At the southern border of the zone coniferous forests, about 60° N. sh. in the west of Eurasia and in the Great Lakes region of North America, broad-leaved trees join conifers. It is warmer here, humidification is no longer excessive, but sufficient due to greater evaporation. Summers are longer, but winters are cold and covered with snow. In such conditions, oaks, lindens, maples, elms, ash trees, and sometimes beeches can grow. All of them are represented in Eurasia and North America by different species.

In these coniferous deciduous forests broad grass appears - plants with wide leaf blades dominate in the grass cover. A large fall of deciduous trees, shrubs and grass cover contributes to the formation of humus, and moderate moisture - to the accumulation of organic and mineral substances in the upper soil horizons.

As a result, soddy-podzolic soils with a well-defined humus horizon are formed. They are usually podzolized. The degree of podzolization depends on the properties of the soil and on the nature of the relief, which affects the drainage of the territory. When the water stagnates, gleying also develops.

As in every transition zone, in mixed forests, the internal structure of the vegetation cover is greatly influenced by local conditions: relief, properties of surface rocks.

For example, on moraine loams in southern Sweden, the Baltic countries, in European Russia there are many forests with a predominance of spruce or pure spruce forests. Pine forests are widespread on the terminal moraine ridges and outwash plains of Poland, the Baltic States, Belarus, Russia, composed of rocks of light mechanical composition from the surface. IN Belovezhskaya Pushcha, a large forest area located in the zone mixed forests, 50% of plantations are pine forests, and the remaining half are spruce-pine forests, spruce forests, oak-hornbeam massifs, secondary alder and aspen forests.

The heterogeneity of forests is exacerbated by selective logging.

So, in the central regions of Russia, oak, widely used in the economy, was cut down. You can guess that it grew here in mixed forests almost everywhere, based on individual surviving specimens and the presence of shrubs and grasses characteristic of oak forests in coniferous and small-leaved forests. Cuttings and fires also contribute to the replacement of polydominant forest communities by monodominant, often secondary birch and aspen forests, sometimes with an admixture of oak or spruce, and sometimes pure. The forests of this zone on both continents were also cut down for agricultural land, since soddy-podzolic soils have a certain fertility.

To the south, conifers "fall out" from the forest stand. The forests become purely broad-leaved. In this zone, the average July temperatures are 13-23°C, the average January temperatures are not lower than -10°C. Moisture conditions are different, but at least 500 mm of precipitation falls annually, and the summer is quite humid. Under such conditions, forests grow in the oceanic sectors of the continents and disappear in the central parts, where summers are hotter and drier and Cold winter.

Vegetation and soils

In European broad-leaved forests, the main species are pedunculate oak and European beech. They are often joined by maple, linden, ash, elm hornbeam.

These forests, sometimes with an admixture of birch, in the recent past occupied all plains and mountain slopes up to a height of 1000-1200 m in Western and Central Europe. The well-known geobotanist A.P. Ilyinsky called beech forests “the child of the oceanic climate”. On the plains, they do not enter east of Moldova. In the mountains, these forests usually grow on the northern and western more humid and cool slopes or above the oak. Oak forests, which are less demanding on moisture conditions, but require summer heat, reach the easternmost border of the zone and also form forest islands in the forest-steppe. The original form of oaks were evergreen species, they became deciduous in conditions of relatively low winter temperatures. Indeed, the leaves from oaks fly around later than from other trees, and sometimes dry foliage keeps on the branches all winter. Peculiar chestnut forests of southwestern Europe with an undergrowth of evergreen shrubs - holly and yew berry. They survived only in the lower mountain belt of southeastern France. There are very few forests left in Europe. Only on the slopes of the mountains there are more or less large forests. In the names of some mountain ranges there is the word "forest": Czech Forest, Thuringian Forest, Black Forest (in translation - "Black Forest"), etc. Relatively fertile brown and gray forest soils are formed under broad-leaved forests. They have a fairly thick and dark humus horizon with a humus content of 6-7%, a neutral reaction. The influx horizon has a nutty structure and humus films along the edges of structural units. Lands with such soils are almost completely plowed up.

Animal world

The animal world is very diverse and rich. Wild boars, roe deer, red deer, squirrels, hares, badgers, hedgehogs still live in the preserved forests of Europe, martens, forest cats, lynxes, brown bears and some other species of predatory mammals are found. In the forest litter and in the soil, there is an abundant fauna of invertebrates that process leaf litter. There are many insects and their caterpillars in the crowns of trees. They eat leaves and shoots, and they feed on small birds: warblers, warblers, tits. etc. There are birds and rodents that eat seeds and fruits: jays, wood mice and voles, dormice.

Broad-leaved forests of East Asia are peculiar. Here the conditions are somewhat different: with a very wet warm season, a cold winter. Different than in the West, was the history of the development of modern organic world. IN ice ages vegetation and animals could retreat south to their usual habitats, since there were no significant sublatitudinal mountain barriers. For the same reason, a free exchange of species between zonal groups is still possible.

Vegetation

Here it is difficult to draw a line between mixed and broad-leaved forests: conifers go far south to the subtropics. In addition, deciduous trees were cut down more intensively, and the proportion of conifers in mixed forests is predominant. But from subtropical latitudes evergreen magnolias, tulip tree, paulownias penetrated into this zone. In the undergrowth, along with honeysuckle and lilac, bamboo and rhododendron are common. There are numerous creepers: actinidia, wild grapes, vineyard, lemongrass. Bamboo and some creepers penetrate far to the north and are found even in the Far Eastern taiga. Lots of endemic plants. In addition to trees common to Europe, represented, however, by their own species, Manchurian walnut, velvet tree, and Chosenia grow here. Araliaceae are widespread. In the grass cover, along with genera and even species close to Europeans, there are endemics: for example, ginseng, one of the Jeffersonia species (other species of this genus are common in North America). Under these forests, as well as under Western European ones, brown forest soils are formed.

In the animal world, the same features are observed as in the plant. The fauna is very rich and unique. It contains animals close to North American and tropical Asian species. Tiger, leopard, marten kharza, some species of birds and insects live from Hindustan to the Far East.

There are few forested areas in East Asia. Within overpopulated China, all serviceable Agriculture The land has long been plowed up. The Far Eastern "Manchurian" flora has survived mainly on the territory of our country, but even here it is under the threat of destruction. There are remnants of these forests in mountainous areas. Better than on the mainland, forests have been preserved on the islands of the Japanese archipelago, where they occupy the lower mountain belt on about. Honshu and in the south about. Hokkaido. Here the participation of evergreen species is great and the degree of endemism in the flora and fauna is high. Forestry has largely changed the composition and structure of Japanese forests, but the people of the country carefully treat their forests, especially in numerous national parks and reserves.

Similar reasons determine the originality of the broad-leaved forests of the east North America. Here, too, there are no sublatitudinal mountain barriers and free migration is possible.

The submeridional strike of the zone has led to the fact that in the north the proportion of broad-leaved species is very large and deciduous forests almost approach the forest-tundra. In the south, the admixture of evergreens increases, which penetrate far to the north. With the change in climatic conditions from temperate latitudes to subtropical, the participation of evergreen and generally heat-loving elements of the flora increases, and forests become humid subtropical.

In terms of diversity and preservation of relict plants, these forests are close to East Asian ones. Both have it and just common elements- tulip tree, magnolias, etc. The forests of the Southern Appalachians are especially rich, similar in structure to tropical rain forests: they are polydominant, multi-tiered, with lianas and epiphytes. In the northeastern United States and Canada, broadleaf forests are more similar to European ones. They are dominated by sugar maple, American ash, large-leaved beech. American broad-leaved forests have survived mainly in mountainous regions, but even there they have been significantly modified.

The fauna of the North American forests has features and similarities, and differences with the Eurasian ones.

There are related species: the wapiti deer is a race of red deer, but the virgin deer lives there - a representative of a subfamily endemic to America. Mice and rats are replaced in the same ecological niches by hamsters. Endemic and large water vole - muskrat, which is often called water or musky rat. Similar to the East Asian black bear baribal. Endemic are the pecan marten, the raccoon, the gray fox, which can climb trees. In the broad-leaved forests of North America, the only representative of marsupials on the Northern continents lives - the opossum, or marsupial rat. Of the endemic birds, mockingbirds, and Eurasian flycatchers and warblers are replaced by tyrannids and treeworts. In the west, South American hummingbirds penetrate to the northernmost border of the zone.

The productivity of broad-leaved forests is up to 150-200 c/ha, mixed - about 100 c/ha. In large areas of both continents, they are cut down, and the land is occupied by agricultural land. Often, during reforestation, broad-leaved species are replaced by fast-growing conifers and small-leaved species. The animals that inhabited these ecotopes are gradually disappearing, and their ranges are shrinking. The unique richest Appalachian forests and the beautiful chestnut forests of the south of France suffered, among other things. Special measures are required to protect still existing forest areas.

The flora of the taiga

Different trees require different amounts of heat, some less, others more. Coniferous trees - spruce, pine, larch, fir, cedar pine(it is often called cedar) - less demanding on heat.

They grow well in the northern part of the forest zone. These trees form coniferous forests- taiga. Taiga occupies most of the forest zone.

Coniferous trees

Summer in the taiga is much warmer than in the tundra, but the winter is very cold.

There is also permafrost here. True, in summer the surface of the earth thaws to a greater depth than in the tundra.

This is very important for trees with their powerful roots.

Flora of mixed and broad-leaved forests

South of the taiga, winter is much milder.

There is no permafrost here. These conditions are more favorable for deciduous trees. Therefore, south of the taiga are located mixed forests. Coniferous and deciduous trees seem to be mixed here. Spread further south broadleaf forests. They are educated thermophilic trees with broad, large leaves.

Such trees include oak,maple, Linden, ash, elm. These species are called broad-leaved, in contrast to small-leaved, which include birch, aspen.

deciduous trees

Animal world of forests

On this page we will talk about some animals that live in forests.

Questions and tasks

The natural areas of Russia are located as follows:
a) tundra, arctic zone, forest zone
b) arctic zone, forest zone, tundra
c) arctic zone, tundra, forest zone.

2. Growing in the taiga:
a) fir, spruce, larch
b) oaks, pines, spruces
c) birches, lindens, larches.

3. In the forests live ...
a) Arctic foxes, lemmings, wolves.
b) sable, chipmunks, squirrels.
c) seals, walruses, whales.

4. Where are mixed forests located?
a) south of the taiga
b) north of the taiga

Which trees are deciduous?
a) maple, larch, pine
b) spruce, fir, larch
c) elm, ash, linden

Answers

mammals forest

Fauna of mixed and broad-leaved forests, agricultural landscapes, swamps and water bodies

Vertebrate forests

The flora of the country is represented by forest (7.8 million ha), meadow (3.3 million ha), swamp (0.92 million ha), shrub (0.49 million ha) and aquatic (0.48 million ha) vegetation.

The vegetation cover of Belarus has a transitional character from the Eurasian coniferous-forest zone to the European broad-leaved-forest and forest-steppe zone. woody plants represented by more than 100 species of trees and shrubs.

The country is dominated by forests.

They occupy 39.8% of the territory.

Marshes occupy 1.7 million hectares of the country's territory - about 11.5%. Largest areas of these unique natural complexes are located in the Brest and Minsk regions.

The animal world is one of the most important biological resources, our national and world heritage. The diversity of the fauna of Belarus is currently represented by 457 species of vertebrates and more than 20 thousand species.

species of invertebrates.

Mammals are represented by 76 ids. Among them, one of the unique is the Bialowieza bison, the number of which has now reached 750 individuals. At least 100 bears live in the forests of the northern part of the republic.

Unlike most of Europe, where the wolf is exterminated, there are about 2 thousand individuals in Belarus.

Among vertebrates, birds are the most diverse, the number of species of which (309) is 2 times higher than the number of species of mammals, reptiles and amphibians combined.

Of the reptiles, there is 1 species of turtles, 3 - lizards and 3 - snakes.

Of the amphibians, there are 2 species of newts and 10 species of the anurans order. The ichthyofauna includes 59 species of fish, of which 45 are native, the rest are imported for acclimatization and breeding, 3 species of lampreys.

A number of representatives of the fauna of the republic are of resource importance and are used in economic activities.

Of the mammals in Belarus, elk, wild boar, roe deer, hares - hare and hare, squirrel, wolf, fox are of the greatest resource value.

Deer, beaver, muskrat, American mink and marten may also be of significant importance. In accordance with the requirements of the Red Book, 1580 habitats of 77 species of animals have been identified and accepted under protection in Belarus.

The objects of hunting are 21 species of mammals and 30 species of birds.

Among them are elk, wild boar, deer, roe deer, hare, beaver, wolf, fox, muskrat, American mink, pine marten, as well as waterfowl, black grouse and capercaillie.

Vegetation.

Coniferous forests: spruce (the southern border of the natural distribution of spruce runs along the Pripyat River), pine.

Broad-leaved forests: oak, hornbeam, maple, ash, linden.

Small-leaved forests: birch, aspen, willow, alder.

Mixed forests.

Meadow vegetation: bluegrass, timothy grass, hedgehog, fescue, sedge, etc.

Swamp vegetation: mosses, sedge, cranberries, reeds, calamus, swamp, etc.

Forest ecosystems are characterized by exceptionally high biological diversity.

ecosystems deciduous forests is characterized by rich species diversity, but is especially distinguished by the highest population density of animals of most groups.

This is due to the high productivity of forests, the high species diversity of plants and the huge phytomass produced by them annually and utilized through a complex network of trophic relationships. Exceptionally diverse is the group of species leading tree image life, especially those living in the hollows of trees.

For broad-leaved, as well as for deciduous forests in general, seasonal differences in the animal population are most characteristic.

In winter, such forests are less favorable for many animals and birds than evergreen coniferous or mixed ones. In this regard, a significantly greater part of the birds of deciduous forests are migratory or migrate to other biotopes.

Of the rare and protected species, deciduous forests are characterized by bison, the largest number of rare species of bats, dormouse, birds - eagle owl, black stork, pygmy eagle, roller, green and middle woodpeckers.

Fauna of mixed broadleaf-coniferous forests the richest, as it includes both representatives of the northern taiga zone and inhabitants of nemoral European forests.

In addition, the species richness of this group of forests in Belarus is also determined by their significantly larger area compared to broad-leaved forests. For most species of forest fauna, a very favorable combination of fodder and protective conditions is created here. These are the most preferred biotopes for most large mammals - ungulates and carnivores. The composition of rare and protected species of broad-leaved forests here includes such species as flying squirrel, brown bear, lynx, and from birds - upland and sparrow owls, a valuable hunting species - capercaillie, the lesser spotted eagle, hobby eagle are more often noted.

Ecosystems of coniferous (boreal) forests.

Pine forests, mainly growing on poor and dry soils, as a rule, have a much simpler tiered structure and a relatively poor fauna. The composition of species leading a terrestrial lifestyle is especially small. The fauna of spruce forests, which have the best protective properties for animals, is richer. The high density of forest stands and the dense undergrowth of these forests, in addition, provide favorable microclimatic conditions during the wintering period, which attracts animals from other habitats.

In general, in coniferous forests there is a significant proportion of rare and protected animal species, among which are flying squirrel, brown bear, badger, lynx, among birds - short-toed eagle, hobby, merlin, boreal owl, three-toed woodpecker, gray owl, which prefer massifs alternating with riding and transitional swamps.

There are copperhead and rush toad.

Fauna of small-leaved derived forests different formations differ significantly in the composition and number of species. Alder forests are the richest, reflecting their high productivity in general.

The age of small-leaved forests is one of the most important factors determining the species richness and abundance of animals, but there are currently few high-aged forest stands with the most complete composition of faunal complexes.

The composition of rare and protected species in black alder forests is largely similar to that of broad-leaved forests.

The same species of bats, dormouse, a badger are noted here, among the birds in places the eagle owl, the lesser spotted eagle, the black stork are not uncommon, the roller is found, in the river floodplains - blue tit, bluethroat, common remez.

The fauna of small-leaved forests in swamps is in many respects similar to the fauna of derived small-leaved forests and reaches the greatest diversity of species in old-growth forest stands.

List of terrestrial vertebrates, inhabitants of forest ecosystems on the territory of Belarus

mammals forest

forest birds

Broad-leaved forests are a variety of deciduous forests formed by deciduous (summer green) trees with wide leaf blades.

Broad-leaved forests are confined to humid and moderately humid regions of a temperate climate with a weakened continentality, uniform distribution of precipitation throughout the year and relatively high temperatures. Soils under broad-leaved forests are sod-podzolic, gray forest, and some varieties of chernozem. They contain relatively a large number of nutrients (this can be judged by the dark color of their upper horizons). Another feature of the soils under consideration is that, although they are sufficiently provided with moisture, they are well drained and do not have excess water.

The broad-leaved forest is characterized primarily by a wide variety of tree species. This is especially noticeable if we compare it with a coniferous forest, with a taiga. There are much more tree species here than in the taiga - sometimes you can count up to a dozen of them. The reason for the species richness of trees is that broad-leaved forests develop in more favorable natural conditions than taiga. Tree species that are demanding on climate and soil can grow here, which do not tolerate the harsh conditions of the taiga regions.

For a broad-leaved forest, it is characteristic that the various tree species that make up its composition have different heights, forming, as it were, several groups in height. The tallest trees are oak and ash, the lower ones are Norway maple, elm and linden, even lower ones are field maple, wild apple and pear. However, trees, as a rule, do not form distinctly expressed tiers, well delimited from each other. Oak usually dominates, other tree species most often play the role of satellites.

Sufficiently rich in broad-leaved forest and species composition of shrubs.

Different types shrubs vary greatly in height.

The grass cover is usually well developed in the broad-leaved forest. Many plants have more or less large, wide leaf blades. Therefore, they are called oak broad grasses. Some of the herbs found in oak forests always grow in single specimens, never forming dense thickets. Others, on the contrary, can almost completely cover the soil over a large area. Almost all herbaceous plants living in oak forests are perennials. Many of them reproduce poorly by seeds and maintain their existence mainly through vegetative propagation. Such plants, as a rule, have long above-ground or underground shoots that can quickly spread in different directions, capturing new territory.

In the European part of the Russian Federation, the main tree species of mixed forests are European spruce, birch and Scotch pine, broad-leaved forests are linden and oak; aspen, ash, elm, maple and hornbeam also grow. Agro-climatic conditions are favorable in most of the zone.

In the south of Primorye, the climate is monsoonal, warm, with a lot of precipitation, so the forests are rich in species of trees, shrubs and grasses, specific to the conditions of the Russian Far East. Several representatives of this wealth: Mongolian oak, ash-nosed, Amur velvet, Manchurian linden, Schmidt birch, Manchurian walnut. Coniferous-deciduous forests are characterized by Korean pine, spiky yew, Korean spruce, whole-leaved fir. For the second tier, the heart-leaved hornbeam, bird cherry Maak, Maksimovich's cherry, Amur lilac are typical. The grass cover of forests is also abundant in species, but I will only mention the well-known and respected in medicine ginseng.

Broad-leaved forests predominate in the Northern Hemisphere of the planet, but are also found in regions of the Southern Hemisphere. Very often they are adjacent to the mixed zone...

By Masterweb

Broad-leaved forests predominate in the Northern Hemisphere of the planet, but are also found in regions of the Southern Hemisphere. Very often they are adjacent to the zone of mixed forests and have much in common with it. What features are characteristic of the flora and fauna of mixed and deciduous forests? We will talk about their main features in the article.

Geography of natural areas

Deciduous or summer-green forests differ from other tree communities in their falling leaves in autumn. One of their varieties are deciduous forests. They are characterized by relatively large leaf sizes, which is why they got their name. Such forests love light and warmth, but are considered shade-tolerant. They grow in humid areas temperate zone with a mild climate and even distribution of precipitation throughout all seasons.

These forests are distributed throughout Europe, except for the Mediterranean and Scandinavia, growing in Western and Central Ukraine, and a little in the western part of Russia. There they are represented mainly by beeches, oaks, a little less often - maples, ash-trees, hornbeams, lindens and elms. The undergrowth is hazel, bird cherry, wild apple, buckthorn. Broad-leaved forests are much richer in East Asia than in Europe. Many species of herbs, shrubs, ferns, and vines grow in them.

In the northeastern states of the United States and in southern Canada, oak-chestnut forests, hickory trees, oaks, maples, tulip trees, plane trees, and nuts are common. The Southern Hemisphere is dominated by evergreen species and there are very few deciduous forests. They are distributed mainly in Chile and the islands of New Zealand.

Mixed forests, in fact, are transitional between broad-leaved and coniferous, therefore, they contain features of both zones. They withstand colder conditions, located in regions with cool, long winters and warm summer. They are distributed in northern Europe, the south of the Scandinavian Peninsula, the Far East and the plains of Siberia, the Great Lakes and California in the USA, South America and New Zealand.

Within one region, plants and animals of broad-leaved forests have much in common with representatives of mixed communities. Zones often border on each other and have a similar species composition. For example, in the mixed zone of Europe, the same oaks, beeches and maples grow, but pines, spruces, firs and other conifers coexist next to them.

Animal world of deciduous forests

Due to the presence of not only trees, but also shrubs, grasses, mosses, as well as a layer of falling leaves, layering is well expressed in the forests of the temperate zone. Thus, they create conditions for the habitat of the most various forms life.

The high bedding and upper soil layers are home to a huge number of invertebrates: stag beetles, barbels, earthworms, caterpillars, insect larvae, mites, spiders. Birds nest in the crowns and pillars of trees, squirrels, lynxes, forest cats and all kinds of insects live. The most populated are the ground tiers. Here, animals of mixed and broad-leaved forests are represented by ungulates, large and medium predators, various birds, amphibians and reptiles.

For North America, such inhabitants as wild turkeys, gray and black squirrels, baribal bears, virgin deer, Canadian beavers, American thrushes, warblers, red-eyed vireos, marmots, virgin opossums are familiar. Animals of the broad-leaved forests of Russia and Europe are deer deer, brown bears, foxes, ermines, badgers, raccoon dogs, moose, hares, wolves. Cougars, pudu, Chilean cats live in South America. In Asia and the Far East, typical animals of the zone of deciduous forests are wolverines, deer, raccoon dogs, red deer, Manchurian hares, gorals, and marmosets. Red Book Amur tigers and Far Eastern leopards also live here.

Brown bear

A dangerous predator, the brown bear inhabits North America, Central and Eastern Europe, East Asia and Siberia. It is the largest animal in broad-leaved forests. His average weight is 300-400 kilograms, and the body length reaches from 1.2 to 2 meters. The species consists of several geographical races, which differ from each other in color and size. In the forests of the temperate zone, the Siberian and European subspecies are common.

pine marten

Zheltodushka, or pine marten, lives mainly in Europe. It has long and thick dark brown fur. On the chest of the animal there is a light yellow spot, by which it is easy to distinguish it from other martens. The animal climbs trees perfectly, makes jumps of 4 meters in length, easily maintaining balance. live pine martens in hollows or abandoned nests of large birds, spending most of their lives in trees.

Skunk

In our broad-leaved forests, the skunk animal is not found, but for North America it is typical. It lives in burrows, which it digs with its own hands with the help of long claws and powerful paws. The skunk climbs trees beautifully, but does not live on them. He has a good hearing and sense of smell, but his eyesight, as for a predator, is weak. He sees the animal no further than 3-4 meters.

It is difficult to confuse him with someone, because his appearance and habits are quite memorable. The skunk is black with two wide white stripes running from the head to the tip of the tail. With his coloring, he does not even try to disguise himself in the forest, but, on the contrary, warns that they should not approach him. If the enemy gets too close, then the animal sprays an odorous secret with aroma on him rotten eggs.

Amur goral

Goral is a representative of the mountain forests of East Asia and the Far East. It lives on the Korean peninsula, in the Primorsky and Khabarovsk regions of Russia, as well as in the northeastern regions of China.

This animal of deciduous forests looks like a goat covered with thick warm fur. It has a gray-brown color with a dark longitudinal stripe on the back and a white spot on the neck. Its head is decorated with two small horns curved backwards. Gorals live in small groups or alone. They are not fighters, and in case of danger they begin to hiss and try to climb higher into the mountains.

Chilean cat

Another exotic animal of the broadleaf forests is the Chilean cat, or kodkod. The animal lives in Chile and Argentina, and is endemic to South America. This is the smallest representative of wild cats in the entire Western Hemisphere.

Kodkods also inhabit mixed and coniferous forests, living mainly at an altitude of 2000-2500 meters. They are slightly larger than ordinary domestic cats. The body weight of a kodkod usually does not exceed 3 kilograms, and the length is 80 centimeters. Chilean cats have large and round eyes, rounded ears and a large tail, which is almost half the length of the body. The entire body of the kodkod is painted dark red with dark spots on the back, sides and paws. There are dark stripes on the head and tail.

Beaver

There are only two modern representatives of beavers - Canadian and ordinary, or river. The first inhabits most of North America, the second - Europe and Central Asia. Both species are found in deciduous forests and are among the largest rodents on the planet.

The beaver is a powerful squat animal whose body length can reach 1.3 meters. He has short paws with swimming membranes between the fingers, a long paddle-shaped tail covered with horny scales like scales. Its entire structure suggests that it spends a lot of time in the water. He swims and dives perfectly, holding his breath for 10-15 minutes.

Main Feature These animals have strong teeth that can gnaw through a tree pole in one night. With the help of such a tool, beavers build housing from logs and branches. Their house is located right on the water and consists of a hut and a dam around it. The construction of a beaver can stretch for several hundred meters.

Fox

The red fox is the most common inhabitant of the temperate zone. It is distributed throughout Europe, most of North America and Asia. The animal lives even on the northern outskirts of Africa. It inhabits the tundra, desert and semi-desert, and, of course, broad-leaved and mixed forests.

The fox is a predator, but it can also eat plant foods. She hunts small mammals, rodents, birds, snakes, eats eggs and young animals. Foxes living near major rivers often catch fish. So, animals living in Canada and in the north-east of Eurasia, during the spawning season, completely switch to a salmon diet.

Foxes live in burrows that they dig themselves, or settle in abandoned dwellings of other inhabitants of the forest. They belong to the canine family and have many habits that are characteristic of their "brothers".

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Broad-leaved and mixed forests make up a much smaller percentage of Russia's forest zone than coniferous taiga. In Siberia, they are completely absent. Broad-leaved and mixed forests are typical for the European part and the Far East region of the Russian Federation. They are formed by deciduous and coniferous trees. They have not only a mixed composition of forest stands, but also differ in the diversity of the animal world, resistance to negative environmental influences, and mosaic structure.

Types and layering of mixed forests

There are coniferous-small-leaved and mixed-broad-leaved forests. The former grow mainly in continental regions. Mixed forests have a clearly visible layering (changes in the composition of the flora, depending on the height). Most upper tier- these are tall spruces, pines, oaks. Somewhat lower grow birches, maples, elms, lindens, wild pears and apple trees, younger oak forests and others. Next come lower trees: mountain ash, viburnum, etc. The next tier is formed by shrubs: viburnum, hazel, hawthorn, rose hips, raspberries and many others. Next come the semi-shrubs. Grasses, lichens and mosses grow at the very bottom.

Intermediate and primary forms of coniferous-small-leaved forest

An interesting feature is that mixed-small-leaved massifs are considered only an intermediate stage in the formation of a coniferous forest. However, they are also indigenous: massifs of stone birch (Kamchatka), birch pegs in the forest-steppes, aspen bushes and swampy alder forests (south of the European part of the Russian Federation). Small-leaved forests are very light. This contributes to the lush growth of the grass cover and its diversity. broad-leaved type, on the contrary, refers to stable natural formations. It is distributed in the transition zone between taiga and broad-leaved types. grow on the plains and on the lowest mountain belt with temperate and humid climatic conditions.

Coniferous-deciduous forests grow in the warmer regions of the temperate zone. They are distinguished by the diversity and richness of the grass cover. They grow in intermittent stripes from the European part of the Russian Federation to the Far East. Their landscapes are favorable for people. To the south of the taiga is a zone of mixed forests. They are distributed throughout the entire area of ​​the East European Plain, as well as beyond the Urals (up to the Amur region). They do not form a continuous zone.

The approximate border of the European section of broad-leaved and mixed forests in the north lies along 57 ° N. sh. Above it, the oak (one of the key trees) almost completely disappears. The southern one almost comes into contact with the northern border of the forest-steppes, where the spruce completely disappears. This zone is a section in the form of a triangle, two peaks of which are in Russia (Ekaterinburg, St. Petersburg), and the third - in Ukraine (Kiev). That is, as the distance from the main zone to the north, broad-leaved, as well as mixed forests gradually leave the watershed spaces. They prefer river valleys that are warmer and protected from icy winds with access to the surface of carbonate rocks. On them, forests of broad-leaved and mixed types gradually reach the taiga in small massifs.

The East European Plain is mostly low-lying and flat, with only occasional elevations. Here are the sources, basins and watersheds of the largest Russian rivers: Dnieper, Volga, Western Dvina. On their floodplains, meadows are interspersed with forests and arable lands. In some regions, the lowlands, due to the proximity of groundwater, as well as the limited flow, are extremely swampy in places. There are also areas with sandy soils on which pine forests grow. Berry bushes and herbs grow in swamps and clearings. This area is the most suitable for coniferous-deciduous forests.

Human influence

Broad-leaved, as well as mixed forests, are subject to various influences from people for a long time. Therefore, many massifs have changed a lot: the native vegetation has either been completely destroyed, or partially or completely replaced by secondary rocks. Now the remains of broad-leaved forests, which have survived under severe anthropogenic pressure, have a different structure of flora changes. Some species, having lost their place in indigenous communities, grow in anthropogenically disturbed habitats or have taken up intrazonal positions.

Climate

The climate of mixed forests is quite mild. It is characterized as relatively warm winter(average from 0 to -16°C) and long summer (16-24°C) compared to the taiga zone. The average annual rainfall is 500-1000 mm. It exceeds evaporation everywhere, which is a feature of the pronounced leaching water regime. Mixed forests have such a characteristic feature as a high level of grass cover development. Their biomass averages 2-3 thousand c/ha. The level of litter also exceeds the biomass of the taiga, however, due to the higher activity of microorganisms, the destruction of organic matter is much faster. Therefore, mixed forests are thinner and have a higher level of litter decomposition than taiga coniferous forests.

Soils of mixed forests

The soils of mixed forests are diverse. The cover has a rather variegated structure. On the territory of the East European Plain, the most common type is soddy-podzolic soil. It is a southern variety of classical podzolic soils and is formed only in the presence of loamy soil-forming rocks. The soddy-podzolic soil has the same profile structure and a similar structure. It differs from the podzolic one in the lower massiveness of the litter (up to 5 cm), as well as in the greater thickness of all horizons. And these are not the only differences. Soddy-podzolic soils have a more pronounced humus horizon A1, which is located under the litter. Appearance it differs from a similar layer of podzolic soils. The upper part contains the rhizomes of the grass cover and forms the turf. The horizon can be colored in various shades of gray and has a loose structure. The layer thickness is 5-20 cm, the proportion of humus is up to 4%. The upper part of the profile of these soils has an acidic reaction. As it deepens, it becomes even smaller.

Soils of mixed broad-leaved forests

Gray forest soils of mixed-deciduous forests are formed in inland regions. In Russia, they are distributed from the European part to Transbaikalia. In such soils, precipitation penetrates to a great depth. However, groundwater horizons are often very deep. Therefore, wetting of the soil to their level is typical only in highly humid areas.

The soils of mixed forests are better suited for farming than those of taiga. In the southern regions of the European part of the Russian Federation, arable land makes up to 45% of the area. Closer to the north and taiga, the share of arable land gradually decreases. Agriculture in these regions is difficult due to the strong leaching, waterlogging and bouldering of soils. Good crops require a lot of fertilizer.

General characteristics of fauna and flora

The plants and animals of the mixed forest are very diverse. In terms of species richness of flora and fauna, they are comparable only to the tropical jungle and are home to many predators and herbivores. Here, squirrels and other living creatures settle on high trees, birds make nests on the crowns, hares and foxes equip holes at the roots, and beavers live near the rivers. The species diversity of the mixed zone is very high. Both the inhabitants of the taiga and broad-leaved forests, and the inhabitants of the forest-steppes feel comfortable here. Some are awake all year round, while others hibernate for the winter. Plants and have a symbiotic relationship. Many herbivores feed on various berries, which are abundant in mixed forests.

Mixed-small-leaved forests are approximately 90% composed of coniferous and small-leaved tree species. There are not many broad-leaved varieties. Together with coniferous trees, aspens, birches, alders, willows, and poplars grow in them. There are the most birch forests in the massifs of this type. As a rule, they are secondary - that is, they grow in forest fires, clearings and clearings, old unused arable lands. In open habitats, such forests regenerate well and in the first years, the expansion of their areas is facilitated by

Coniferous-broad-leaved forests mainly consist of spruces, lindens, pines, oaks, elms, elms, maples, and in the southwestern regions of the Russian Federation - beech, ash and hornbeam. The same trees, but of local varieties, grow in the Far East region along with grapes and lianas. In many respects, the composition and structure of the forest stand of coniferous-broad-leaved forests depends on climatic conditions, topography, and the soil-hydrological regime of a particular region. Oak, spruce, maple, fir and other species predominate in the North Caucasus. But the most diverse in composition are the Far Eastern forests of the coniferous-broad-leaved type. They are educated cedar pine, white fir, Ayan spruce, several Manchurian ash, Mongolian oak, Amur linden and the aforementioned native species of vegetation.

Species diversity of the animal world

Of the large herbivores, moose, bison, wild boars, roe deer and spotted deer (the species has been introduced and adapted) live in mixed forests. Of the rodents, there are forest squirrels, martens, ermines, beavers, chipmunks, otters, mice, badgers, minks, black ferrets. Mixed forests abound in a large number of bird species. Many of them are listed below, but not all of them: oriole, nuthatch, siskin, field thrush, goshawk, hazel grouse, bullfinch, nightingale, cuckoo, hoopoe, gray crane, goldfinch, woodpecker, black grouse, chaffinch. More or less large predators are represented by wolves, lynxes and foxes. The mixed forests are also home to hares (hare and hare), lizards, hedgehogs, snakes, frogs and brown bears.

Mushrooms and berries

The berries are represented by blueberries, raspberries, lingonberries, cranberries, blackberries, bird cherry, wild strawberries, stone berries, elderberries, mountain ash, viburnum, dogrose, hawthorn. There are many forests of this type. edible mushrooms: boletus, white, valui, chanterelles, russula, mushrooms, milk mushrooms, boletus, volnushki, various rows, boletus, mossiness mushrooms, mushrooms and others. One of the most dangerous poisonous macromycetes are fly agarics and pale grebes.

shrubs

The mixed forests of Russia abound in shrubs. The understory layer is unusually developed. Oak massifs are characterized by the presence of hazel, euonymus, forest honeysuckle, and in northern zone- buckthorn brittle. Rose hips grow on the edges and in light forests. In the forests of the coniferous-broad-leaved type, liana-like plants are also found: new fence, climbing hops, bittersweet nightshade.

Herbs

Mixed forest grasses (especially coniferous-broad-leaved type) have a large species diversity, as well as a complex vertical structure. The most typical and widely represented category is the mesophilic nemoral plants. Among them, representatives of oak broad grass stand out. These are plants in which the leaf plate has a significant width. These include: perennial forestry, common gout, obscure lungwort, May lily of the valley, hairy sedge, yellow greenfinch, lanceolate chickweed, nomad (black and spring), amazing violet. Cereals are represented by oak bluegrass, giant fescue, forest reed grass, short-legged feathery, spreading pine forest and some others. The flat leaves of these plants are a variant of adaptation to the specific phytoenvironment of coniferous-deciduous forests.

In addition to the above perennial species, these massifs also contain herbs of the ephemeroid group. They transfer their growing season to spring time, when the lighting is maximum. After the snow melts, it is the ephemeroids that form a beautifully blooming carpet of yellow anemones and goose onions, purple corydalis and lilac-bluish woods. These plants are life cycle in a couple of weeks, and when the leaves of the trees bloom, their aerial part dies off over time. They experience an unfavorable period under a layer of soil in the form of tubers, bulbs and rhizomes.

Broad-leaved forests predominate in the Northern Hemisphere of the planet, but are also found in regions of the Southern Hemisphere. Very often they are adjacent to the zone of mixed forests and have much in common with it. What features are characteristic of the flora and fauna of mixed and deciduous forests? We will talk about their main features in the article.

Geography of natural areas

Deciduous or summer-green forests differ from other tree communities in their falling leaves in autumn. One of their varieties are deciduous forests. They are characterized by relatively large leaf sizes, which is why they got their name. Such forests love light and warmth, but are considered shade-tolerant. They grow in humid areas of the temperate zone with a mild climate and an even distribution of rainfall throughout all seasons.

These forests are distributed throughout Europe, except for the Mediterranean and Scandinavia, growing in Western and Central Ukraine, and a little in the western part of Russia. There they are represented mainly by beeches, oaks, a little less often - maples, ash-trees, hornbeams, lindens and elms. The undergrowth is hazel, bird cherry, wild apple, buckthorn. Broad-leaved forests are much richer in East Asia than in Europe. Many species of herbs, shrubs, ferns, and vines grow in them.

In the northeastern states of the United States and in southern Canada, oak-chestnut forests, hickory trees, oaks, maples, tulip trees, plane trees, and nuts are common. The Southern Hemisphere is dominated by evergreen species and there are very few deciduous forests. They are distributed mainly in Chile and the islands of New Zealand.

Mixed forests, in fact, are transitional between broad-leaved and coniferous, therefore, they contain features of both zones. They withstand colder conditions, located in regions with cool, long winters and warm summers. They are distributed in northern Europe, the south of the Scandinavian Peninsula, the Far East and the plains of Siberia, the Great Lakes and California in the USA, South America and New Zealand.

Within one region, plants and animals of broad-leaved forests have much in common with representatives of mixed communities. Zones often border on each other and have a similar species composition. For example, in the mixed zone of Europe, the same oaks, beeches and maples grow, but pines, spruces, firs and other conifers coexist next to them.

Animal world of deciduous forests

Due to the presence of not only trees, but also shrubs, grasses, mosses, as well as a layer of falling leaves, layering is well expressed in the forests of the temperate zone. Thus, they create conditions for the habitat of a wide variety of life forms.

The high bedding and upper soil layers are home to a huge number of invertebrates: stag beetles, barbels, earthworms, caterpillars, insect larvae, mites, spiders. Birds nest in the crowns and pillars of trees, squirrels, lynxes, forest cats and all kinds of insects live. The most populated are the ground tiers. Here, animals of mixed and broad-leaved forests are represented by ungulates, large and medium predators, various birds, amphibians and reptiles.

Brown bear

A dangerous predator, the brown bear inhabits North America, Central and Eastern Europe, East Asia and Siberia. It is the largest animal in broad-leaved forests. Its average weight is 300-400 kilograms, and the body length reaches from 1.2 to 2 meters. The species consists of several geographical races, which differ from each other in color and size. In the forests of the temperate zone, the Siberian and European subspecies are common.

pine marten

Zheltodushka, or pine marten, lives mainly in Europe. It has long and thick dark brown fur. On the chest of the animal there is a light yellow spot, by which it is easy to distinguish it from other martens. The animal climbs trees perfectly, makes jumps of 4 meters in length, easily maintaining balance. Martens live in hollows or abandoned nests of large birds, spending most of their lives in trees.

Skunk

In our broad-leaved forests, the skunk animal is not found, but for North America it is typical. It lives in burrows, which it digs with its own hands with the help of long claws and powerful paws. The skunk climbs trees beautifully, but does not live on them. He has a good hearing and sense of smell, but his eyesight, as for a predator, is weak. He sees the animal no further than 3-4 meters.

It is difficult to confuse him with someone, because his appearance and habits are quite memorable. The skunk is black with two wide white stripes running from the head to the tip of the tail. With his coloring, he does not even try to disguise himself in the forest, but, on the contrary, warns that they should not approach him. If the enemy gets too close, then the animal sprays an odorous secret with the aroma of rotten eggs on him.

Amur goral

Goral is a representative of the mountain forests of East Asia and the Far East. It lives on the Korean peninsula, in the Primorsky and Khabarovsk regions of Russia, as well as in the northeastern regions of China.

This animal of deciduous forests looks like a goat covered with thick warm fur. It has a gray-brown color with a dark longitudinal stripe on the back and a white spot on the neck. Its head is decorated with two small horns curved backwards. Gorals live in small groups or alone. They are not fighters, and in case of danger they begin to hiss and try to climb higher into the mountains.

Chilean cat

Another exotic animal of the broadleaf forests is the Chilean cat, or kodkod. The animal lives in Chile and Argentina, and is endemic to South America. This is the smallest representative of wild cats in the entire Western Hemisphere.

Kodkods also inhabit mixed and coniferous forests, living mainly at an altitude of 2000-2500 meters. They are slightly larger than ordinary domestic cats. The body weight of a kodkod usually does not exceed 3 kilograms, and the length is 80 centimeters. Chilean cats have large and round eyes, rounded ears and a large tail, which is almost half the length of the body. The entire body of the kodkod is painted dark red with dark spots on the back, sides and paws. There are dark stripes on the head and tail.

Beaver

There are only two modern representatives of beavers - Canadian and ordinary, or river. The first inhabits most of North America, the second - Europe and Central Asia. Both species are found in deciduous forests and are among the largest rodents on the planet.

The beaver is a powerful squat animal whose body length can reach 1.3 meters. He has short paws with swimming membranes between the fingers, a long paddle-shaped tail covered with horny scales like scales. Its entire structure suggests that it spends a lot of time in the water. He swims and dives perfectly, holding his breath for 10-15 minutes.

The main feature of these animals are strong teeth that can gnaw through a tree pole in one night. With the help of such a tool, beavers build housing from logs and branches. Their house is located right on the water and consists of a hut and a dam around it. The construction of a beaver can stretch for several hundred meters.

Fox

The red fox is the most common inhabitant of the temperate zone. It is distributed throughout Europe, most of North America and Asia. The animal lives even on the northern outskirts of Africa. It inhabits the tundra, desert and semi-desert, and, of course, broad-leaved and mixed forests.

The fox is a predator, but it can also eat plant foods. She hunts small mammals, rodents, birds, snakes, eats eggs and young animals. Foxes living near large rivers often fish. So, animals living in Canada and in the north-east of Eurasia, during the spawning season, completely switch to a salmon diet.

Foxes live in burrows that they dig themselves, or settle in abandoned dwellings of other inhabitants of the forest. They belong to the canine family and have many habits that are characteristic of their "brothers".