provide coordination of their efforts to solve problems that require joint action.

With a hierarchical s-me of government arises along with the problem of establishing an acceptable norm of control for hands-la, the problem of creating a rational number of links in the chain of control.

The principle of unity of subordination is one of the basics. principles, ensure effective functioning of the organization. The very decisions made by the employee are determined by job descriptions and the powers delegated to him by his boss

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Basic job data

Basic job data

Introduction

Main part

Conclusion

Glossary

Applications

Introduction

The daily activity of a leader, a manager is based on determining areas of activity, forecasting development, setting goals, organizing work, increasing the motivation of the team, monitoring the implementation of tasks, as well as assessing their implementation. This whole process is accompanied by continuous decision-making. This is the main function in the activities of the manager in the enterprise.

A decision is a deliberate and balanced choice of one of the options for action and is the basis for creating a work plan that the enterprise will follow.

But not all decisions that the manager makes are given attention in management in the course of their activities. The most important from the position of science and practice of effective management in the work of a manager are managerial decisions.

Management decision is the most important type of managerial work, as well as a set of interrelated, purposeful and logically consistent management actions that ensure the implementation of management tasks; creative, volitional action the subject of management, which is based on the knowledge of objective laws in the field of functioning of the controlled system and the analysis of information about its functioning. This action consists in choosing the goal, program and methods of the team's activity in the field of solving the problem or in the field of changing the goal.

The relevance of this topic of the course work is determined by the extreme importance of the process of making managerial decisions in the activities of any organization, since they are the mechanism that drives the enterprise.

The object of the course work are management decisions.

The subject of this course work is the activity of the manager associated with the adoption of managerial decisions.

The purpose of the course work is to analyze the types of management decisions, methods of their adoption and implementation.

To achieve this goal, we need to achieve the following tasks:

To study the available types of management decisions;

Consider the methods of making managerial decisions and the problems that arise in this case;

Determine the technologies for implementing the decisions made;

Analyze the tools to reduce the impact of risk in making and implementing management decisions.

managerial decision method risk

Main part

1. Types of management decisions

The very concept of "decision" is usually considered from three positions:

- as a process that is divided into several stages that take a certain amount of time;

- the process of choosing one of the available modes of action;

- an order that acts as an instruction for actions for the manager and employees of the enterprise;

In management, the concept of "solution" is interpreted in different ways:

- formation of managerial influence;

- making a decision - this means that this action is mandatory and must be performed;

Each management decision has:

- subject - the one who makes the decision;

- object - the one who is obliged to fulfill this decision - these are individual employees, or the organization as a whole;

- subject - what directly needs to be done.

From this we can conclude that a management decision is an action of the subject of management, on which the activity of the management object depends.

With the help of management decisions, the heads of organizations set goals, establish functions, as well as the responsibility of each employee and his rights, norms and codes of conduct at the enterprise, approve the system of rewards and punishments, in general, everything that determines the activities of the enterprise, and without which it cannot could exist.

In accordance with this, management decisions include a number of aspects, such as: psychological, social, informational, organizational, economic.

For example, from the legal side, a managerial decision is an imperious act of will of the subject of management, with the help of which he uses his right to manage the values ​​and labor resources of the company in order to achieve his goals.

On the other hand, it is a social act, since people take part in its implementation, and, in any case, it affects their interests.

As an act of psychological management decision can be regarded because it is a consequence of human mental activity.

As for the information component, in order to make a decision, it is necessary to process a certain amount of information and choose the most appropriate course of action.

The division of management decisions is carried out according to several criteria:

depending on the object of the decision: decisions whose main task is to set a goal, decisions focused on means, fundamental structural, decisions made depending on the situation;

on the reliability of information that is the basis for making a decision: based on reliable information, risky, unreliable;

by duration of action and manifestation of consequences: long-term, medium-term, short-term;

in connection with the planning hierarchy: strategic, tactical, operational;

by repeatability: random decisions, frequently repeated, everyday decisions;

by scope: general decisions made throughout the organization as a whole (for example, on changing the form of ownership, etc.), private ones can relate to the current activities of the enterprise and are used to solve some local situations and issues of the organization.

Such decisions need to be made constantly, since in any enterprise all sorts of problematic issues arise all the time. These include decisions on violation of production or technological discipline, on changing the order of work, on eliminating certain shortcomings. They can also be divided into: specialized decisions, decisions made for the division, decisions that apply to individual employees;

by the number of decisions in the process of their adoption: static, dynamic, single-stage, multi-stage;

by management entities that make decisions: individual decisions made by an individual leader, group decisions that are prepared by a group of specialists, coming from managers, coming from performers;

for accounting for data changes: rigid, flexible;

by independence: autonomous, complementary;

by degree of difficulty: simple solutions, complex solutions;

according to the structuredness of the adoption process: programmed decisions, non-programmed decisions;

on the basis of adoption: decisions made on the basis of intuition, decisions that are based on consciousness, rational decisions;

by internal content: economic, social, technological, etc.

The division of managerial decisions into different categories helps us to identify and create a system of those situations, information and procedures that arise in production, which determine the adoption of certain decisions.

According to the duration of the action, strategic and operational decisions are distinguished.

Strategic decisions affect the fundamental, general problems of the firm. Solutions of this type are not short-term, they are focused on the future, and therefore their implementation can take quite a long time.

Operational decisions concern the execution of day-to-day tasks at any level. Operational decisions are implemented within a given period.

In order to make the right management decision, it is necessary to predict the consequences to which this decision can lead. This operation requires certain studies, experiments, analysis and calculations. However, according to the given sign, one can distinguish not only decisions, the consequences of which can be accurately assessed when there is no doubt about their correctness. There are also decisions with a probabilistic outcome, in which case the consequences cannot be clearly defined. Here it is required to apply scientific theories, knowledge and experience, as well as the intuitive factor.

Regarding the method of processing the information used, two groups of decisions are distinguished: algorithmic and heuristic.

Algorithmic decisions are made on the basis of analogies with those precedents that took place earlier. Procedures have already been developed for making these decisions.

When a complex problem is formed that the enterprise has not encountered before, logical methods are used to make decisions. Such solutions are called heuristic.

According to the directions of influence, external and internal solutions are considered.

External decisions spread their influence in external environment, to other organizations, such as, for example, subsidiaries, branches.

Internal solutions relate directly to the enterprise itself and its internal organization and can be divided into solutions for a managed system.

The depth of influence of decisions on the structure of the organization determines the single-level or multi-level type of decision.

The head of the grass-roots division of the company can only decide on his level, and the decisions of the director of the entire enterprise apply to all levels of the organization system.

The requirements for management decisions may be different:

- creation of prerequisites for the implementation of the solution, as the basis for its implementation;

- the decision must be made in a certain moment time, as timeliness is the key to its success.

- the validity of the choice from a variety of alternatives, based on the available opportunities, resources and the current situation.

- compliance of the decision with the current regulations as an indicator of its legitimacy.

- empowering the decision maker with appropriate powers, which ensures the legitimacy of the management decision.

- justice, expressed in the receipt of appropriate remuneration for work, equality between rights and duties, correspondence of punishment to misconduct, and encouragement to merit.

- absence of contradictions in judgments.

- the key to accessibility to understanding the decision is the simplicity of its presentation.

Any level of the production process has several phases:

- decision-making;

- the process of implementing the solution;

- collection and processing of information for subsequent decision-making.

The most responsible of the above phases is the decision-making phase, since its quality determines the success of its execution.

The head of the enterprise can make decisions within the framework of his official duties. Such a decision is called organizational.

Organizational decisions are designed to help the company achieve its goals, while incurring the least cost. They are divided: programmed and unprogrammed.

The best leader is the one who knows how to make decisions with the least negative consequences. It's not always easy. Choosing a good solution is difficult. Decision making is hard psychological process. A person is dependent on both logic and feelings. The psychological factors that determine the behavior of a manager when making decisions are made up of personal life values, the path traveled, and the accumulated experience, as well as from social attitudes.

The nature of the decisions made can vary from intuitive, based on judgments, to rational.

A reasoned decision is made depending on the situation, which, however, must be considered individually in each specific case. But these requirements must be formulated for each specific solution separately.

There are general requirements for making decisions:

- main criterion- efficiency, i.e. the effectiveness of the decision;

- accounting for the estimated costs of the enterprise;

- availability of the possibility of quick and timely implementation of the solution;

- availability of resources.

- the choice of the most correct of the proposed options for action to solve the tasks.

There are four leadership roles that deal with different aspects of decision making: Entrepreneur, Correction Specialist, Resource Allocator, and Agreement Maker.

The nature of the specifics of the work performed and the position held by the head of a particular link determines the difference in the nature of the decisions made.

However, each of these roles is performed by any leader from time to time.

Organizational decisions can be divided into programmed and non-programmed ones.

Making programmed decisions is similar to solving a mathematical equation. It reduces the likelihood of errors, since the decision-making is limited to certain limits.

There are also situations when it is necessary to go beyond these limits in order to make an organizational decision. Such a need arises when faced with new factors for which there is no clearly defined program of action.

Pure variants of non-programmed and programmed decisions, decisions most often turn out to be something in between.

Constraints and decision criteria.

The manager diagnoses the problem in order to make a decision, he must be aware of what exactly can be done with it. Many possible solutions to the organization's problems will not be realistic, because either the manager or the organization does not have enough resources to implement the decisions made. Also, the cause of the problem may be forces outside the organization - such as laws that the leader has no power to change. Restrictions on corrective action limit the ability to make decisions. Before proceeding to the next stage of the process, the manager must impartially determine the essence of the restrictions and only then identify alternatives. If this is not done, at least a lot of time will be lost. It is even worse if an unrealistic course of action is chosen. This will exacerbate rather than solve the existing problem.

Restrictions depend on the situation and individual leaders. Some general limitations are the inadequacy of the facilities; insufficient number of employees with the required qualifications and experience; inability to procure resources at affordable prices; the need for technology that has not yet been developed or is too expensive; exceptionally intense competition; laws or ethical considerations. A significant constraint on all managerial decisions, although sometimes completely removable, is the narrowing of the powers of all members of the organization determined by the top management. In other words, a manager can only make or implement a decision if top management has given him that right.

Decision-making criteria. They act as recommendations for evaluating decisions. The next stage is the formulation of a set of alternative solutions to the problem. At best, it is desirable to identify all possible actions that could eliminate the causes of the problem and thereby enable the organization to achieve its goals. However, in practice, the manager rarely has sufficient knowledge or time to formulate and evaluate each alternative. Moreover, considering a very large number of alternatives, even if they are all realistic, often leads to confusion.

Therefore, the leader tends to limit the number of options for serious consideration to just a few alternatives that appear to be the most desirable.

2. Making managerial decisions

With regard to decision-making, this process should be evaluated from two sides. On the one hand, it is relatively easy to make a decision, the main thing is to correctly predict its positive and negative consequences.

On the other hand, the difficulty lies in the fact that the characteristics of human psychology strongly influence the decision-making process. Sometimes logic prevails, and sometimes feelings. Consequently, decisions can be both rational and intuitive.

Intuitive decisions come to the leader like enlightenment, he does not use logical thinking, for this he does not need, at times, even to delve deeply into the situation. But it is impossible to constantly rely only on intuition, since in this case the risk of making a mistake is quite high.

Judgment as the basis of organizational decision is useful because many situations in organizations tend to frequent repetition. In this case, earlier decision might work just as well as before. This is the main advantage of programmed solutions.

A rational decision is justified through an objective analytical process. When making decisions, there are three degrees of completeness of information: the certainty condition, the risk condition or the uncertainty condition.

In the case when the leader can reliably predict the consequences of any of the proposed decisions, we are dealing with conditions of certainty. However, this scenario is extremely rare.

Risk conditions are such conditions when the results of the decisions made can be assessed with a lesser degree of probability, cannot be determined with accuracy.

Uncertainty forces managers to look for ways to solve the problem in two ways:

- search for additional sources of information for a more complete analysis of the situation;

- the use of past experience, one's own intuition and judgments to predict options for the development of events;

Risk management is the actions of a manager under conditions of risk and uncertainty to assess the likelihood negative consequences decisions made regarding the organization.

Decision making errors can be as follows:

- the decision is unilateral;

- decision-making was influenced by human emotions;

- there is no systematic approach to decision-making;

- when considering alternatives, preference is given to "usual";

- when considering, only positive scenarios of the development of events were taken into account, without taking into account the risk;

- the decisions made are not based on reliable information, secret desires and incorrect premises;

- haste in making decisions;

- misinterpretation of available data;

- impulsiveness in decision-making;

In order to avoid this kind of errors, requirements for decision-making technology were developed.

There are three main stages in the process of making managerial decisions: preparation, adoption, implementation.

The preparation of a management decision includes an analysis of the situation, which involves the search, collection and processing of information, the identification of problems that need to be addressed.

Making a decision involves doing a lot of calculations and choosing the best alternative from the available ones.

The implementation of the decision means bringing it to the executors, monitoring its implementation, adjusting actions if necessary, and evaluating the results.

The manager must be able to apply the methodology of management decisions, methods for developing management decisions, organizing the development of management decisions and assessing the quality of management decisions.

Management decision methodology is the streamlining of activities for the development of a management decision, including the setting of a management goal, the choice of methods for developing solutions, criteria for evaluating options, drawing up logical schemes for performing operations.

Methods for developing management decisions are various ways and methods of performing operations necessary for making managerial decisions - analysis, information processing, making a choice.

The organization of the development of a management decision involves streamlining the activities of individual departments and individual employees in the process of developing a solution. The organization is carried out by means of regulations, standards, organizational requirements, instructions, responsibility. The development of a management decision should be based on an assessment of the possibility of its implementation, the use of special equipment, the skills and abilities of employees, and specific conditions.

The development technology has the following components: decision-making under general management, according to certain rules, in accordance with certain plans, bilateral decision-making by managers of the same level based on individual interaction, target groups and their role in decision-making (group interaction at equal levels), matrix type of interaction.

The first three components provide a vertical relationship between management levels, the next three - a horizontal connection in the coordination of decisions.

Creating a hierarchy in decision-making means that each manager of the same level is responsible for making decisions himself, solving problems with his immediate superior.

There are three types of decision rules: operational, strategic and organizational.

Operational rules are different instructions.

Strategic rules (business policy) are usually formulated in highest level management and determine the activities of the organization as a whole.

The basis of organizational rights is regional or state legislation.

Plans coordinate the activities of different departments depending on the available resources.

An example of a horizontal way of coordination is the adoption of bilateral decisions as agreed by the leaders of the same level.

Task forces are created to make decisions that relate to the joint activities of various functional units.

The head of the group is the head, endowed with the authority to make decisions without the consent of the higher management.

But along with this, the members of the group also report to their line manager.

In matrix structures, unlike the two previous horizontal mechanisms, the project manager is granted linear rights similar to those given to the heads of functional units. A network structure is emerging that allows decisions to be made in increasingly complex conditions concerning increasingly complex problems. Requirements for the technology of making and implementing decisions:

- the statement of the problem and the search for a solution should not be carried out at the level at which the necessary information is available;

- collection of information using available sources of all structural divisions of the organization;

- the basis for decision-making should be the needs and capabilities of those units through which the implementation of decisions will be carried out;

- strict control over observance of discipline and management requirements;

There are several decision making methods:

- an intuitive method, when the manager uses his knowledge and experience to select the most correct alternative from the existing ones;

- method " common sense» - the manager, using his practical experience, analyzes and finds confirmation of the correctness of a particular decision;

- a scientific and practical method based on the processing of a huge amount of information for reasonable acceptance needed solution using modern information systems.

The following requirements apply to decision-making methods:

- practical applicability - applications are possible and give positive results in the current situation;

- cost-effectiveness of the method - the achieved result should be more than the costs incurred;

- ensuring sufficient accuracy of solving the problem;

- reliability - the smallest number of errors in the decision-making process.

Execution and implementation are the key to the effectiveness of a management decision on a par with the organization. The process of preparation and decision should be the same.

When implementing a management decision, the following procedures are performed: concretization and communication to the performers, control over implementation, making adjustments, and evaluating the results.

Organization of execution of decisions.

The objective and subjective factors of employees necessary to complete the task are assessed. Their abilities are analyzed, the performers receive an individual task.

There are a number of reasons for non-compliance:

a) Insufficiently clear wording of the decision by the head;

b) Poor understanding of the decision by the performer;

c) Lack of funds and necessary conditions for the execution of the decision;

d) Lack of internal agreement of the performer with the solution proposed by the head.

Control over the execution of the decision.

When executing decisions, sometimes there is a distortion of information reaching the executor according to the “broken phone” principle. This problem is not always revealed when bringing the solution. It is necessary to control the process of interpretation of management decisions, to predict deviations.

Adjustment of goals and objectives. The reasons may be as follows: insufficient organization of the execution of decisions, the impact of external factors, errors in decision-making. The emergence of new perspectives in the course of implementation of the solution.

The end of the cycle is summing up the results of the implementation of the management decision, at the same time being the impetus for creating a new cycle. Summing up is necessary for any outcome of the implementation of the decision, whether it is underfulfilled, completed on time or ahead of schedule.

The effectiveness of the implementation of the adopted decision is determined by the consistency of the actions of all performers and largely depends on the timely provision of the performers with the resources planned for solving specific tasks. Control over the implementation of management decisions.

Control is the final stage in the process of development and execution of management decisions. Control ensures the achievement of the organization's goals and objectives. In the process of control, the need to make adjustments to the decisions made by the head is revealed.

Control allows you to track the consequences of decisions made, and evaluate their results. And also to identify deviations from the established norms. If there are deviations based on the results of the control, management takes the necessary measures. It is possible that the occurrence crisis situations due to the lack of a well-functioning control and communication system in the organization. The functions performed by the control: diagnostics of the state of affairs, orientation, stimulation, adjustment of actions, dissemination of best practices, implementation of architectural supervision, as well as pedagogical and law enforcement.

The definition of the real state of affairs is provided by the diagnostic control function; the orienting function is engaged in highlighting the problems that require the most attention; the stimulating function is engaged in the use of all available resources of the company; when the situation changes, a corrective control function is activated, which allows it to adapt to the prevailing circumstances. Every manager knows that the real situation in the enterprise is a direct result of the verification of his decisions. A paradoxical situation appears: the manager believes that he is checking the employee, and the latter has already checked the manager with his work.

Architectural supervision is a function of control, during which the manager observes the implementation of the plan, analyzes omissions, expresses and discusses doubts, and improves qualifications. This manifests itself pedagogical function control.

The law enforcement function of control consists in the observance and protection by the head of the organization of the current rules of law.

There are three types of control: preliminary, current and final.

There is also a preliminary control, guiding, filtering and subsequent. The definition of the type depends on the functions performed and the characteristics of the conduct when choosing and implementing management decisions.

Preliminary control methods are executed before the start of the solution, which allows you to determine the qualitative, quantitative and structural characteristics the best option its implementation. The task of preliminary control is to establish whether the goals are correctly formed, the prerequisites and strategies are determined.

Directive control is applied from the beginning of the practical implementation of the solution to the final stage. It includes measurement, comparison, assessment of the object, development and implementation of corrective action aimed at achieving the final result.

The filtering control method is applied on a one-time basis during the implementation of the solution. Its content includes the suspension of the implementation of the decision in any area in case of sharp deviations of the actual results from the planned ones.

The method of control by results (subsequent control) is applied on the execution of the decision and is useful for taking into account the nuances of the work, its results for the future.

The organization can carry out continuous control over the implementation of the decisions made in the conditions of the use of appropriate electronic computers and software. This becomes possible if there is a constant feedback on the basis of an automated communication system between specific bodies and executors Comparisons can be carried out over significant periods of time and contribute to an increase in the objectivity of control.

The control process includes four stages:

- setting standards of activity,

--gathering data on actual results;

--comparison and evaluation of the actual and expected results of implementation;

--development and implementation of corrective actions.

Conclusion

The essence of a manager's job is to make and implement managerial decisions.

Even in everyday reality, we are faced with the need to make certain decisions. Take, for example, an elementary production system consisting of three components: a person, an instrument of labor, an object of labor. The impact on the object of labor is always preceded by a decision on the purpose of the method of influence.

A decision is always a difficult choice, which is associated with a huge responsibility that falls on the shoulders of the leader. In today's reality, in order to set goals for the team, as well as to ensure their achievement, it is necessary to find answers to many questions, since the management function is associated with the adoption of many vital decisions.

The problem of choosing a decision by a leader is one of the most important in modern management science. It implies the need for a comprehensive assessment by the manager of a specific situation and independence in making one of several options for possible decisions. Since the manager has the opportunity to choose decisions, he is responsible for their implementation. The adopted decisions are submitted to the executive bodies and are subject to control over their implementation. Therefore, management must be purposeful, the goal of management must be known.

Despite the validity and balanced adoption of organizational decisions, they can have not only positive consequences, as they affect the entire system as a whole. The system is like a balanced organism, by changing a part of which we involuntarily affect the rest of the parts, for which such changes can also have negative consequences due to imbalance.

In this regard, the manager needs to consider the possible results of making an organizational decision from the standpoint of a systematic approach, assessing the consequences that may result from its adoption for each individual part of the organization.

In the control system, the principle of choosing a decision to be made from a certain set of decisions must be observed. The more choice, the more effective management. When choosing a management decision, it is subject to the requirements of validity, optimality of choice, eligibility of the decision, brevity, clarity, specificity in time, targeting and efficiency of implementation.

Glossary

List of sources used

1 Kardanskaya N.L. Fundamentals of managerial decision-making / NL Kardanskaya. Moscow: Russian business literature, 1998.200 p.

2 Smirnov E.A. Management decisions / EA Management decisions. Moscow: INFRA M, 2001. 264 p.

3 Meskon A. Fundamentals of management: translated from English. / A. Meskon, M. Albert, F. Hedouri. - Moscow: Delo, 1992. p. 702.

4 Busygin A.V. Effective management / A.V. Busygin. - Moscow: Finpress, 2000.1056 p.

5 Kuznetsov Yu.V. Fundamentals of management / Yu.V. Kuznetsov, V.I. Podlesnykh. St. Petersburg: OLBIS, 1997. 192 p.

6 Vikhansky O. S. et al. Management: Man, strategy, organization, process: Textbook. M.: Gardarika, 2004.

7 Fatkhutdinov R. A. Development of a management decision: Tutorial. M.: Business School “Intel-Synthesis”, 1997.

8 Ivanov A.I., Malyavina A.V. Development of management decisions: Textbook. M.: MAEP, IIK "Kalita", 2000. 112 p.

9 Glubokov E.P. How to make a decision? M .: Economics 1990.

10 Meskon M. X., Albert M., Hedouri F. Fundamentals of management: Per. from English. M.: Delo, 1993.

11 Tsychichko V.N. For the leader - on decision-making / V.N. Tsychichko. Moscow, 1996. 356 p.

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Decision * is made in order to resolve a problem. The problem resolution process consists of three stages (Fig. 4.3.)

Rice. 4.3 Stages of the problem solving process

Decision-making *. This stage includes five main stages (Figure 4.4). The actual number of stages is determined by the nature of the problem.

Rice. 4.4. Decision steps

Problem Diagnosis. At the first stage, the identification and description of the problem situation that needs or is desirable to be solved is carried out. The diagnosis of the problem must be complete and correct. It is often difficult to fully define the problem, since all the many parts of the organization are interconnected and interdependent, and identifying the root cause and source of the problem that has arisen may require the collection of extensive information and in-depth analysis. No wonder they say that correctly identifying a problem means half solving it. As a result, diagnosing a problem often becomes a multi-step procedure with intermediate solutions. These steps could be:

Establishing symptoms of difficulties that have arisen or opportunities that have arisen (low profits, sales, productivity and quality, excessive costs, numerous conflicts * in the organization, high staff turnover, etc.). Identifying symptoms helps identify the problem in general view;

Determining the novelty of the problem and the situation in which it arose. If the problem has already occurred before in a similar situation, then it is necessary to evaluate the possibility of using the solutions already taken. In the case of a fundamentally new problem situation, it is necessary to solve the problem of making decisions anew, without using past decisions. In order to make it easier for managers to make decisions in recurring problem situations, it is advisable to create a library of precedents for decision-making tasks, which would be an integral part of the normative documentation of any level of management and would contain collective experience in solving problems;

Identification of the causes and sources of the problem. To do this, it is necessary to collect and analyze the required internal and external information. During the analysis, the collected initial data must be filtered, discarding irrelevant data and leaving only those that will be useful in making a decision;

Establishing possible relationships between the problem under consideration and other known problems. The definition of such relationships allows you to more clearly and deeply identify the causal relationship of the occurrence of the analyzed problem, makes it possible to classify interrelated problems (into major and secondary, general and particular, urgent and non-urgent), contributes to the development of a comprehensive solution;

Determining the degree of completeness and reliability of the information necessary for making a decision, and establishing the possibility of resolvability of the problem. At the same time, at least in general terms determine what information is needed (about the problem situation, resources, constraints, etc.), what is available and what needs to be obtained additionally. Already at the first stage of the decision-making process, it is necessary to at least approximately estimate the possibility of solving the problem, since it makes no sense to develop a solution for a clearly unsolvable problem.

There are two situations in which problems arise: situation of new difficulties And situation of new opportunities. The situation * of new difficulties, as a rule, is associated with the occurrence of deviations from the planned trajectory of the object's movement towards the goal. It is characterized by the need correct setting and the formulation of the problem, the relevance of which is generally obvious. These can be scientific, industrial, technical and other problems. The situation of new opportunities is most characteristic of scientific and technological progress, since the achievements of science, engineering and technology create fundamentally new opportunities for improving the organization of labor, production and management.

Formulation of constraints and criteria for decision making. Before revealing possible ways problem solving, it is necessary to analyze the resources available to the organization that may be required to make and implement decisions (temporary, material, labor, etc.) and formulate appropriate restrictions. In addition, forces outside the organization, such as laws and other regulations, that the manager has no power to change can be the cause of the problem and the constraints. If such constraints are not identified, then an unrealistic course of action may be taken, exacerbating rather than solving the existing problem.

From a time point of view, it must be taken into account that almost all managerial decisions are made in time pressure, i.e., in the practice of managing, less time is allocated for preparing decisions than is necessary for the full use of all knowledge or all information about the problem situation. This can reduce the quality of decisions made due to the impossibility of working out all alternative options and inefficient use of resources. Therefore, the timely identification of problem situations plays an important role, leaving the maximum possible amount of time for preparing a solution. In some cases, possible losses from a decrease in the quality of a decision made in a timely manner under time pressure can be compensated by the additional effect of an earlier implementation of the decision.

It is more expedient to make managerial decisions at the initial stage of the growth of problems, since the solution of finally mature problems often turns out to be very laborious, requiring significant resources. By analogy with medicine, problems are easier to prevent than to solve, and this requires a developed ability to foresee (predict) the course of development of production and social processes.

Similar to the coordination of temporary needs and opportunities, it is also necessary to analyze the needs for material and labor resources and the possibilities for their provision.

In addition to identifying constraints, the manager needs to define decision criteria - the standards by which alternative choices are to be evaluated. They act as recommendations for evaluating decisions. The criteria for evaluating decisions can be the degree of achievement of the set goals, the possibility (probability) of the full implementation of decisions, the costs of implementing decisions, the effect of implementing decisions, etc.

Identification of alternatives. At this stage, alternative solutions to the problem are identified and formulated. Ideally, it is desirable to identify all possible actions to eliminate the causes of the problem and, thereby, to achieve the organization's goals. However, in practice, the manager rarely has sufficient knowledge or time to formulate and evaluate each alternative. Moreover, considering a very large number of alternatives, even if they are all realistic, often unnecessarily complicates and delays the process of solving a problem. Therefore, the leader tends to limit the number of options for serious consideration to just a few alternatives that seem to be the most desirable. At the same time, the experience and intuition of the leader play an important role.

In complex problematic situations, especially in new ones, it is advisable to involve experts to form alternative solutions and their subsequent evaluation. It can be effective to develop and adopt a collective decision.

Evaluation of alternatives. At this stage, the analysis and evaluation of the identified alternative solutions to the problem is carried out according to the established criteria and taking into account the previously defined restrictions. Of course, when identifying possible alternatives, a certain preliminary assessment is carried out. Research, however, has shown that both the quantity and quality of alternative ideas are higher when the initial generation of ideas (solutions) is separated from their final evaluation. This means that only after listing all the ideas should one proceed to evaluate each alternative. When evaluating decisions, the manager, with the help of experts, determines the advantages and disadvantages of each of them and the possible overall consequences. The implementation of any alternative is associated with some negative aspects, therefore, as already noted, almost all important management decisions contain a compromise.

Final choice of alternative. Based on the analysis of the problem and the assessment of alternatives, the final solution is selected - the alternative with the most favorable overall consequences.

In fact, decision-making * is the choice of the best option of action from many possible ones, giving purposefulness to all activities, that is, subordination to a specific goal or set of goals. Such a choice is made using established criteria and taking into account resource constraints. This may require additional information.

To select the final solution, experts can also be involved, or it can be carried out collectively, however, the responsibility for the decision and the results of its implementation rests with the manager, who is empowered to manage the organizational unit in which the problem situation arose.

Implementation of the solution and evaluation of results. To solve a problem or capitalize on an existing opportunity, the solution must be implemented. Only after the implementation of the decision, its real value and quality are revealed. The task of the leader at this stage is organization of decision implementation, including drawing up a plan for the implementation of the solution, bringing this plan and the solution itself to the attention of the performers, monitoring the implementation of work.

When communicating administrative information to subordinates, the manager is recommended to develop an operational action plan for the implementation of the decision, providing in it, along with specific activities and areas of work, the main stages responsible for them and for the decision as a whole. This plan must be communicated to the entire team. The most experienced and responsible workers should lead separate directions in establishing functions, rights and responsibilities. Among the various components of the direction, it is important to single out elements that are united by a common goal, i.e., each of the actions should be aimed at achieving a specific goal, even if the goal of the subject of this auxiliary action was not precisely this goal. Important role is devoted to promoting the decision, explaining its meaning and significance, possible outcomes and consequences, the formation public opinion so that the team was more susceptible to administrative influences, and the orders and instructions received were carried out with great enthusiasm. “Hope, which does not come true for a long time, torments the heart, and a fulfilled desire is like a tree of life.” Sometimes the manager needs to select people, specific performers who could successfully implement the set amount of work and ensure the effectiveness of the solution. Under these conditions, it is necessary to proceed from the qualification level of subordinates, their work experience, the availability of leadership skills and diligence. Having determined the circle of such performers, it is necessary to establish their rights necessary for the performance of this work, and responsibility, explaining the essence and specificity of this decision. In the conditions and methods of bringing the solution there must be certain guarantees for its effective implementation in terms of understanding its essence, the specific features of the problems, as well as the mental characteristics of the performer. In this regard, praxeologists recommend that more attention be paid to the operational plan of action or its draft, if it has not yet been adopted for execution. If the plan involves the realization of the goal in an unconventional way, if its implementation is not based on known and tested methods, but, perhaps, known ones that have not yet been used, although they are effective, then we are dealing with a creative plan. An exhaustive plan must contain a program (hereinafter, the word "program" means a system of complex actions) - to establish the order of application of individual means, the start and end dates of actions. In network planning (network analysis), using computer technology, the time to achieve intermediate goals is summarized, various options are taken into account, implementation costs are calculated in order to find the fastest or most economical sequence of coordinated actions. What characteristics should a good plan have? good program? Praxeology requires that an effective plan, as well as a program, meet many requirements. First of all, it must be purposeful, that is, its implementation must lead to the achievement of the intended goal in a strictly defined time. Unfortunately, we know numerous examples when a completely achievable goal is not realized. The second requirement for plans and programs is their feasibility. The planner must take into account the capabilities of the performers, means, conditions, etc. Let the Warsaw metro be a negative example, which was elaborated in detail and very diligently in the plans. However, due to various circumstances, the plans could not be fulfilled. The plan must be internally agreed upon. For example, when we consider building high building and a large load of the premises, a correspondingly deep foundation should be planned. Omissions in a particularly important node of the plan threaten the integrity of the building. In general, this provision can be formulated as follows: the plan should not contain such details (constructive elements, means, etc.) that make its subsequent implementation impossible. The hallmarks of a good plan or good program are simple, structured, clear structure. The plan must also be readable by those for whom it was drawn up. It is often said that the genius of any plan or program lies in its simplicity. We are not talking here, of course, about simplifying everything “forcibly”. But when, for example, a passerby turns to us and asks how to get to Train Station, you don’t need to give him a complicated lecture, but you should indicate the simplest route - straight to railway tracks and, for example, to the right. But this information can be formulated in such a way that a person will not know at all where to go. And in all sorts of hands and programs, one should also adhere to the "golden mean". And very often we are tempted to develop them in too much detail, providing for the unnecessary, then their clarity is lost. It is known that some unforeseen circumstances often appear that change working conditions, for example, scientific progress offers such devices and machines, in comparison with which the devices indicated in the plan are outdated. The so-called obsolescence of fixed means of production must always be reckoned with. This term, which has nothing to do with morality, denotes the technical aging of the equipment used so far. Its operation does not pay off due to the appearance of new, from many points of view, more advanced equipment and machines. Therefore, the plan must be flexible, easily amenable to change in certain fragments. It should be remembered about scientific organization labor, which requires constant improvement of production and, consequently, constant improvement of plans. A bad plan is one in which the slightest change threatens the meaning of its existence. Despite a certain flexibility and susceptibility to all sorts of changes, the plan must still be designed for a larger perspective. In some cases, this is tantamount to requiring that it be developed as a whole, with interim deadlines set later. How many times does it happen that construction begins before the completion of the development of documentation. There comes a time when construction workers do all the initial work according to the plans prepared by the design bureau, and then are forced to stand idle. It is impossible to build without plans, otherwise, in the course of further preparation of construction projects, amendments will need to be made, and this will lead to an overspending of energy, materials and funds.

Management decision- the most important type of managerial work, as well as a set of interrelated, purposeful and logically consistent managerial actions that ensure the implementation of managerial tasks. This action consists in choosing the goal, program and methods of the team's activity in the field of solving the problem or in the field of changing the goal.

Decision making is the basis of management.

Development and decision making is a creative process in the activities of managers of any level, including:

1. development and goal setting;

2. study of the problem based on the information received;

3. selection and justification of criteria for efficiency (performance) and possible consequences the decision being made;

4. discussion with specialists various options solving a problem (task); selection and formulation of the optimal solution; decision-making;

5. concretization of the decision for its executors.

On decision-making stage developing and evaluating alternative solutions and courses of action based on multivariate calculations; the criteria for choosing the optimal solution are selected; choosing and making the best decision.

On decision implementation stages measures are taken to specify the decision and bring it to the executors, control over the progress of its implementation, make the necessary adjustments and evaluate the result obtained from the implementation of the decision. Each management decision has its own specific result, so the goal of management activity is to find such forms, methods, means and tools that could help achieve the optimal result in specific conditions and circumstances.

The end result of the work is to provide performers with everything necessary and create appropriate conditions for their effective work. A communication network should also be built for the exchange of information and appropriate reporting relationships between the participants should be adjusted.

Decision-making methods aimed at achieving the intended goals, can be different:

1) method based on manager's intuition, which is due to the presence of previously accumulated experience and the amount of knowledge in a particular field of activity, which helps to choose and make the right decision;

2) method based on the concept of "common sense", when the manager, when making decisions, substantiates them with consistent evidence, the content of which is based on the practical experience he has accumulated;

3) method based on scientific and practical approach, involving the choice of optimal solutions based on the processing of large amounts of information, helping to justify the decisions made. This method requires the use of modern technical means and, above all, electronic computers. The problem of choosing a decision by a manager is one of the most important in modern management science. It implies the need for a comprehensive assessment by the leader of the specific situation and the independence of his decision to take one of several options for possible decisions.

Based on group decision-making, methods contribute:

1) Brain attack undertaken by the group as an idea-generating process where all possible alternatives are considered from a critical point of view.

2) Nominal group method restricts discussions or communication with each other to a certain limit. Members of the group are present at the meeting but act independently.

3) Delphi method similar to the nominal group method, with the difference that the physical presence of all members of the group is not required. The Delphi method does not require group members to meet each other face to face.

This method characterizes the following steps:

1. A problem is identified and group members are asked to provide possible solutions by answering a carefully crafted questionnaire.

2. Each member of the group anonymously and independently answers the first questionnaire.

3. The results of the first questionnaire are collected at the center, deciphered and summarized.

4. Each member of the group receives a copy of the results.

5. After reviewing the results, the experts are asked to give their decisions again. As a rule, new solutions are given or there are changes in the original position.

6. These steps are repeated as often as necessary until a consensus is reached.

QUESTION 17. THE CONCEPT OF COMMUNICATION IN MANAGEMENT. CONTENT OF THE COMMUNICATION PROCESS.

Communication the process of transferring information from a source to a recipient.

Purpose of communication is to achieve from the receiving side an accurate understanding of the sent message.

All types of management activities are based on the exchange of information. Therefore, communications are called connecting processes. Communication and information are different but related concepts. Communication includes both what is communicated and how it is communicated. In order for communication to take place, at least two people are required.

stand out four basic elements during the exchange of information.

1. Sender- a person who collects or selects information and transmits it.

2. Message- the essence of information transmitted orally or encoded using symbols.

3. Channel- a means of transmitting information.

4. Recipient- the person to whom the information is intended and who perceives it.

Communication process - is the process of exchanging information between two or more people .

The purpose of the communication process is ensuring understanding of the transmitted information on the part of its recipient.