Patriotic War of 1812 briefly table. Mozhaisk deanery

A. Northen "Napoleon's Retreat from Moscow"

As you know, war usually begins when a lot of causes and circumstances converge at one point, when mutual claims and grievances reach enormous proportions, and the voice of reason is drowned out.

Background

After 1807, Napoleon marched victoriously across Europe and beyond, and only Great Britain did not want to submit to him: it seized French colonies in America and India and dominated the sea, interfering with French trade. The only thing Napoleon could do in such a situation was to declare a continental blockade of Great Britain (after the Battle of Trafalgar on October 21, 1805, Napoleon lost the opportunity to fight England at sea, where she became almost the only ruler). He decided to disrupt England's trade by closing all European ports to it, dealing a crushing blow to Britain's trade and economy. But the effectiveness of the continental blockade depended on other European states and their compliance with sanctions. Napoleon persistently demanded that Alexander I more consistently implement the continental blockade, but for Russia, Great Britain was the main trading partner, and she did not want to break off trade relations with her.

P. Delaroche "Napoleon Bonaparte"

In 1810, Russia introduced free trade with neutral countries, which allowed it to trade with Great Britain through intermediaries, and also adopted a protective tariff that increased customs rates mainly on imported French goods. Napoleon was outraged by Russian policies. But he also had a personal reason for the war with Russia: in order to confirm the legitimacy of his coronation, he wanted to marry a representative of one of the monarchies, but Alexander I twice rejected his proposals: first for a marriage with his sister Grand Duchess Catherine, and then with Grand Duchess Anna. Napoleon married the daughter of the Austrian Emperor Franz I, but declared in 1811: “ In five years I will be the ruler of the whole world. There is only Russia left - I will crush it...." At the same time, Napoleon continued to violate the Truce of Tilsit by occupying Prussia. Alexander demanded that French troops be withdrawn from there. In a word, war machine spun: Napoleon concludes a military treaty with Austrian Empire, which pledged to provide France with an army of 30 thousand for the war with Russia, then followed an agreement with Prussia, which provided another 20 thousand soldiers for Napoleon’s army, and the French emperor himself intensively studied the military and economic situation of Russia, preparing for a war with it. But Russian intelligence was not asleep either: M.I. Kutuzov successfully concludes a peace treaty with Turkey (ending the 5-year war for Moldova), thereby liberating the Danube Army under the command of Admiral Chichagov; in addition, information about the state of the Grand French Army and its movements was regularly intercepted at the Russian embassy in Paris.

Thus, both sides prepared for war. The size of the French army was, according to various sources, from 400 to 500 thousand soldiers, of which only half were French, the remaining soldiers were 16 nationalities, mainly Germans and Poles. Napoleon's army was well armed and financially secure. Its only weakness was precisely the diversity of its national composition.

The size of the Russian army: the 1st Army of Barclay de Tolly and the 2nd Army of Bagration were 153 thousand soldiers + the 3rd Army of Tormasov 45 thousand + the Danube Army of Admiral Chichagov 55 thousand + the Finnish corps of Steingel 19 thousand + a separate corps of Essen nearby Riga 18 thousand + 20-25 thousand Cossacks = approximately 315 thousand. Technically, Russia did not lag behind France. But embezzlement flourished in the Russian army. England provided Russia with material and financial support.

Barclay de Tolly. Lithograph by A. Munster

Starting the war, Napoleon did not plan to send his troops deep into Russia; his plans were to create a complete continental blockade of England, then include Belarus, Ukraine and Lithuania in Poland and create a Polish state as a counterbalance. Russian Empire, in order to then conclude a military alliance with Russia and jointly move towards India. Truly Napoleonic plans! Napoleon hoped to end the battle with Russia in the border areas with his victory, so the retreat of Russian troops into the interior of the country took him by surprise.

Alexander I foresaw this circumstance (disastrous for the French army to advance in depth): “ If Emperor Napoleon starts a war against me, then it is possible and even probable that he will beat us if we accept the battle, but this will not yet give him peace. ... We have an immense space behind us, and we will maintain a well-organized army. ... If the lot of arms decides the case against me, then I would rather retreat to Kamchatka than cede my provinces and sign treaties in my capital that are only a respite. The Frenchman is brave, but long hardships and bad climate tire and discourage him. Our climate and our winter will fight for us“, he wrote to the French Ambassador to Russia A. Caulaincourt.

Beginning of the war

The first skirmish with the French (a company of sappers) occurred on June 23, 1812, when they crossed to the Russian coast. And at 6 o’clock in the morning on June 24, 1812, the vanguard of the French troops entered Kovno. In the evening of the same day, Alexander I was informed about Napoleon's invasion. Thus began the Patriotic War of 1812.

Napoleon's army attacked simultaneously in the northern, central and southern directions. For the northern direction, the main task was to capture St. Petersburg (after first occupying Riga). But as a result of the battles near Klyastitsy and on August 17 near Polotsk (a battle between the 1st Russian Infantry Corps under the command of General Wittgenstein and the French corps of Marshal Oudinot and General Saint-Cyr). This battle did not have serious consequences. Over the next two months, the parties did not conduct active hostilities, accumulating forces. Wittgenstein's task was prevent the French from advancing towards St. Petersburg, Saint-Cyr blocked the Russian corps.

The main battles took place in the Moscow direction.

The 1st Western Russian Army was stretched from Baltic Sea to Belarus (Lida). It was headed by Barclay de Tolly, chief of staff - General A.P. Ermolov. Russian army was threatened with destruction in parts, because Napoleonic army advanced rapidly. 2nd Western Army, led by P.I. Bagration, was located near Grodno. Bagration's attempt to connect with Barclay de Tolly's 1st Army was unsuccessful, and he retreated to the south. But the Cossacks of Ataman Platov supported Bagration’s army at Grodno. On July 8, Marshal Davout took Minsk, but Bagration, bypassing Minsk to the south, moved to Bobruisk. According to the plan, two Russian armies were to unite in Vitebsk in order to block the French road to Smolensk. A battle took place near Saltanovka, as a result of which Raevsky delayed Davout’s advance to Smolensk, but the path to Vitebsk was closed.

N. Samokish "The feat of Raevsky's soldiers near Saltanovka"

On July 23, Barclay de Tolly's 1st Army arrived in Vitebsk with the goal of waiting for the 2nd Army. Barclay de Tolly sent Osterman-Tolstoy's 4th Corps to meet the French, which fought near Vitebsk, near Ostrovno. However, the armies still could not reunite, and then Barclay de Tolly retreated from Vitebsk to Smolensk, where both Russian armies united on August 3. On August 13, Napoleon also set out for Smolensk, having rested in Vitebsk.

The 3rd Russian Southern Army was commanded by General Tormasov. The French General Rainier stretched his corps along a line of 179 km: Brest-Kobrin-Pinsk, Tormasov took advantage of the irrational location of the French army and defeated it near Kobrin, but, uniting with the corps of General Schwarzenberg, Rainier attacked Tormasov, and he was forced to retreat to Lutsk.

To Moscow!

Napoleon is credited with the phrase: “ If I take Kyiv, I will take Russia by the feet; if I take possession of St. Petersburg, I will take her by the head; Having occupied Moscow, I will strike her in the heart" Whether Napoleon spoke these words or not is now impossible to establish for sure. But one thing is clear: the main forces of Napoleonic army were aimed at capturing Moscow. On August 16, Napoleon was already at Smolensk with an army of 180 thousand and on the same day he began his assault. Barclay de Tolly did not consider it possible to fight here and retreated with his army from the burning city. The French Marshal Ney was pursuing the retreating Russian army, and the Russians decided to give him battle. On August 19, a bloody battle took place at Valutina Mountain, as a result of which Ney suffered heavy losses and was detained. The battle for Smolensk is the beginning of the people's, Patriotic, war: the population began to leave their homes and burn settlements along the route of the French army. Here Napoleon seriously doubted his brilliant victory and asked General P.A., who was captured in the battle of Valutina Gora. Tuchkova to write a letter to his brother so that he would bring to the attention of Alexander I Napoleon’s desire to make peace. He did not receive a response from Alexander I. Meanwhile, relations between Bagration and Barclay de Tolly after Smolensk became increasingly tense and irreconcilable: each saw his own path to victory over Napoleon. On August 17, the Extraordinary Committee approved Infantry General Kutuzov as the single commander-in-chief, and on August 29, in Tsarevo-Zaimishche, he already received the army. Meanwhile, the French had already entered Vyazma...

V. Kelerman "Moscow militias on the Old Smolensk Road"

M.I. Kutuzov, by that time already a famous military leader and diplomat, who served under Catherine II, Paul I, participated in the Russian-Turkish wars, in the Russian-Polish war, fell into disgrace with Alexander I in 1802, was removed from office and lived in his Goroshki estate in the Zhitomir region. But when Russia joined the coalition to fight Napoleon, he was appointed commander-in-chief of one of the armies and showed himself to be an experienced commander. But after the Austerlitz defeat, which Kutuzov opposed and which Alexander I insisted on, although he did not blame Kutuzov for the defeat, and even awarded him the Order of St. Vladimir, 1st degree, he did not forgive him for the defeat.

At the beginning of the Patriotic War of 1812, Kutuzov was appointed head of the St. Petersburg and then the Moscow militia, but the unsuccessful course of the war showed that an experienced commander of the entire Russian army was needed who enjoyed the trust of society. Alexander I was forced to appoint Kutuzov as commander-in-chief of the Russian army and militia.

Kutuzov initially continued Barclay de Tolly's strategy - retreat. The words are attributed to him: « We will not defeat Napoleon. We will deceive him».

At the same time, Kutuzov understood the need for a general battle: firstly, this was required public opinion, which was concerned about the constant retreat of the Russian army; secondly, further retreat would mean voluntary surrender Moscow.

On September 3, the Russian army stood near the village of Borodino. Here Kutuzov decided to give a big battle, but in order to distract the French to gain time to prepare fortifications, he ordered General Gorchakov to fight near the village of Shevardino, where there was a fortified redoubt (a closed-type fortification, with a rampart and a ditch, intended for all-round defense). All day on September 5 there was a battle for the Shevardinsky redoubt.

After 12 hours of bloody battle, the French pressed the left flank and center of the Russian positions, but were unable to develop the offensive. The Russian army suffered heavy losses (40-45 thousand killed and wounded), the French - 30-34 thousand. There were almost no prisoners on either side. On September 8, Kutuzov ordered a retreat to Mozhaisk with the confidence that only in this way could the army be saved.

On September 13, a meeting was held in the village of Fili on the further plan of action. Most of the generals spoke in favor of a new battle. Kutuzov interrupted the meeting and ordered a retreat through Moscow along the Ryazan road. By the evening of September 14, Napoleon entered empty Moscow. On that same day, a fire began in Moscow, engulfing almost the entire Zemlyanoy city and White City, as well as the outskirts of the city, destroying three quarters of the buildings.

A. Smirnov "Fire of Moscow"

There is still no single version about the causes of the fire in Moscow. There are several of them: organized arson by residents when leaving the city, deliberate arson by Russian spies, uncontrolled actions of the French, an accidental fire, the spread of which was facilitated by the general chaos in the abandoned city. Kutuzov directly pointed out that the French burned Moscow. Since the fire had several sources, it is possible that all versions are true.

More than half of the residential buildings, more than 8 thousand retail outlets, 122 churches out of the existing 329 were burned in the fire; Up to 2 thousand wounded Russian soldiers left in Moscow died. The university, theaters, and libraries were destroyed, and the manuscript “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign” and the Trinity Chronicle were burned in the Musin-Pushkin palace. Not the entire population of Moscow left the city, only more than 50 thousand people (out of 270 thousand).

In Moscow, Napoleon, on the one hand, builds a plan for a campaign against St. Petersburg, on the other hand, he makes attempts to make peace with Alexander I, but at the same time remains with his demands (a continental blockade of England, the rejection of Lithuania and the creation of a military alliance with Russia). He makes three offers of truce, but receives no response from Alexander to any of them.

Militia

I. Arkhipov "Militia of 1812"

On July 18, 1812, Alexander I issued a Manifesto and an appeal to the residents of the “Most Throne Capital of our Moscow” with a call to join the militia (temporary armed formations to help the active army to repel the invasion of Napoleonic army). Zemstvo militias were limited to 16 provinces directly adjacent to the theater of operations:

District I - Moscow, Tver, Yaroslavl, Vladimir, Ryazan, Tula, Kaluga, Smolensk provinces - was intended to protect Moscow.

District II - St. Petersburg and Novgorod provinces - provided “protection” of the capital.

III district (Volga region) - Kazan, Nizhny Novgorod, Penza, Kostroma, Simbirsk and Vyatka provinces - reserve of the first two militia districts.

The rest of the provinces should remain “inactive” until “there is a need to use them for sacrifices and services equal to the Fatherland.”

Drawing of the banner of the St. Petersburg militia

Chiefs of militias of the Patriotic War of 1812

The collection of militias was entrusted to the apparatus state power, nobility and church. The military trained warriors, a gathering was announced Money for the militia. Each landowner had to present a certain number of equipped and armed warriors from his serfs within a specified time frame. Unauthorized joining of the serfs' militia was considered a crime. Selection for the detachment was made by the landowner or peasant communities by lot.

I. Luchaninov "Blessing of the Militia"

There were not enough firearms for the militia; they were primarily allocated for the formation of reserve units of the regular army. Therefore, after the end of the gathering, all the militias, except for the St. Petersburg one, were armed mainly with edged weapons - pikes, spears and axes. Military training of the militia took place according to a shortened recruit training program by officers and lower ranks from the army and Cossack units. In addition to zemstvo (peasant) militias, the formation of Cossack militias began. Some wealthy landowners assembled entire regiments from their serfs or formed them at their own expense.

In some cities and villages adjacent to the Smolensk, Moscow, Kaluga, Tula, Tver, Pskov, Chernigov, Tambov, and Oryol provinces, “cordons” or “guard militias” were formed for self-defense and maintenance internal order.

The convening of the militia allowed the government of Alexander I to mobilize large human and material resources for the war in a short time. After completion of formation, the entire militia was under the unified command of Field Marshal M.I. Kutuzov and the supreme leadership of Emperor Alexander I.

S. Gersimov "Kutuzov - Chief of the Militia"

During the period that the Great French Army was in Moscow, the Tver, Yaroslavl, Vladimir, Tula, Ryazan and Kaluga militias defended the borders of their provinces from enemy foragers and marauders and, together with army partisans, blocked the enemy in Moscow, and when the French retreated, they were pursued by the militias of Moscow, Smolensk, Tver, Yaroslavl, Tula, Kaluga, St. Petersburg and Novgorod zemstvo provincial troops, Don, Little Russian and Bashkir Cossack regiments, as well as individual battalions, squadrons and detachments. The militia could not be used as an independent fighting force, because they had a weak military training and weapons. But they fought against enemy foragers, looters, deserters, and also performed police functions to maintain internal order. They destroyed and captured 10-12 thousand enemy soldiers and officers.

After the end of hostilities on Russian territory, all provincial militias, except Vladimir, Tver and Smolensk, participated in the foreign campaigns of the Russian army in 1813-1814. In the spring of 1813, the Moscow and Smolensk troops were disbanded, and by the end of 1814, all other zemstvo troops were disbanded.

Guerrilla warfare

J. Doe "D.V. Davydov"

After the Moscow fire began, guerrilla warfare and passive resistance intensified. The peasants refused to supply the French with food and fodder, went into the forests, burned unharvested grain in the fields so that the enemy would not get anything. Flying partisan detachments were created to operate in the rear and on the enemy’s communication lines in order to impede his supplies and destroy his small detachments. The most famous commanders of the flying detachments were Denis Davydov, Alexander Seslavin, Alexander Figner. Army partisan detachments received full support from the spontaneous peasant partisan movement. It was the violence and looting by the French that sparked the guerrilla war. The partisans made up the first ring of encirclement around Moscow, occupied by the French, and the second ring was made up of militias.

Battle at Tarutino

Kutuzov, retreating, took the army south to the village of Tarutino, closer to Kaluga. Being on the old Kaluga road, Kutuzov's army covered Tula, Kaluga, Bryansk and the grain-producing southern provinces, and threatened the enemy rear between Moscow and Smolensk. He waited, knowing that Napoleon’s army would not last long in Moscow without provisions, and winter was approaching... On October 18, near Tarutino, he gave battle to the French barrier under the command of Murat - and Murat’s retreat marked the fact that the initiative in the war had passed to the Russians.

Beginning of the End

Napoleon was forced to think about wintering his army. Where? “I’m going to look for another position from where it will be more profitable to launch a new campaign, the action of which will be directed towards St. Petersburg or Kyiv" And at this time Kutuzov put everything under surveillance possible ways withdrawal of Napoleonic army from Moscow. Kutuzov's foresight was manifested in the fact that with his Tarutino maneuver he anticipated the movement of French troops to Smolensk through Kaluga.

On October 19, the French army (consisting of 110 thousand) began to leave Moscow along the Old Kaluga Road. Napoleon planned to get to the nearest large food base in Smolensk through an area not devastated by the war - through Kaluga, but Kutuzov blocked his way. Then Napoleon turned near the village of Troitsky onto the New Kaluga Road (modern Kiev Highway) to bypass Tarutino. However, Kutuzov transferred the army to Maloyaroslavets and cut off the French retreat along the New Kaluga Road.

June 4- in Koenigsberg, French Foreign Minister de Bassano signed a note on the severance of diplomatic relations with Russia.

July 6 - Alexander I signed a manifesto on “arming the entire state.”

July 27- Ataman M.I. Platov fought at the Molevo Swamp with the French troops of Sebastiani, who were defeated.

July 31- Schwarzenberg's Austrian corps attacked Russian troops near the town of Gorodechna. Tormasov retreated to Kobrin.

August 4 - 6- the battle for Smolensk took place between the troops of Barclay de Tolly and the main forces of Napoleon. The Russians abandoned Smolensk.

August 17- a new commander-in-chief, M.I. Golenishchev-Kutuzov, arrived in the army and occupied a convenient defensive line near the village of Borodino.

24 August- a battle took place between the troops of Lieutenant General M.D. Gorchakov 2nd and the main forces of Napoleon for Shevardino.

August, 26th- happened battle of Borodino. The losses on both sides were enormous. Kutuzov gave the order to retreat.

September 1- at the council in Fili, Kutuzov decided to leave Moscow without a fight in order to preserve the army.

September 3- the vanguard of Murat’s corps was forced to release the rearguard of General M.A. Miloradovich from Moscow. On the same day, Murat occupied Moscow, and in the evening Napoleon arrived in the Kremlin.

16 of September- a partisan detachment of Colonel D.V. Davydov defeated an enemy unit covering transport with forage and artillery equipment near Vyazma.

September 20- Russian troops entered the Tarutino camp. From that moment on, guerrilla warfare began.

October 3 - 5- Sick and wounded Frenchmen set out from Moscow under the cover of Claparede’s division and Nansouty’s detachment.

October 6- L.L. Bennigsen attacked the isolated parts of Murat and defeated them. On the same day, a three-day battle for Polotsk began between the troops of P. X. Wittgenstein and the French of Saint-Cyr. Polotsk was stormed by columns of Major General Vlasov, Major General Dibich and Colonel Ridiger.

November 22- Victor’s rearguard on the road to the city of Molodechno was defeated by the troops of Platov and Chaplitsa.

Russian-French War 1812-1814. ended with the almost complete destruction of Napoleon's army. During the fighting, the entire territory of the Russian Empire was liberated, and the battles moved to and Let's take a brief look at how the Russian-French war took place.

start date

The fighting was primarily due to Russia's refusal to actively support the continental blockade, which Napoleon saw as the main weapon in the fight against Great Britain. In addition, Bonaparte pursued a policy towards European countries, which does not take into account the interests of Russia. At the first stage of hostilities, the Russian army retreated. Before Moscow passed from June to September 1812, the advantage was on Napoleon's side. From October to December, Bonaparte's army tried to maneuver. She sought to retire to winter quarters, located in an unravaged area. After this, the Russian-French War of 1812 continued with the retreat of Napoleon's army in conditions of hunger and frost.

Prerequisites for the battle

Why did the Russian-French War happen? The year 1807 defined Napoleon's main and, in fact, only enemy. It was Great Britain. She captured French colonies in America and India and created obstacles to trade. Due to the fact that England occupied good positions at sea, as the only effective weapon Napoleon acted. Its effectiveness, in turn, depended on the behavior of other powers and their desire to follow sanctions. Napoleon demanded that Alexander I implement the blockade more consistently, but he was constantly met with Russia’s reluctance to sever relations with its key trading partner.

In 1810, our country participated in free trade with neutral states. This allowed Russia to trade with England through intermediaries. The government adopts a protective tariff that increases customs rates, primarily on imported French goods. This, of course, caused Napoleon's extreme dissatisfaction.

Offensive

The Russian-French War of 1812 at the first stage was favorable for Napoleon. On May 9 he meets in Dresden with the allied rulers from Europe. From there he goes to his army on the river. Neman, which separated Prussia and Russia. June 22 Bonaparte addresses the soldiers. In it, he accuses Russia of failure to comply with the Tizil Treaty. Napoleon called his attack the second Polish invasion. In June, his army occupied Kovno. Alexander I at that moment was in Vilna, at a ball.

On June 25, the first clash occurred near the village. Barbarians. Battles also took place at Rumšiški and Poparci. It is worth saying that the Russian-French War took place with the support of Bonaparte's allies. The main goal at the first stage was the crossing of the Neman. Yes, with south side The group of Beauharnais (the Viceroy of Italy) appeared in Kovno, the corps of Marshal MacDonald appeared from the north, and the corps of General Schwarzenberg invaded from Warsaw through the Bug. June 16 (28) soldiers great army occupied Vilna. On June 18 (30), Alexander I sent Adjutant General Balashov to Napoleon with a proposal to make peace and withdraw troops from Russia. However, Bonaparte refused.

Borodino

On August 26 (September 7), 125 km from Moscow, the largest battle took place, after which the Russian-French war followed Kutuzov’s scenario. The forces of the parties were approximately equal. Napoleon had about 130-135 thousand people, Kutuzov - 110-130 thousand. The domestic army did not have enough guns for the 31 thousand militias of Smolensk and Moscow. The warriors were given pikes, but Kutuzov did not use people as they performed various auxiliary functions - they carried out the wounded and so on. Borodino was actually an assault by soldiers of the great army of Russian fortifications. Both sides made extensive use of artillery in both attack and defense.

The Battle of Borodino lasted 12 hours. It was a bloody battle. Napoleon's soldiers, at the cost of 30-34 thousand wounded and killed, broke through the left flank and pushed back the center of the Russian positions. However, they failed to develop their offensive. In the Russian army, losses were estimated at 40-45 thousand wounded and killed. There were practically no prisoners on either side.

On September 1 (13), Kutuzov’s army positioned itself in front of Moscow. Its right flank was located near the village of Fili, its center was between the village. Troitsky and s. Volynsky, left - in front of the village. Vorobyov. The rearguard was located on the river. Setuni. At 5 o'clock on the same day, a military council was convened in Frolov's house. Barclay de Tolly insisted that the Russian-French war would not be lost if Moscow was given to Napoleon. He spoke about the need to preserve the army. Bennigsen, in turn, insisted on holding the battle. Most of the other participants supported his position. However, Kutuzov put an end to the council. The Russian-French war, he believed, would end with the defeat of Napoleon only if it was possible to preserve the domestic army. Kutuzov interrupted the meeting and ordered a retreat. By the evening of September 14, Napoleon entered empty Moscow.

Expulsion of Napoleon

The French did not stay in Moscow for long. Some time after their invasion, the city was engulfed in fire. Bonaparte's soldiers began to experience a shortage of provisions. Locals refused to help them. Moreover, partisan attacks began and a militia began to be organized. Napoleon was forced to leave Moscow.

Kutuzov, meanwhile, positioned his army on the French retreat route. Bonaparte intended to go to cities that were not destroyed by fighting. However, his plans were thwarted by Russian soldiers. He was forced to head along almost the same road that he came to Moscow. Since the settlements along the way were destroyed by him, there was no food in them, as well as people. Napoleon's soldiers, exhausted by hunger and disease, were subject to constant attacks.

Russian-French War: results

According to Clausewitz's calculations, the great army with reinforcements numbered about 610 thousand people, including 50 thousand Austrian and Prussian soldiers. Many of those who were able to return to Konigsberg died almost immediately from illness. In December 1812, about 225 generals, a little more than 5 thousand officers, and a little over 26 thousand lower ranks passed through Prussia. As contemporaries testified, they were all in a very pitiful condition. In total, Napoleon lost about 580 thousand soldiers. The remaining soldiers formed the backbone of Bonaparte's new army. However, in January 1813, the battles moved to German lands. The fighting then continued in France. In October, Napoleon's army was defeated near Leipzig. In April 1814, Bonaparte abdicated the throne.

Long-term consequences

What did the won Russian-French war give to the country? The date of this battle has become firmly established in history as crucial moment on the issue of Russian influence on European affairs. Meanwhile, the country's foreign policy strengthening was not accompanied by internal changes. Despite the fact that the victory united and inspired the masses, the successes did not lead to reform of the socio-economic sphere. Many peasants who fought in the Russian army marched across Europe and saw that serfdom was abolished everywhere. They expected the same actions from their government. However, serfdom continued to exist after 1812. According to a number of historians, at that time there were not yet those fundamental prerequisites that would have led to its immediate abolition.

But the sharp surge in peasant uprisings and the creation of political opposition among the progressive nobility, which followed almost immediately after the end of the battles, refute this opinion. Victory in the Patriotic War not only united people and contributed to the rise of the national spirit. At the same time, the boundaries of freedom expanded in the minds of the masses, which led to the Decembrist uprising.

However, not only this event is associated with 1812. The opinion has long been expressed that the entire national culture and self-awareness received an impetus during the period of the Napoleonic invasion. As Herzen wrote, the true history of Russia has been revealed only since 1812. Everything that came before can only be considered a preface.

Conclusion

The Russian-French war showed the strength of the entire people of Russia. Not only the regular army took part in the confrontation with Napoleon. Militias rose up in the villages and villages, formed detachments and attacked the soldiers of the great army. In general, historians note that before this battle patriotism was not particularly evident in Russia. It is worth considering that in the country the common population was oppressed by serfdom. The war with the French changed people's consciousness. The masses, united, felt their ability to resist the enemy. This was a victory not only for the army and its command, but also for the entire population. Of course, the peasants expected their lives to change. But, unfortunately, we were disappointed by subsequent events. Nevertheless, the impetus for free-thinking and resistance has already been given.

And invaded Russian lands. The French rushed to the offensive like a bull during a bullfight. Napoleon's army included a European hodgepodge: in addition to the French, there were also (forcedly recruited) Germans, Austrians, Spaniards, Italians, Dutch, Poles and many others, totaling up to 650 thousand people. Russia could field approximately the same number of soldiers, but some of them, along with Kutuzov was still in Moldova, in another part - in the Caucasus. During Napoleon's invasion, up to 20 thousand Lithuanians joined his army.

The Russian army was divided into two lines of defense, under the command of General Peter Bagration And Michael Barclay de Tolly. The French invasion fell on the latter's troops. Napoleon's calculation was simple - one or two victorious battles (maximum three), and Alexander I will be forced to sign peace on French terms. However, Barclay de Tolly gradually, with small skirmishes, retreated deeper into Russia, but did not enter the main battle. Near Smolensk, the Russian army almost fell into encirclement, but did not enter the battle and eluded the French, continuing to draw them deeper into its territory. Napoleon occupied the empty Smolensk and could have stopped there for now, but Kutuzov, who arrived from Moldova to replace Barclay de Tolly, knew that the French emperor would not do that, and continued his retreat to Moscow. Bagration was eager to attack, and he was supported by the majority of the country's population, but Alexander did not allow it, leaving Peter Bagration on the border in Austria in case of an attack by France's allies.

All along the way, Napoleon received only abandoned and scorched settlements - no people, no supplies. After the “demonstrative” battle for Smolensk on August 18, 1812, Napoleon’s troops began to get tired of Russian campaign of 1812, since the conquest was somehow negative: there were no large-scale battles or high-profile victories, there were no captured supplies and weapons, winter was approaching, during which the “Great Army” needed to winter somewhere, and nothing suitable for quartering was captured.

Battle of Borodino.

At the end of August, near Mozhaisk (125 kilometers from Moscow), Kutuzov stopped in a field near a village Borodino, where he decided to give a general battle. For the most part, he was forced by public opinion, since a constant retreat did not correspond to the sentiments of either the people, the nobles, or the emperor.

On August 26, 1812, the famous Battle of Borodino. Bagration approached Borodino, but still the Russians were able to field just over 110 thousand soldiers. Napoleon at that moment had up to 135 thousand people.

The course and result of the battle are known to many: the French repeatedly stormed Kutuzov’s defensive redoubts with active artillery support (“Horses and people mixed up in a heap…”). The Russians, hungry for a normal battle, heroically repelled the attacks of the French, despite the latter’s enormous superiority in weapons (from rifles to cannons). The French lost up to 35 thousand killed, and the Russians ten thousand more, but Napoleon only managed to slightly shift Kutuzov’s central positions, and in fact, Bonaparte’s attack was stopped. After a battle that lasted all day, the French emperor began to prepare for a new assault, but Kutuzov, by the morning of August 27, withdrew his troops to Mozhaisk, not wanting to lose even more people.

On September 1, 1812, a military incident took place in a nearby village. council in Fili, during which Mikhail Kutuzov with the support of Barclay de Tolly, he decided to leave Moscow to save the army. Contemporaries say that this decision was extremely difficult for the commander-in-chief.

On September 14, Napoleon entered the abandoned and devastated former capital of Russia. During his stay in Moscow, sabotage groups of the Moscow governor Rostopchin repeatedly attacked French officers and burned their captured apartments. As a result, from September 14 to 18, Moscow burned, and Napoleon did not have enough resources to cope with the fire.

At the beginning of the invasion, before the Battle of Borodino, and also three times after the occupation of Moscow, Napoleon tried to come to an agreement with Alexander and sign peace. But Russian Emperor from the very beginning of the war, he adamantly prohibited any negotiations while enemy feet trampled Russian soil.

Realizing that it would not be possible to spend the winter in devastated Moscow, on October 19, 1812, the French left Moscow. Napoleon decided to return to Smolensk, but not along the scorched path, but through Kaluga, hoping to get at least some supplies along the way.

In the battle of Tarutino and a little later near Maly Yaroslavets on October 24, Kutuzov repelled the French, and they were forced to return to the devastated Smolensk road along which they had walked earlier.

On November 8, Bonaparte reached Smolensk, which was ruined (half of it by the French themselves). All the way to Smolensk, the emperor constantly lost person after person - up to hundreds of soldiers a day.

During the summer-autumn of 1812, a hitherto unprecedented partisan movement was formed in Russia, leading the war of liberation. Partisan detachments numbered up to several thousand people. They attacked Napoleon's army like Amazonian piranhas attacking a wounded jaguar, waited for convoys with supplies and weapons, and destroyed the vanguards and rearguards of the troops. The most famous leader of these detachments was Denis Davydov. Peasants, workers, and nobles joined the partisan detachments. It is believed that they destroyed more than half of Bonaparte's army. Of course, Kutuzov’s soldiers did not lag behind, they also followed Napoleon on his heels and constantly made forays.

On November 29, a major battle took place on the Berezina, when admirals Chichagov and Wittgenstein, without waiting for Kutuzov, attacked Napoleon’s army and destroyed 21 thousand of his soldiers. However, the emperor was able to escape, with only 9 thousand people left at his disposal. With them he reached Vilna (Vilnius), where his generals Ney and Murat were waiting for him.

On December 14, after Kutuzov’s attack on Vilna, the French lost 20 thousand soldiers and abandoned the city. Napoleon fled to Paris in a hurry, ahead of the remnants of his Great Army. Together with the remnants of the garrison of Vilna and other cities, a little more than 30 thousand Napoleonic warriors left Russia, while at least about 610 thousand invaded Russia.

After the defeat in Russia French Empire started to fall apart. Bonaparte continued to send envoys to Alexander, offering almost all of Poland in exchange for a peace treaty. Nevertheless, the Russian emperor decided to completely rid Europe of dictatorship and tyranny (and these are not big words, but reality) Napoleon Bonaparte.

12 June 1812 - the beginning of the Patriotic War of 1812. War was declared in advance, but the time and place of the attack were not reported. Having crossed the Neman, Napoleon invades Russian territory. But the Russian army avoids a general battle and retreats with rearguard battles. The main blow fell on Bagration's army. The 1st and 2nd armies planned to unite first in the Vitebsk area, but it was not possible. At first, Alexander I was the commander-in-chief, and then Mikhail Bogdanovich Barclay de Tolly became the commander-in-chief. The partisan movement begins.

4 – 6 August 1812 - Battle of Smolensk. It was bloody - 120 thousand Russians against 200 thousand French. Neverovsky's detachment prevented the French from bypassing Smolensk. The corps of Dokhturov and Raevsky held back the onslaught of the French for 2 days, covering the withdrawal of the main forces of the army. Smolensk was abandoned

8 August 1812 - appointment of Kutuzov as commander-in-chief of the Russian army. Alexander did this despite personal hostility, taking into account Kutuzov's combat experience, talent and enormous popularity in the Russian army. On August 17, Kutuzov arrived in active army. The retreat to Moscow continues, as the army needs to be put in order and prepared for a general battle.

24 August 1812 - the battles for the Shevardinsky redoubt made it possible to prepare fortifications.

26 August 1812 - Battle of Borodino. It became the main battle of the War of 1812. The position on the Borodino field was not chosen by chance:

Two roads leading to Moscow were covered - the new and old Smolensk.

The rugged nature of the terrain made it possible to place artillery at the heights, to hide part of the troops, and made it difficult for the French to maneuver. The right flank is covered by the Kolocha River.

Each side set as its goal to defeat the enemy.

The battle was characterized by extreme tenacity and bitterness. Napoleon tried to break through the Russian fortifications in the center, on the left flank. Raevsky's battery, located on Kurgan Heights, changed hands several times. As darkness fell, the battle ended and the French withdrew their troops to their original positions. The battle ended in a draw, as neither side achieved its goals. Napoleon lost 50 thousand people, but did not bring the old guard into battle. The Russians lost 40 thousand. Kutuzov gives the order to retreat.

Meaning of the battle:

Napoleon's army received swipe, suffered significant losses.

Kutuzov's army survived.

An example of Russian heroism.

September 1, 1812 - Council in Fili, where the decision was made to leave Moscow in order to preserve the army. Having left Moscow along the Ryazan road, the army crossed country roads to the Kaluga road and set up camp near the village of Tarutino, preparing for new battles.

September 2, 1812 - Napoleon's troops occupy Moscow. Moscow greets with a grandiose fire - it lasted 6 days, ¾ of the city burned down, priceless monuments, books. There are different versions of the fire - the French are to blame, patriots, probably a joint decision of Kutuzov and Moscow Governor General Rostopchin. 3 times Napoleon suggested that Alexander the First begin negotiations. The situation for the French army is quickly deteriorating - there is no food, no housing, the partisans are causing great damage (peasant detachments of Chetvertakov, Gerasim Kurin, Vasilisa Kozhina and under the leadership of officers Denis Davydov, Figner are operating), the army is decomposing, and winter is ahead.

October 6, 1812 - Napoleon's troops leave Moscow. The reason is that the city, like a besieged fortress, becomes a trap. Napoleon is trying to break into the southern provinces.

October 12, 1812 – battles for Maloyaroslavets. The city changed hands 8 times. Result - Napoleon is forced to return to the old Smolensk road, and the retreat begins. The initiative completely passes to the Russian army. The Russian army pursues Napoleon on a parallel course, all the time threatening to get ahead and cut off the route of retreat.

November 14 -16, 1812 - heavy French losses when crossing the Berezina River - 30 thousand, but retained the generals, the old guard. Soon he secretly leaves the army and leaves for Paris.

December 25, 1812 - manifesto about the end of the Patriotic War. Only the pitiful remnants of the great army crossed the border. The Patriotic War ended with the complete defeat of the enemy.

Reasons for victory:

The fair nature of the war, defended the Fatherland.

The role of Kutuzov and other commanders.

Partisan movement.

Heroism of soldiers and officers.

National assistance - creation of a people's militia, fundraising.

Geographical and natural factors (vast spaces and cold winters).

Results of the Patriotic War. Historical meaning victory.

1 . Russia defended its independence and territorial integrity. She won the war.

2 . Huge damage:

Thousands of people died.

High damage western provinces.

Many cities were damaged - old historical and cultural centers (Moscow, Smolensk, etc.).

3 . The war united the nation, as they defended their homeland and their independence.

4 . The war strengthened the friendship of the peoples of the country, the Slavs in the first place.

5 . The war elevated Moscow as the spiritual center of Russia. The official capital of St. Petersburg found itself on the sidelines of events.

6 . The heroism of the Russian people inspired cultural figures to create patriotic works about this war. The war had a strong influence on the development of culture and social thought.

1813 -1815 - foreign campaign of the Russian army. Kutuzov's troops crossed the Neman and entered European territory. Other states are joining the fight against France, and a new anti-French coalition is being created (Russia, Prussia, Austria, Sweden, England). In 1813, Kutuzov died.

1813, October 16 -19 - Battle of Leipzig. In the "Battle of the Nations" Napoleon is defeated. Allied troops enter Paris. Napoleon abdicates power and exiles to the island of Elba, but flees and returns to power for 100 days.

1815 – Battle of Waterloo. The final defeat of Napoleon. He is exiled to St. Helena Island in the Atlantic Ocean. Russia played a decisive role in the defeat of Napoleonic France. The Russian army was the core of the Allied military forces.

Historical significance of the foreign campaign:

Europe is liberated from Napoleonic tyranny.

Reactionary monarchical regimes are being installed.

1814 – 1815 – The Vienna Congress of the Victorious Powers determined the principles post-war structure Europe. Russia received the territory of the Duchy of Warsaw. To protect the relations established at the Vienna Congress and to fight the revolutionary movement, the Holy Alliance (Russia, Prussia, Austria) was created.

Thus, foreign policy Russia at the beginning of the 19th century was active. The main direction is western. Victory in the war with France strengthened the country's international authority.

Decembrist movement.

The first revolutionaries to create a fairly powerful secret organization and openly oppose the autocracy were the Decembrists. These were young nobles, officers - Alexander Muravyov, Sergey Trubetskoy, Nikita Muravyov, Matvey and Sergey Muravyov - Apostles, Ivan Kushkin, Pavel Pestel, Evgeny Obolensky, Ivan Pushchin, Kakhovsky, Lunin and others. Based on the name of the month in which they openly opposed the tsar, they began to be called Decembrists.

Reasons for the speech of the Decembrists:

1 . - growth of national self-awareness in connection with the War of 1812. Many of the Decembrists took part in the war, knew the way of life and order in Europe, and had the opportunity to compare. They saw the destructiveness of serfdom and the fact that the people who fought against the Napoleonic invasion received nothing to make their lives easier.

2 . - strengthening of the reaction in the country - attack on the achievements of education - defeat of the Kazan and St. Petersburg universities, deterioration of the situation of the peasantry - again the landowners could exile the peasants to Siberia, the creation of military settlements, refusal of reforms.

3. – the influence of revolutionary ideology – the ideas of French thinkers (Locke, Montesquieu, Diderot) and Russian enlighteners (Novikov, Radishchev).

4. – revolutionary processes in Europe – a wave of revolutionary uprisings, bourgeois revolutions.

Decembrists- these are supporters of a military coup with the aim of carrying out bourgeois reforms in Russia only by the forces of the army without the participation of the people.

Since the Decembrists were military men, they hoped to use the military forces at their disposal for the coup. Formation begins secret societies, uniting the most radically thinking representatives of the nobility.

Secret organizations of the Decembrists:

1. "Union of Salvation" 1816 - 1818, created in St. Petersburg, included about 30 people. The charter “Statute” was adopted, a new name was given, “Society of True and Faithful Sons of the Fatherland.” The main goal is the introduction of a constitution and civil liberties, the abolition of serfdom. Specific activity is preparing public opinion for the upcoming reforms. The organization was created on the basis of the Semenovsky regiment. They published translations of the works of French enlighteners. The question of regicide arose. They proposed presenting their demands at the time of the change of monarch on the throne.

2. “Union of Welfare”, 1818 – 1821, included about 200 people. The Green Book program set the task of convincing public opinion of the need for reforms within 15–20 years. The ultimate goals - a political and social revolution - were not declared, since the program was intended for wide dissemination. They sought to attract public attention to the situation of serfs and military villagers in order to eliminate arbitrariness. Members of the organization, by their example, sought to promote the ideas of educating the people - they created schools on estates and actively participated in the activities of legal scientific, educational and literary societies.

The union was led by the root council in St. Petersburg, there were branches in Moscow, Tulchin, Poltava, Tambov, Kyiv, Chisinau, and the Nizhny Novgorod province.

In January 1821, the Union of Welfare was dissolved because:

Possibility of screening out unreliable people.

Disagreements regarding future activities.

The uprising in the Semenovsky regiment, where most of the Decembrists served, led to the deportation of officers to different garrisons. The regiment was disbanded and recruited again.

3. " Southern Society», 1821 – 1825, founded in Ukraine, in the city of Tulchin. Led by Pavel Pestel. Entered S. Muravyov - Apostol, M. Besstuzhev - Ryumin. In 1825, the Society of United Slavs, created in 1823, joined it. The program was called “Russian Truth”.

4 . "Northern Society" 1821 – 1825, founded in St. Petersburg. The society's program - "Constitution" was compiled by N. Muravyov. included S. Trubetskoy, E. Obolensky, K. Ryleev, Pyotr Kakhovsky.

Program documents of the Decembrists:

General: liquidate estates, introduce civil liberties - freedom of speech, press, assembly, religion, liquidate military settlements and recruitment, introduce universal military service.

Both programs opened up ways for further development Russia.

The greatest activity of the Decembrist societies occurred in 1824 - 1825: preparations were made for an armed uprising, hard work was underway to harmonize political programs. A military coup was planned for the summer of 1826. But the uprising happened earlier. On November 19, 1825, Alexander I dies in Taganrog. The troops and population swore allegiance to Emperor Constantine, but he abdicated the throne back in 1823, but this was kept secret. On December 14, 1825, the re-oath was set for his brother Nikolai. The Decembrists decided to take advantage of this situation. The final plan for the uprising was adopted on December 13 at Ryleev’s apartment - on Senate Square withdraw troops in order to prevent the oath of the Senate and the State Council, promulgate the “Manifesto to the Russian people”, proclaim the abolition of serfdom, the code of the press, conscience, and the introduction of universal military service. The government is declared deposed and power is transferred to a provisional government until the convened Great Council makes a decision on the form of government in Russia. Royal family should be arrested Winter Palace and the Peter and Paul Fortress were captured with the help of troops. Trubetskoy was appointed dictator of the uprising.

December 14, 1825 At 11:00 a.m., officers brought their loyal units to Senate Square in St. Petersburg:

Moscow Label – guards regiment(Bestuzhev - Ryumin and D. Shchepin - Rostovsky)

Grenadier Regiment (Panov)

Guards Fleet Crew (Bestuzhev)

Only 3 thousand soldiers, 30 officers, no artillery. The king had 12 thousand people, cavalry, 36 guns.

From the very beginning the uprising did not go according to plan:

Trubetskoy did not appear on the square; another leader, Obolensky, was elected on the spot.

The Senate and State Council had already sworn allegiance to the Tsar early in the morning.

Yakubovich, who was supposed to command the Guards naval crew and the Izmailovsky regiment, seize the Winter Palace, arrest royal family refused because he was afraid of regicide.

The rebels in the square were inactive, but the king was active. They are trying to persuade the rebels to disperse (Kakhovsky kills Miloradovich, the governor of St. Petersburg), and at this time the loyal units are gathering. Two cavalry attacks were repulsed, and a decision was made to use artillery. By 6 o'clock in the evening the uprising was defeated (1271 people died, of which 900 were curious people in the square). Arrests and searches began.

December 25, 1825 - uprising of 5 companies of the Chernigov regiment (970 soldiers and 8 officers, led by Muravyov - Apostol). Defeated by tsarist troops near the village of Ustinovka.

Causes of defeat:

1. disruption of the original plan of the uprising.

2. numerical superiority of the royal troops

3. wait-and-see tactics

4. fear of addressing the people

The investigative commission worked in St. Petersburg from December 17, 1825 to June 17, 1826. At the same time, commissions worked in Bila Tserkva, Minsk, Bialystok, and Warsaw. The investigation was led by the tsar, 579 officers were involved, 280 of them were found guilty. The trial proceeded without the presence of the Decembrists.

5 people were executed on July 13, 1826, hanged in Peter and Paul Fortress- Ryleev, Pestel, Kakhovsky, Muravyov - Apostol, Bestuzhev - Ryumin.

88 people were sentenced to hard labor.

19 people were exiled to Siberia.

15 people were demoted to soldiers.

120 people were punished by personal order of Nicholas I without trial.

The rest were sent to the active army in the Caucasus.

Soldiers and sailors were tried separately.

The significance of the Decembrist movement:

2. their demands reflected the urgent needs of transformation in Russia.

3. great importance for the development of advanced social thought (ideology, tactics, experience of struggle)

4. their performance influenced domestic policy king

Related information.