24.10.2019

Communication between animals. Animal communication. Benefits and disadvantages of social behavior

Communication in animals

Currently, there are three main approaches to the study of animal communication in zoopsychology.

Attempts to directly decipher the signals. One can simply observe animals in various situations of their life in communities and, relying on reliable correlations between previous and subsequent events, draw conclusions about the information transmission systems used by animals (correlation method). Data were obtained on the signals used by a number of bird species in mating behavior, informing about the found sources of food in the honey bee, informing about various dangerous animals in green monkeys (“eagle”, “snake”, “leopard”), etc. Often the method of observation complemented by experiment. The method of layouts or models used in the study of the information transmission system in velvet butterflies made it possible to establish which particular set of features of female butterfly models causes a positive reaction of males (color - black, size - large, 4.5 times larger than natural, shape is not important , movements - dancing, fluttering, and not uniform). With the help of an experiment involving the presentation to green monkeys of records of the calls of their relatives, published in different situations anxiety, but with altered acoustic characteristics and in the absence of real danger, it was found that monkeys in these cases also behave in accordance with the semantic meanings of the signals. "Dictionaries" of the corresponding signals were compiled for many animal species: insects, birds (woodpeckers, chickens, jays), mammals (rodents, dolphins, lemurs, monkeys).

Attempts to teach animals to use any communication system that is not inherent in this species (teaching intermediary languages, artificial languages). The work was carried out with monkeys (lower ones - baboons and macaques, as well as anthropoids, with the exception of gibbons), dolphins, pinnipeds and parrots. As communication systems, we used systems of gestures, plastic tokens, icons (lexigrams) printed on a computer keyboard, sounds created using a synthesizer, spoken words. in English. Animals were trained using various training options, including by imitation. It has been established that representatives of all the listed taxa of animals are able, within the limits determined for each species, to master the imposed system of communication and quite successfully use it, in some cases combining the learned symbols to designate new objects and situations.

Information-theoretical approach. The essence of this original approach (Zh. I. Reznikova) is that in experiments animals are given the task of transmitting a certain (previously known to the experimenter) amount of information, while measuring the time spent on its transmission, i.e., the speed of information transmission is estimated. In laboratory experiments with red forest ants, it was shown that scout ants transmit absolutely accurate information to foragers about which of the final “leaves” of an artificial “binary tree” (special labyrinth) is the bait (syrup). Information is transmitted using tactile contact - through the "antenna code". The longer the sequence of turns, i.e., the more information needed to be transmitted, the more time the scout ant tactilely, with the help of antennae, contacted its 4–7 foragers. Having received the information, the foragers quickly, practically without errors on the turns, reached the desired “leaf” and “tree” (a new, odorless scout ant). In the experiments described, it is shown that ants, like bees (which was first discovered by K. Frisch in a honey bee), are characterized by the so-called. remote guidance, i.e., the transmission of information by remote means: for bees - with the help of "dance", for ants - "antenna code".

Sources for all articles in Section 16: Lopatina N. G. Naumov N.P. Biological (signal) fields and their significance in the life of mammals // Successes of modern theriology. M., 1977; Reznikova Zh.I. Community structure and animal communication. Novosibirsk, 1997; She is. Intelligence and language. Animals and man in the mirror of the experiment. M., 2000; She is. Intelligence and language of animals and humans. Fundamentals of cognitive ethology. M., 2005; Fabry K. E. Fundamentals of zoopsychology. M., 1976; He is. Phylogenetic premises of human ways of communication. Bulletin of Moscow State University. Ser. 14. Psychology. 1977. No. 2; Fridman V.S. Space and time social life animals: a resource of the present or a cognitive matrix of future behavior? // World of psychology. 1999. No. 4; He is. Ritualized demonstrations of vertebrates in the process of communication: a sign and a stimulus // Master class for "Pantopoda". M., 2007; Frish K. From the life of bees. M., 1980.

Editor-compiler N. N. Meshkova

Animal biological signal field(The term was proposed by N.P. Naumov): 1. Changes in the environment introduced by the life activity of animals and acquiring informational significance for representatives of this species, and sometimes for representatives of other species. 2. All information available to animals, as directly obtained from an animal living on the def. territory, and indirectly - from the traces of the animal's vital activity in this territory. Traces of vital activity that have informational value are quite species-specific. For example, for brown bear these are “bulliers” of the bark of trees at the height of their growth (when standing on their hind limbs), for gerbils - the construction of “signal mounds” or “gatehouses” from soil saturated with their own secretions, for a domestic cat - marked with a special marking urination “prominent” objects - tree trunks, building corners, car wheels, for Amur tiger- "scrapes" made with claws, and urinary marks on vertical surfaces, which are also something of "stand out" objects - size, unusual shape trunk, outgrowths (trees), separately located large stones. For territorial species of mammals, permanent and temporary shelters, the network of trails connecting them, also acquire informational significance. For insects (ants), the smell traces left on the paths diverging from the anthill in the direction of the feeding areas are also of informational value. The bees, having found an abundant source of food, mark this place with the help of a special gland, the smell left allows other bees who received the information transmitted during the “dance” of the scout ( "dancing" bees), it is easier to detect this food source. For B. s. p. in the value 2 to the above sources of information should be added information transmitted using special signals directly from animal to animal ( animal signals).

N. N. Meshkova

Demonstrations in animals– motor patterns involved in the communication of animals, largely genetically determined and characteristic for each species. Demos are the result of the process ritualization. Demonstrations are distinguished by stereotypy, expressiveness, exaggerated nature of performance, fixed movements. Due to this, they stand out as discrete behavioral structures that allow partners to recognize them as signals against the background of non-signal activity and respond appropriately. Research recent years showed that in a variety of animal species with decomp. intra-group organization the core event of communication processes is the exchange of information. Ritualized demonstrations are those structures whose function in the process of communication is the transfer of clearly demarcated portions of information from one animal to another and vice versa (V. S. Fridman). Demonstrations that function as signals involved in communication have been described, for example, in fiddler crabs, various species of fish, lizards, birds, and mammals.

N. N. Meshkova

Visual communication in animals transmission and reception of information through vision. The visual communication channel provides emergency information from considerable distances and is very effective in quality. means of remote communication. In addition, there is no rapid attenuation of the signal, as in acoustic communication: as long as the animals are within sight of each other, they are constant mutual sources of visual information. Two types of signals are used in visual communication: distant, operating at considerable distances, and near, operating at short distances. An example of the former is nonspecific signals that arise as a result of the very presence of individuals in each other's field of vision: vultures, vultures, and other carrion birds of prey track each other, flying at a considerable height and at a great distance from each other while searching for food. A sharp decrease in the height of one of the birds serves as a signal for the rest of the possible detection of carrion or a wounded animal. An example of the second is visual contacts between animals during courtship and care of offspring: signal postures and body movements in married couples cichlid fish. Visual communication serves dec. spheres of animal life: territorial, sexual, parent-child behavior, other spheres of intraspecific interaction, such as agonistic, friendly contacts, cooperative behavior, the emergence and maintenance of "traditions" - effective ways optional actions.

Visual signals are often supplemented by acoustic and tactile ones, forming complex communicative complexes. For example, in chimpanzees, a communicative complex is observed, including a special mimic expression - "play face", gesture, tactile impact and voice reaction, in a situation of interaction between adolescents when invited to play together.

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Demonstration manipulation- a special way (type) of information transfer described by the author in monkeys (hamadryas baboons, rhesus monkeys): one animal, usually high-ranking, emphasized, “deliberately” shows the object of manipulation to other members of the community and defiantly, provocatively manipulates it in full view members of the group watching him. In addition to demonstrating the object and the actions performed with it, such a monkey can tease the “spectators” by moving the object towards one of them, but immediately pulls it back and “attacks” with noise as soon as another monkey reaches out to it. Aggressive manifestations on the part of the demonstrating monkey are suppressed by the "spectators" through special, conciliatory movements and postures. Such demonstration manipulation is observed predominantly. in adult monkeys, but not in young ones. Such behavior reveals, according to C. E. Fabry, all the signs demonstrations, but at the same time it has a significant and important cognitive function. Observing monkeys have the opportunity to remotely obtain such information about the properties of the object of manipulation, which are usually revealed only during direct handling of objects. They are able to follow the structural changes of the object without coming into direct contact with it, since the “actor” performs all destructive and other manipulations in front of them, as if “one for all”. The result of demonstration manipulation may be imitative actions of "spectators". It depends on how much the actions of the "demonstrator" stimulated the rest of the monkeys. But the object of manipulation always acts as a kind of intermediary in communication between the "actor" and the "spectators". The latter also receive information about the manipulating individual, whose actions contain elements of "imposing".

Demonstration manipulation has direct relationship to the formation of "traditions" in monkeys, which has now been described in detail in many species of both lower and great apes. This way of transferring information about objects is considered by K. E. Fabry in quality. one of the most important prerequisites for human ways of communication, since it is here that the best conditions for joint communicative and cognitive activity are created.

N. N. Meshkova

Behavior ritualized in animals- species-typical behavioral patterns, which were modified in the process of ritualization and began to perform communicative functions. These patterns are usually stereotypical in form and incomplete in execution. Ritualized behavior often has a certain, species-typical intensity. For example, a black woodpecker drums on a tree when hollowing out a hollow for a nest. He also drums on dry branches to indicate the occupation of the territory. In the latter case, the sound has a characteristic rhythm and is stereotyped in comparison with the sound when the hollow is hollowed out. Ritualized behavior is also characterized by changes in motivation. An example is ritualized courtship feeding in many bird species. Females often beg for food from males caring for them, using behavior that in other cases is observed only when young animals beg for food. In the situation of begging, the females are not particularly hungry, their behavior is clearly ritualized and has a different motivation than in the usual begging for food.

N. N. Meshkova

Releasers, or key stimuli(from English to release - release, release, discard), - signs of the components of the environment, including signs, the carriers of which are the animals themselves, as well as demonstrations, performed by them, which are stimulus signals, triggering responses. The tendency of animals to give such signals and respond to them def. actions are innate. A response under the action of a key stimulus is inevitable if the animal is in an appropriate motivational state and is receptive to this stimulus. However, it has been shown for many species of birds and mammals living in communities that members of the community react to releasers of their own species only when they come from def. individuals known to the animal personally. In this case, it is the result of establishing individual connections in the learning process. How releasers can function sounds (cries of frogs and toads), smells (odorous scales in a male butterfly), touch (soft touch of a partner in a grape snail, vigorous pushing of a female by a male stickleback), various visual stimuli(red spot on the beak of an adult herring gull), movements (during threat and courtship displays in a herring gull).

N. N. Meshkova

Ritualization in animals– evolutionary process, by which certain types of animal activity are elements of displaced and redirected activity, expressive movements, movements of intention, providing def. information to another animal, turn into stereotyped structures of behavior and acquire a signal function. For example, with the ritualization of displaced feather pecking, ritualized pecking has developed, which is observed during courtship in many species of ducks. It is more stereotypical than normal feather pecking and is directed towards particularly conspicuous feathers. As a result of ritualization, the elements of the above activities become demonstrations.

N. N. Meshkova

Animal signaling- the implementation of communicative interaction between individuals in the community with the help of signaling means, through which the partner or partners are encouraged to specific species-typical responses. Such, for example, is the mutual signaling in family pairs of cichlid fish during the period of caring for fry, and family pairs of herring gulls during the period of incubation and feeding of chicks. The effect of the impact on the partner depends on the level of motivation of the demonstrator and, accordingly, the intensity of the signal. In quality signals of this kind are expressive movements and postures, as well as their combinations - demonstrations. According to the mechanism of its action on the partner, the latter refers to key stimuli or releasers.

N. N. Meshkova

Animal signals means, with the help of which, during interactions, they influence each other by transmitting information. Signals are behavioral structures consisting of def. behavioral elements - expressive movements, postures, expressive actions, sounds or their complexes, as well as morphostructures, which animals demonstrate with the help of appropriate movements. Signals are divided according to the way the signal function is carried out into stimulus signals and signals in the proper sense of the word (symbols or signs). Stimulus signals induce the animal to respond here and now. This category of signals includes key stimuli, or releasers. Animal-initiator performs def. species-typical demonstration and in response another animal performs a det. also a species-typical reaction, but only if this animal is in the appropriate motivational state and is receptive to the given stimulus. For example, by opening its brightly colored mouth wide, the chick (in many species of passerine birds) encourages its parents to put the brought food into its mouth. This type of influence on a partner is classified as manipulation. With the help of stimuli, the animal manipulates the partner's behavior.

Signals in the proper sense of the word (symbols or signs) betray information, and do not have an effect here and now (like incentives). The animal, to which this information is addressed, can use it immediately, or maybe much later, as soon as the corresponding situation arises again, i.e. in this case the animal has freedom of choice. For example, in experiments performed on chickens (Evans), it was shown that both a special "danger cry from the air" and a stylized image of a "hawk" when moved over the chickens caused a specific reaction of hiding and flight. But the strategy is adopted by each chicken independently, based on its own position regarding the danger and its own circumstances. The same feature, namely the absence of an unambiguous reaction to signals about the appearance of dangerous objects, was demonstrated on green monkeys, diana monkeys, catta lemurs, and desert mongoose meerkats. When studying the functioning of such signals in animal communities, it was also found that these signals are quite independent of the context and correlate precisely with the definition. categories of events significant for the species in its habitat. Thus, catta lemurs emit a “cry of danger from the air” at any appearance of feathered predators, regardless of where the lemur itself is located, or how quickly the speed of approach of the predator to the animal itself changes (Pereira, Macedonia). And the green monkeys emitted an "eagle cry" when the bird was far enough away, and in the last stages of the attack, when the screaming monkeys have almost no chance of escape (Cheney, Seyfarth). Recently, a combination of signals has been described - in large white-nosed monkeys. This species has two basic calls related to potentially dangerous objects: "the call of a leopard from the ground" and "the cry of an eagle from the air". The combination of both calls gives a signal with a new meaning of "extreme, extreme danger", in response to which the monkeys of the whole group immediately take off and move quickly over a long distance (Arnold, Zuberbtihler).

Signals similar to those described are called "referential signals", i.e., related to def. categories of significant objects in the external. animal world (Evans). Zh. I. Reznikova uses a literal translation "categorical signal". V. S. Fridman considers the translation of this term more appropriate in meaning as "signal-symbol" or "Signal Sign". Unlike signals of the first type - stimuli, which function between two (three) individuals who have come close for interaction - signals of this type - symbols or signs - function at the level of the entire community. Therefore, the messages given by such signals retain their significance and communicative value outside the “space and time” of the specific situation when the signal was given, while the stimulus signals lose. Functioning in the animal community as an integral system, signal-signs or "names" def. categories of significant events in the surrounding animal world, allow you to set def. correspondence of signals and events, i.e. to transmit opr. portions of information from one individual to another and vice versa, if they regularly and actively participate both in the perception and in the generation of such signals-signs.

In animal communities, important information for them can be contained not only in the signals described above, but also in traces of animal activity. In these cases, the animal receives information indirectly through objects exposed to the animal. The habitat transformed by animals not only allows them to navigate in space, but also serves as an additional important source of information both at the species and interspecies levels. Aggregate information transmitted directly from one animal to another with the help of signals and indirectly with the help of traces of activity in the environment was called the "biological signal field" (N. P. Naumov). With regard to at least monkeys, we can talk about one more - the third way or type of information transfer - about the complex transfer of information, in which both previous types are combined: the actions of the animal and their results. Complex transmission of information occurs when monkeys observe the manipulation of objects, mainly. destructive, carried out defiantly in front of them by another monkey (K. E. Fabry). Such manipulation is called "demonstration manipulation".

Arnold K., Zuberbtihler K. Semantic combinations in primate calls // Nature. 2006. 441. 18 May; Pereira M. E., Macedonia J. M. Ringtailed lemur antipredator calls denote predator class, not response urgency. Animal Behavior 41. 1991; Cheney D., Seyfarth R. How monkeys see the world: Inside the mind of another species. Chicago; Evans C. Referential signal // Perspectives in ethology. 1997. V. 12.

N. N. Meshkova

Tactile Information- the exchange of information between animals on the basis of physical. contacts. By its nature, tactile communication is only possible at close range. It is widespread in the animal kingdom, especially pronounced in species with an exclusively "social" way of life. Among insects, these are, for example, ants, which describe the transfer of information about the found food using the “antenna code”, bees, which describe the transfer of information about the place of mass flowering of plants using the “language of dances”, including a tactile component . Tactile communication is also important for vertebrates. So, for example, a female stickleback, before laying eggs in a nest made by a male from plants, needs a series of pushes, which he does by poking his stigma at the base of her tail. The chimpanzee has a physical contacts with other individuals - main. a component of communicative influences aimed at encouraging or calming another animal. Tactile contacts are used, in particular, as a greeting after separation, as a sign of reconciliation after an aggressive skirmish (Goodall). Tactile communication is expressed in touching each other with a hand, patting, hugging, kissing. One of the most important types of tactile contact in monkeys is grooming, or searching the coat. Animals in tight friendly relations, for example, a mother and her grown offspring, two adult males or females, when they meet after separation, usually, having greeted each other, sit down and engage in mutual searches for a long time. The latter also effectively reduces tension between two adult males if there is a strained relationship between them. Aggressive tactile contacts are often observed, such as a slap, a blow, a crack, a bite. The researchers emphasize that such influences work effectively to maintain order in the chimpanzee community.

Goodall J. Chimpanzee in nature: behavior. M., 1992.

N. N. Meshkova

bee dancing- a complex communication system that allows scout bees with the help of abstract information through the so-called. remote guidance inform worker bees of found places of abundant flowering plants (Frisch), as well as "quartermaster" bees (these are always the oldest bees in the hive) inform other bees during swarming about the found suitable place for habitation (Lindauer; Lewis, Schneider ). The "dance" is carried out inside the hive, in complete darkness (single-frame glass hives are used for the purpose of observation in the experiments), on the vertical surface of the combs. K. Frisch described three types of "dance", informing about the remoteness of the food source. 1) “Dance-push”: the bee randomly runs through the combs, wagging its abdomen from time to time (in the event that it found food at a distance of two to five meters from the hive); 2) a “circle dance”, consisting of running in a circle alternately clockwise and counterclockwise (if food is found at a distance of up to 100 m); 3) "waggling dance" - runs in a straight line, accompanied by wagging of the abdomen with the return of the bee to the starting point, either to the left or to the right (if the food is found at a great distance from the hive). As K. Frisch showed, the distance to the source of food correlates with 11 parameters of the “dance”, for example, with its duration, pace, number of wiggles of the abdomen, duration sound signals. During the “waggling dance”, the bee also transmits information about the direction in which it is necessary to fly: the angle between the running line and the vertical corresponds to the angle between the bee’s flight line from the hive to the food source and the direction to the sun. Moreover, if it is necessary to fly towards the sun, the bee “dances” from the bottom up, if from the sun, then from the top down. Additional information, namely odor, bees receive by sniffing the scout, the hairy body of which is sprinkled with pollen from flowers. In addition, the "dancing" bee stops from time to time and shares with the bees moving behind her in the figures of the "dance" the nectar from the flowers she discovered. Later it was shown (Lopatina) that young forager bees are not able to fully perceive the information contained in the "dance" and are forced to finish their studies.

For a long time, skeptics did not recognize the reality of the “dances” of bees described by K. Frisch. Were carried out in order to check numerous research. The very description of the phenomenon of the “dance” of bees was supplemented with new details. Important discovery, which unconditionally confirmed the correctness of K. Frisch, was made in a study, the authors of which used in quality. scout bees an electronic robotic bee controlled by a computer program. The model, made of brass and coated with a thin layer of wax, performs a "waggling dance", while making vibratory and oscillatory movements and making sounds generated by the synthesizer. Every three minutes, the computer corrects the "dance" of the robotic bee, taking into account the changed position of the sun. Every ten cycles of "dance" she releases a drop of flavored syrup, which is eaten by bees following her. It was found that 80% of the bees that followed the “dancing” robot bee flew to the place indicated (Michelsen et al.). The phenomenon discovered by K. Frisch in the honey bee - the ability to remote guidance - was later described in dolphins (Evans, Bastian), chimpanzees (Menzel), ants (Zh. I. Reznikova).

Lopatina N. G. Signaling activity in the family of the honey bee (Apis melifera). L., 1971; Frisch K.?ber die Spriche der Bienen. Zool. Jahrb. Von. 1923, v. 40; Lindauer M. Communication among Social Bees. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard Univ. Press, 1961; Michelsen A. The dance language of honeybees: recent findings and problems // Peter Marler Book, 1998.

H. H. Meshkova

Animal language– 1. Signals and communication mechanisms of animal species that form communities. 2. A specialized sign system, in which the system of differentiated signs corresponds to differentiated categories of objects external. peace. The language of animals in the meaning of 1 is the traditional understanding of this term, shared by many specialists - ethologists, zoopsychologists. In quality The signals that form the "language" can be visual, acoustic, chemical, tactile, electrical means of communication and methods of their transmission (visual, acoustic, chemical communication). The "language" of animals in the meaning of 2 is the understanding of this term in a stricter sense of the word - only as communication with the help of a system of signals-symbols or signs. That this kind of communication can indeed be found in animals is shown by studies of the last decade carried out on different types of vertebrates, primarily birds and mammals (Friedman; Cheney, Seyfarth; Evans; and others). At the heart of systems research signaling higher animals - the combination of the usual comparative ethological approach to the analysis of behavior with the semiotic approach and the separation of the old, evolutionarily earlier system of signals-stimuli from the evolutionarily younger system of signals-symbols (signs). From the book How to treat yourself and people [Another edition] author Kozlov Nikolay Ivanovich

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Protection from predators.

Limited food resources. A large concentration of food resources is needed to maintain the life of a large group.

Benefits and disadvantages of social behavior.

Disadvantages:

2. Influence on reproduction. In species living large groups one animal usually has fewer offspring than in small groups.

3. sexual selection. If sexual selection favors the formation of large aggressive males, their inclusion in organized communities is less likely.

4. danger of inbreeding.

5. Susceptibility to disease and predation. Close aggregations favor the spread of disease and increase the risk of being detected by predators.

Benefits:

2. Increasing competitiveness. It is easier not only to resist predators, but also to push back other species of animals.

3. Buffering in relation to environmental factors. Household cooperation.

4. Penetration into new ecological niches.

5. Increasing the efficiency of reproduction. Easier to find partners and synchronize breeding.

6. Increasing the survival rate of pups. It is easier to ensure survival.

7. Greater population stability. Increases individual fitness, tk. population size is stable.

8. Increased nutritional efficiency through training and cooperation.

9. Change environment. (creation of buildings, temperature regulation, influence on the nature of vegetation).

If animals live in groups (communities) with a distribution of functions, they need a communication system.

Communicative behavior is carried out with the help of a wide variety of signals.

1. Olfactory communication. Signaling with smells. This type of communication is specific only to animals. It manifests itself in the marking of the territory. ( american squirrels live separately. They mark their sites by scraping off pieces of bark with their teeth and mixing them with their own urine.). It is interesting that practically related species can mark the territory in different ways. ( Gazelle Thompson and Grant. "Tommies" mark the branches of plants, releasing odorous substances from the preocular glands. Mark every 4m. Grant's gazelles are marked in the usual way - with excrement.) A special kind - chemical communication that exists in insects. These substances called pheromones. They play an important role both at the meeting of the male and the female, and at other stages of mating behavior, as well as1 when searching for food.

2. visual communication. In this case, the elements of communication are the elements appearance. (coloring, body movements). An example is the mating behavior of birds. Motor signaling in animals can serve as an expression of a certain emotional state. So in dogs, clearly demarcated postures can be distinguished. Very interesting signaling discovered elephants. There are three components in their facial expressions: the position of the trunk, tail and ears. N. Tinbergen set 19 different meanings elephant facial expressions. For example, the ears pushed forward are excitement, while the head is raised, the principle of hostility, and the tail raised is aggressiveness. The trunk bent outward is a sign of rage, and inward - fear. When establishing contact in animals, one can observe very complex rituals of changing states. Observations show that visual communication can not only carry information about the emotional state of the animal, but also about the external environment and perform a pointing function. The famous "dance of the bees", called by K. von Frisch "language of bees" - an example of this kind. Upon returning from the food source, the bee performs a dance on the vertical surface of the honeycomb. It looks like a figure eight. The rest of the bees follow the dancer's movements to determine the distance to the food and the direction. The distance is determined by the speed of the dance, while the smaller the number of dances per unit time, the farther the food source. The direction is given in relation to the position of the Sun. Moving up - food in the direction of the Sun, down - moving away from it. Orientation to the right or to the left - respectively. By the smell emanating from the scout, the bees recognize the nature of the food. If the food does not smell, then the bee marks it with its own smell.



Difficult language also exists in ants. Professor Marikovsky deciphered 14 out of 20 signals. “Attention!”, “Attention! Be alert”, “Who is he?”, “Leave me alone!” and so on.

3. Sound communication. Methods of sound communication are widespread in animals. In particular, in some birds ( magpies) detected up to 20 signals. In monkeys, sound communication is quite complex. Up to 40 signals were found, which indicate not only emotional states, but also the nature of the threat. Analyzing the sound communication of monkeys, N.A. Tych noted its significant difference from other animals:

Sound communication serves as a means of inducing animals to perform some action: follow me, take an object, etc. Although this feature is also characteristic of other animals.

· Orientation, addressing of sounds. For example, akhanye is an expression of fear and is not directed at an object. But already the clatter, accompanied by touching the object, is strictly addressed and is produced by each monkey, depending on the completeness of the situation, position in the herd and relationships with each of its members.

The ability to act dually, when two actions are performed simultaneously. ( The weak monkey starts a fight with the stronger ones. They respond with screams and threats. The leader rushes into the thick of things to eliminate the conflict. And at this time, the "instigator", grabbing a piece, runs away). Ya. Roginsky called this phenomenon "psychic mimicry". It is important in the development of means of communication, because. it manifests the separation of actual experience (emotions of fear, hunger) from external expression. This marks the transition from expressive means to pictorial ones.

Since ancient times, mankind has dreamed of learning to understand the language of animals and talk with them. These aspirations of people are reflected in numerous legends and fairy tales. In real life, people have noticed that animals not only understand people's words, but can also imitate their speech. These unique abilities were especially found in parrots and some other birds (crows, magpies, starlings). However, research by scientists and observations by nature lovers have proven that birds pronounce these words without assessing the specific situation. And although in the literature you can find descriptions of cases when birds were not limited to simply memorizing words, this could be a mere coincidence.

Studies show that the language of animals has a number of characteristics that are used in human language. For example, such features of human language as its symbolism and openness to new information inherent in the well-known honey bee dance which is a kind of communicative behavior. The ability of animals to use language has given rise to the possibility of teaching senior representatives this realm of human speech, however, attempts made since the beginning of the 30s to teach higher monkeys have not been successful (the Kelloggs, K. and K. Hayes). So, chimpanzee Vicki in the experiments of the Hayes spouses, over many years of training, was able to utter only a few words. Further research has shown that chimpanzees do not have a vocal apparatus capable of reproducing human speech. Looking through the recordings of experiments with Wiki, American psychologists R. and B. Gardner came to the conclusion that it is possible to communicate with chimpanzees in another way, namely sign language (Gardner, 1969). Their experiments with Washoe the chimpanzee, followed by studies by other scientists who use other methods to teach the language: a system of chips (D. Primak, 1970), computer keys (D. Rumbo, 1977) showed not only the ability to communicate with animals, but also discovered their new abilities. First of all, monkeys were found to be able to create new concepts. So Washoe coined the word "sweet drink" for watermelon, and called the swan "water bird". It has also been established that chimpanzees were capable of syntaxing, i.e. composing simple phrases and operating with them. Thus, the chimpanzee Lucy could use the combination of the words "I tickle you" and differentiate this phrase from a similar one, such as "You tickle me".

In addition, the monkeys were able not only to assimilate the meaning of the sign, but also transfer its meanings. So the gesture "dog" denoted the animal itself, its drawing, and was also used as a curse.

The conducted research, called "language projects" caused not only a furor in the scientific world, but also gave rise to skeptical reactions. These latter came mainly from psycholinguists and linguists who believed that human language ability is determined genetically and is formed gradually in accordance with the genetic program. But in addition to unconstructive skepticism, more reasonable criticism appeared. It began with the research of Herbert Terrace, one of the ardent supporters of the "language projects". He found that the monkeys repeat in most cases those signs that occur in the trainer's phrase. This meant that the animal does not communicate with a person, but "monkeys", i.e. imitate his actions. They are able to use spontaneous hints that the experimenter allows or simply learn tricks, like animals in a circus. The creation of new concepts by the monkey is also quite difficult to interpret. On the one hand, this may not be the creation of a new word, but the result of a simple generalization. On the other hand, as G. Terras rightly noted, “the trouble is that the meaning of what he saw is understood by a person, and he attributes this to a monkey.” The monkey gestures "water" and "bird", and the observer wants to see the creation of the concept of "water bird".

Thus, it can be said that there is no giant gap between animal and human language, and similarities can be found between sign behavior. Chimpanzees are able to use signs with the transfer of knowledge, create new ones, and syntact sign constructions. However, animal language also has certain limitations. The sign system, which the experimental monkeys learned, corresponds to the initial stage of language development in ontogenesis and phylogenesis, which is called the language of "word-sentences". Studies of the language of primitive peoples show that the unit of the language is a kind of "word-sentence" containing indications of actions and objects. This branch of language development is a dead end and cannot develop into a human language with its complex internal connections due to the rigid “texture” of the signs themselves.

Comparative studies of language formation in monkeys and children show that chimpanzees and other great apes, in their attempts to learn human language, can only reach the level of a small child.

At the same time, the experiments presented here revealed to us their abilities that we had not previously suspected, which significantly brings us closer to understanding their cognitive capabilities.

Animal communication, biocommunication - connections between individuals of the same or different species, established by receiving the signals they produce. These signals (specific - chemical, mechanical, optical, acoustic, electrical, etc., or non-specific - associated with breathing, movement, nutrition, etc.) are perceived by the corresponding receptors: organs of vision, hearing, smell, taste, skin sensitivity, organs lateral line (in fish), thermo- and electroreceptors. The production (generation) of signals and their reception (reception) form communication channels (acoustic, chemical, etc.) between organisms for transmitting information of a different physical or chemical nature. Information received through various communication channels is processed in different parts nervous system, and then it is compared (integrated) in its higher departments, where the body's response is formed. The communication of animals facilitates the search for food and favorable living conditions, protection from enemies and harmful influences. Without communication between animals, it is impossible for individuals of different sexes to meet, the interaction of parents and offspring, the formation of groups (packs, herds, swarms, colonies, etc.) and the regulation of relations between individuals within them (territorial relations, hierarchy, etc.).2

The role of one or another communication channel in animal communication in different species is not the same and is determined by the ecology and morpho-physiology of the species that have developed in the course of evolution, and also depends on changing environmental conditions, biological rhythms, etc. As a rule, animal communication is carried out using several communication channels. The most ancient and widespread communication channel is chemical. Some metabolic products released by an individual into the external environment can affect the "chemical" sense organs - smell and taste, and serve as regulators of the growth, development and reproduction of organisms, as well as signals that cause certain behavioral reactions of other individuals. Thus, male pheromones of some fish accelerate the maturation of females, synchronizing the reproduction of the population. Odorous substances released into the air or water, left on the ground or objects, mark the territory occupied by the animal, facilitate orientation and strengthen ties between the members of the group (families, herds, swarms, flocks ). Fishes, amphibians, mammals well distinguish the smells of their own and other species, and common group smells allow animals to distinguish "their" from "strangers".

In the communication of aquatic animals, an important perception plays a role organs of the lateral line of local water movements. This type of distant mechanoreception allows you to detect an enemy or prey, maintain order in a flock. Tactile forms of animal communication (for example, mutual cleaning of plumage or fur) are important for regulating intraspecific relationships in some birds and mammals. Females and subordinate individuals they usually clean dominant individuals (mainly adult males). In a number of electric fish, lampreys and hagfish, the electric field they create serves to mark the territory, helps with close orientation and search for food. In "non-electric" fish in a flock, a common electric field is formed, which coordinates the behavior of individual individuals. The visual communication of animals, associated with the development of photosensitivity and vision, is usually accompanied by the formation of structures that acquire a signal value (color and color pattern, the contours of the body or its parts) and the emergence of ritual movements and facial expressions. This is how the process of ritualization takes place - the formation of discrete signals, each of which is associated with a specific situation and has some conditional meaning (threat, submission, appeasement, etc.), which reduces the danger of intraspecific collisions. Having found melliferous plants, bees are able, with the help of a "dance", to convey to other gatherers information about the location of the food found and the distance to it (works by the German physiologist K. Frisch). 3 For many species, complete catalogs of their "language of postures, gestures and facial expressions" have been compiled so-called. ethograms. These demonstrations are often characterized by masking or exaggeration of certain features of color and shape. visual communication animals plays a particularly important role in the inhabitants of open landscapes (steppes, deserts, tundra); its value is much less in aquatic animals and inhabitants of thickets.

acoustic communication most developed in arthropods and vertebrates. Its role as an effective method of remote signaling is growing in aquatic environment and in closed landscapes (forests, thickets). The development of animal sound communication depends on the state of other communication channels. In birds, for example, high acoustic abilities are inherent mainly in modestly colored species, while bright colors and complex display behavior are usually combined with a low level of vocal communication. The differentiation of complex sound-reproducing formations in many insects, fish, amphibians, birds and mammals allows them to produce dozens of different sounds. The "lexicon" of songbirds includes up to 30 basic signals combined with each other, which dramatically increases the efficiency of biocommunication. The complex structure of many signals makes it possible to recognize a mating and group partner personally. In a number of bird species, sound contact between parents and chicks is established when the chicks are still in the egg. Comparison of the variability of some characteristics of optical signaling in crabs and ducks and acoustic signaling in songbirds indicates a significant similarity of different types of signaling. Apparently, the capacities of optical and acoustic channels are comparable to each other.

The social organization of animals as a whole is the sum total of interactions between members of the community.

Communication is the essence of any social behavior. It is difficult to imagine social behavior without the exchange of information, or a system of information transmission that would not be in some sense public. When an animal performs an action that changes the behavior of another individual, we can say that information transfer has taken place. This is a very broad definition, which also includes those cases when, for example, a calmly feeding or, conversely, an anxiously alert animal affects the behavior of other members of the community only by its posture. Therefore, ethologists who study the process of communication ask themselves the question: is the signal "intentionally" transmitted or does it only reflect the physiological and emotional state of the animal?

Can social animals such as monkeys, dolphins, wolves, or ants communicate precise information to each other, such as where in space a food source is located and how best to reach this point. The study of the limits of the communicative abilities of animals is one of the most interesting and controversial problems in ethology.

How Signals Work

It is known that different groups animals are more or less specialized according to the sensory modality of the signals used, depending on the degree of development of certain sense organs in them. Thus, tactile communication dominates the interactions of many invertebrates, such as blind termite workers, who never leave their underground tunnels, or earthworms, which crawl out of their burrows at night to mate. In invertebrates, touch is closely related to chemical sensitivity, since specialized tactile organs, such as insect antennae, are often equipped with chemoreceptors. Social insects transmit a large amount of information through a combination of tactile and chemical signals.

Tactile communication due to its nature, it is possible only at close range. The long antennae of cockroaches and crayfish allow them to explore the world within a radius of one body length, but this is almost the limit for touch. Other sensory systems - systems of vision, hearing and smell - provide communication over a considerable distance. Sound and smell have the added benefit of being able to overcome natural obstacles such as dense vegetation.

Sound signals. Long-distance signals are usually screams. Birds of open landscapes (larks, meadow pipits) sing while flying high above their territory.

Chemical Signals especially well developed in insects and mammals. Butterfly pheromones are caught by males from the leeward side for 4–5 km, and they are the most stable of insect pheromones.

visual cues can operate only at a relatively short, within sight, distance. The exception is simple alarm signals, in the form of white spots on the body, such as the tails of deer and rabbits, visible at a great distance. Visual cues also include commonly used identification marks, many of which operate on a "yes or no" basis.

Under natural conditions, signals are often combined into effective combinations, for example, combining both sound and visual stimuli. Marriage rituals are a good example. birds of paradise, including characteristic poses, demonstrations of "ritual" feathers, jumping, screaming and flapping wings.

- 40.31 Kb

Ministry of Education and Science of the Russian Federation

Nizhny Novgorod State Pedagogical University. Minina

Professional Pedagogical Institute

Department of Psychology of Professional Development

CONTROL WORK ON DISCIPLINE

ZOOPSYCHOLOGY

Topic: "Forms and means of animal communication"

Completed by a student………...
groups PSZ-11-1……………..
Kretova A.A. ...………………..
Checked by Associate Professor, PhD in Psychology
Serebryakova T.A....…………...

N.Novgorod
2011

Introduction ______________________________ ____________________________3
Definition of the concept of “Animal Communication” _______________________ 4
Forms and means of animal communication ____________________________7
Methods for studying animal communication ____________________________ 13
Conclusion ______________________________ _________________________14

Introduction

The purpose of this work is to define the concept, forms and means of animal communication. As you know, there is no unity in the interpretation of the two terms "communication" and "communication" (if we consider the relationship of animals). Some believe that these concepts are synonymous, others argue that communication is a unique feature of humanity, as it is accompanied by the exchange of information using language.

In this paper, the concept of "animal communication" will be revealed using the first approach, since it is believed that communication in animals occurs with the help of special signals: sounds, smells, movements. One of the objectives of this paper is to prove this approach.

Moreover, it will describe various forms, means of communication of animals, as well as communication channels using examples from the life of animals. In addition to revealing the topic, the paper will consider methods for studying animal communication.

Definition of "Animal Communication"

Communication is the essence of any social behavior. It is difficult to imagine social behavior without the exchange of information, or a system of information transmission that would not be in some sense public. When an animal performs an action that changes the behavior of another individual, we can say that communication takes place.

Communication (from Latin communicatio - message, transfer) is the transfer of information from one system to another through special material carriers, signals. 1 Communications in the animal kingdom are called biocommunications. They manifest themselves in the form of communication, that is, the connection between individuals of the same or different species, established by receiving the signals they produce.

Signal types:

  • Specific (chemical, mechanical, optical, acoustic, electrical, etc.)
  • Nonspecific (associated with breathing, movement, nutrition, etc.)

These signals are perceived by the corresponding receptors: the organs of vision, hearing, smell, taste, skin sensitivity, lateral line organs (in fish), thermo- and electroreceptors. The production (generation) of signals and their reception (reception) form communication channels (acoustic, chemical, etc.) between organisms for the transmission of information of various physical or chemical nature. Information received through various communication channels is processed in different parts of the nervous system, and then it is compared (integrated) in its higher departments, where the body's response is formed. 2 Animal signals are given in various contexts, which accordingly affect their meaning, for example, they provide protection from enemies and adverse environmental factors, facilitate the search for food, individuals of the opposite sex, parents and offspring communicate, intra- and interspecific interactions are regulated and etc.

  • signals that provide information exchange between parents and offspring;
  • cries of alarm;
  • messages about the presence of food;
  • signals that help maintain contact between pack members;
  • "signals - switches", for example, to inform about the intention to play;
  • signals associated with the expression of aggression;
  • peace signals;
  • signals of dissatisfaction (frustration). 3

Communication functions in animals:

  • Provides the optimal distance between animals for each specific behavioral situation;
  • Notifies about the species or gender;
  • Informs about the age, state of metabolic processes in the animal's body;
  • Warns about changes in the external environment;
  • Notifies about the employment of the territory;
  • Reports the emotional state and social status of the individual. 4

The study of the behavior of organisms, their signaling, communication and connections allows a deeper understanding of the mechanism of structuring the species population and outline ways and means to control its dynamics. 5

For many species of animals, ethologists, zoopsychologists and other specialists have compiled catalogs with a description of the language of postures, facial expressions, and gestures. In the last 30 years, the study of the linguistic behavior of animals has opened up completely new perspectives for the knowledge of their higher mental functions. We are talking about the use of symbols, categories, and even the ability to hide their "thoughts" and "intentions". In other words, by studying the possibilities of animal communication, we reveal additional possibilities of their intellect.

Forms and means of animal communication

Forms of information exchange (communication) between animals
are diverse. In principle, a communication system consists of a transmitter (sender), a communication channel, and a receiver (receiver). As mentioned above, the transmitted signals can be of a chemical, optical, electrical or mechanical nature.

Chemical alarm (other nameOlfactory communication) - the most common and, perhaps, the most ancient way of transmitting information in the animal world, which is carried out by producing some metabolic products on the one hand, on the other hand, is perceived by the olfactory organs. Chemical signals persist for a long time, bypass obstacles, can be used at night, point to certain objects or events in the external environment. 6

Substances that act on receptors and serve to exchange information between individuals of the same species are called pheromones. These include sex attractants (for example, in moths), substances for marking territory or for laying odorous tracks, as well as alarm pheromones that cause fear and flight reactions (in many freshwater herbivorous fish) or increased aggressiveness (in ants and bees). From these very short-acting signal pheromones, it is necessary to distinguish triggering pheromones that can cause long-term physiological changes in the recipient. Such, for example, is the uterine substance of bees. During the swarming period, this substance attracts bees.

The sense of smell is of particular importance for tree-dwelling primitive nocturnal primates (prosimians) such as the tupai and lemurs. Tupai mark their territory with gland secretions. Other lemurs use urine and feces for this purpose. The strength of the smell changes in different seasons of the year. Animals smell especially strongly during the breeding season.

The higher apes, like humans, do not have a developed olfactory system. In addition, only a few of them have skin glands specifically designed to produce signaling substances. By these signals, many mammals can distinguish the familiar from the unfamiliar, the relative from the stranger; mother and her cubs also recognize each other by their characteristic smell. There is a specific group smell and at the same time an individual smell, inherent only in certain individuals familiar by sight, which allows you to find your relatives and not confuse them with strangers. 7

Optical communication

Gestures, facial expressions, and sometimes body position and muzzle color are the main visual signals of higher apes. Among the threatening signals are unexpected jumping to their feet and pulling their heads into their shoulders, slamming their hands on the ground, violent shaking of trees and random scattering of stones.

Signals such as grimacing, yawning, moving the tongue, flattening the ears, and smacking the lips can be friendly or unfriendly. Chimpanzees use a rich facial expression to communicate. Some primates use their tails to communicate. For example, the male lemur rhythmically moves his tail before mating, and the female langur lowers her tail to the ground when the male approaches her. In some primate species, subordinate males raise their tails when approached by a dominant male, indicating their belonging to a lower social rank. Fireflies, glowing, attract individuals of the opposite sex. And at marine fish light serves as bait for more small fish, serving as prey. A cuttlefish, for example, defending itself from enemies, releases mucus that glows.

Optical signaling can use colors and shapes in the form of permanent or short-term signals. Permanent signals (colors or shapes) serve to report species, gender, and often individual features; briefly displayed colors or shapes indicate certain states, for example, a state of sexual activity (wedding dress in fish and birds), general excitement or readiness for hostile actions. Increasing the silhouette of the body by rearing the hair, ruffling the feathers, straightening the limbs or other body appendages in different directions are typical threatening gestures. Often these gestures are accompanied by sound signals (snorting, growling, etc.) and characteristic movements. Gestures of submission (postures of submission), on the contrary, are usually associated with a decrease in the silhouette of the body (crouched posture). They lead to an immediate cessation of the struggle.Pisces have good eyesight, but they see poorly in the dark, for example, in the depths of the ocean. Most fish perceive color to some degree. This is important during the mating season, as the bright colors of individuals of the same sex, usually males, attract individuals of the opposite sex. Changes in color serve as a warning to other fish to not trespass, etc. 8

Mechanical communication can be produced by tactile, vibrational, or auditory stimuli. Occurs due to the sensitivity of the receptors of the skin and the musculoskeletal system, vibrissae, that is, by touch. 9 Communication in birds is better understood than in any other animal. Birds communicate with individuals of their own species, as well as other species, including mammals, and even with humans. To do this, they use sound (not only voice), as well as visual signals. Thanks to the developed hearing aid, birds hear well. Flocking birds use more varied auditory and visual cues than solitary birds. Acoustic information is used not only by birds and mammals, but also by amphibians. Evening silence can be broken by the "concert" of frogs. First, one frog begins to sing, and then another frog, then a whole choir sounds. The hearing of marine mammals is excellent, it is also helped by the high sound conductivity of water. Seals are among the noisiest aquatic mammals. During the breeding season, females and young seals howl and low, and these sounds are often drowned out by the barks and roars of males. Fish make sounds by tapping their gill covers, and with the help of their swim bladder they make grunts and whistles. Sound signals are used for flocking, as an invitation to breed, for territory defense, and as a way of recognition. In insects, research has shown that sounds are a vital means of communication. For example, they can serve as an element of mating behavior or carry some information about the location of nectar. Bees communicate with each other using sound generated by the movement of their wings. The chirping of grasshoppers or crickets is also a courtship song, but these insects make sounds by rubbing their foot along the jagged edge of the wing, or by rubbing their wings. Each species of insect makes its own distinct sound in flight, by which it can be recognized. 10

Tactile communication due to its nature, it is possible only at close range. Tactile communication remains important in many vertebrates, in particular in mammals, the most "social" species of which spend a significant part of their time in physical contact with each other. In primates, the most important form of social contact is the search of wool. Thus, tactile "communication" dominates the interaction of many invertebrates, for example in blind termite workers, who never leave their underground tunnels, or in earthworms, which crawl out of their burrows at night to mate. eleven

Description of work

The purpose of this work is to define the concept, forms and means of animal communication. As you know, there is no unity in the interpretation of the two terms "communication" and "communication" (if we consider the relationship of animals). Some believe that these concepts are synonymous, others argue that communication is a unique feature of humanity, as it is accompanied by the exchange of information using language.



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