Geographical location and natural conditions of Canada. Interesting facts about Canada. Characteristics of Canada. Nature of Canada Animal world of Canada

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Canada is one of the best places in the world to enjoy the natural phenomenon of the Northern Lights. This is a mystical, unpredictable and beautiful heavenly glow that suddenly appears and just as suddenly disappears. This spectacle is breathtaking and can last from ten minutes to several days.

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2. Cathedral Grove: British Columbia

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Do you want to feel like a little child again? Do you want to understand the phrase “when trees were big”? Then head to McMillian Park on Vancouver Island.

It is there on the western bank of the Cameron River that the Cathedral Grove is located. The grove contains a forest of ancient pseudo-hemlock trees, among which there are specimens over 800 years old, about 75 meters high and with a trunk girth of as much as 9 meters! The grove is famous not only in Canada, but throughout the world. More than a million visitors visit it every year.

3. Dinosor Provincial Park (Dinosaur Park): Alberta

Whether you're a Jurassic Park fan or just love to travel, you owe it to yourself to take a stroll through Alberta Dinosaur Provincial Park, which is also known as one of the world's largest dinosaur cemeteries.

The remains of more than 500 dinosaurs belonging to 39 species were found in the park. A walk along separate routes allows you to see the excavations, and exhibitions introduce you to how the search for remains takes place. Children are attracted by life-size replicas of some dinosaurs.

4. Canadian Rockies: Alberta, British Columbia

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Turquoise water, vast expanses of untouched wildlife, snow-capped mountain peaks - an incredible picture will open before the eyes of everyone who visits this place. The Canadian Rockies stretch over 1,200 km from British Columbia to Alberta. The beauty of this place cannot be ignored! In Canadian Rocky Mountains There are five very beautiful national parks included in the UNESCO World Heritage List: Jasper, Banff, Yoho, Waterton Lakes and Kootenay.

However, like Niagara Falls, Canada shares this natural wonder with the United States.

5. Niagara Falls: Ontario

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If you have not yet seen the most powerful waterfall in North America with your own eyes, then it will be difficult for you to imagine this power!

Niagara Falls is the most famous natural wonder of North America. This is a complex of waterfalls on the Niagara River, separating the province of Ontario and American state NY. Niagara Falls are Horseshoe Falls (Canadian Falls), American Falls and Veil Falls. In addition to the fact that both parts of the waterfall can be observed from the Canadian side, the part lying on Canadian territory is considered more beautiful.

6. Hopewell Rocks: New Brunswick

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Not a very good swimmer? So why not explore the ocean floor without scuba gear, a mask or an oxygen tank? Every day the water leaves the Bay of Fundy, giving visitors the opportunity to walk along the ocean floor and admire the intricate rocks like sculptures in a gallery. During periods of maximum low tide, the area can reach two kilometers. During high tide, the water level rises by about 16 meters and covers the ground like a blanket.

7. Cabot Trail: Nova Scotia

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The Cabot Trail is a 298 km long scenic highway in the province of Nova Scotia. The route passes through beautiful landscapes, coastlines, parks and valleys. The Cape Breton Highlands include amazing sights, deep valleys and canyons. It's also the best way to explore picturesque Cape Breton. There is no need to rush, just enjoy the nature and beauty of this region.

CANADA. NATURE
Boundaries. The Canadian mainland is washed in the east by the Atlantic Ocean, in the north by the Arctic Ocean, and in the west by the Pacific Ocean; On land, it borders Alaska to the west and the mainland United States to the south. The Canadian border with Alaska runs along the 141st meridian to a point 48 km from the Pacific coast; then it takes on a winding shape and deviates to the southeast, following approximately along the coast to the Portland Strait (54°40°N, where it reaches the Pacific Ocean. The southern border strictly follows 49°N from the Pacific Ocean to Lesnoy lakes, then - along the rivers and lakes connecting this lake with Lake Superior, then - along the waters of lakes Superior, Huron, Erie, Ontario and the rivers connecting them. From Lake Ontario, the border runs along the St. Lawrence River to 45 ° with .sh., then turns east at approximately the same latitude to the Connecticut River and then follows a winding line to the northeast; north of the St. John River it turns east, then south along the St. John River and comes out to coast of the Atlantic Ocean near Passamaquoddy Bay. The length of the border between Canada and Alaska is 2,480 km, and with the United States - 6,420 km. Canada owns the large islands of Newfoundland, Cape Breton, Prince Edward and Anticosti in the Atlantic Ocean; Vancouver and Queen Charlotte in the Pacific Ocean and the vast Canadian Arctic Archipelago in the Arctic Ocean between 141° and 60° W. The area of ​​Canada is 9970.6 thousand square meters. km. Area of ​​individual provinces (in thousand sq. km): Quebec - 1540.7; Ontario - 1068.6; British Columbia - 947.8; Alberta - 661.2; Saskatchewan - 652.6; Manitoba - 649.9; Newfoundland - 405.7; New Brunswick - 73.4; Nova Scotia - 55.5; Prince Edward Island - 5.7. The federal territory of Yukon occupies an area of ​​483.4 thousand, and the Northwest Territories - 3426.3 thousand square meters. km. In April 1999, two new administrative units of the same rank were created within the boundaries of the Northwest Territories: Nunavut and Denende.
GEOLOGICAL STRUCTURE
According to its geological structure, Canada is divided into three large areas: 1) the Canadian Shield, which occupies the eastern and central parts of the country; 2) young folded mountains along the Pacific coast; and 3) troughs in western central Canada. The Canadian Shield, covering approximately half of Canada's territory, is a vast outcrop of crystalline basement. The rocks composing it have great strength and therefore were not involved in the mountain-building processes of the Phanerozoic. This area, stretching from the Labrador Peninsula to Lake. Winnipeg, Lake La Ronge, western tip of the lake. Athabasca and Great Bear Lake, is characterized by a predominance of granite rocks, an abundance of small lakes and a continuous distribution of spruce and pine forests. As geologists have established, the most ancient Precambrian bedrock, dating back to the Precambrian (over 570 million years ago), comes to the surface here. These rocks retain traces of intense deformations resulting from tectonic movements in Precambrian times. Subsequently, the Canadian Shield was so rigid that it almost did not react to the mountain-building processes that occurred in other areas of the Earth in the Phanerozoic. In addition to the predominant granites and gneisses, significant areas within the shield are occupied by outcrops of highly altered - metamorphosed - sedimentary and volcanic rocks.
Young mountains. The young mountains that extend along the Pacific coast correspond to folded structures that run parallel to the coastline. Probably, the bottom of the Pacific Ocean in its eastern part was similar to the Canadian Shield, but was larger in size; Thus, young folded mountains arose as a result of compression of a more plastic section of the earth's crust between the rigid massifs of two shields.
Jurassic period. During the Jurassic period, which began 190 million years ago, a vast landmass existed in the Canadian Coast Ranges and east of the Selkirk Mountains off the east coast of the Pacific Ocean, which was later submerged by the sea; this continent is sometimes called Cascadia. Another large land mass, Laurentia, with an undulating granite surface, was located to the east, approximately on the site of the current Canadian Shield. Between Cascadia and Laurentia there was a shallow inland sea, which was gradually filled with Jurassic sediments. Later, this area experienced tectonic uplift, while marine sediments were crushed into folds and masses of granite rocks were introduced into their thickness, forming batholiths.
Cretaceous period. IN Cretaceous period, which began 135 million years ago, the sea occupied another large area and was gradually filled with the fine clastic sediments that now make up the prairie region of central Canada.
Alpine folding. In Canada, only its earliest phase appeared at the very beginning of the Tertiary period (65 million years ago). During this so-called The Laramie fold formed the Rocky Mountains, stretching from Alaska to the mainland of the United States. In the western part of the Cretaceous Sea, the bottom swelled, forming a wide fold as the uplift spread to the east. Then, as a result of a giant fracture of the earth's crust, the western part of the fold was pushed onto the lower eastern part. In the zone of overhang, a steep Rocky Mountain escarpment formed, facing the prairies of southern Canada. A classic example of a thrust structure can be seen, for example, at Crows Nest Mountain, where ancient Paleozoic rocks lie horizontally on top of younger Cretaceous rocks. Compared to the Coast Ranges and Selkirk Mountains, the Rocky Mountains are younger and less eroded; there are no granite batholiths and far fewer mineral resources than in the older mountains.
Deflections. Areas of relative subsidence, which constitute the third type of macrostructure in Canada, were formed simultaneously with the uplift of young mountains. Since the thick and rather rigid earth's crust does not form a sharp break at the edge of the uplift area, young mountains are usually framed by a zone of troughs. Such, for example, is the elongated wide depression adjacent to the west of the Canadian Rocky Mountains in British Columbia and known as the Rocky Mountain Trench. To the east of the mountains is a vast depression with large lakes and rivers such as the Mackenzie, Slave and Red Rivers. The surface, which was the bottom of the Cretaceous sea, became involved in uplifts in Tertiary times and, despite the presence of large lakes and even small seas, became part of a vast land mass that stretched from the Pacific Ocean to the Canadian Shield.
Ancient mountains. The southeastern edge of Canada, including the Atlantic provinces and the lower St. Lawrence, has a complex geological structure, different from the rest of the country. In this area, at the beginning of the Devonian period, mountain building took place - the Acadian orogeny (Acadia is the old French name for the Atlantic provinces of Canada). As a result, high mountain structures arose in the Atlantic provinces and Newfoundland, but later (300-400 million years ago) these mountains were eroded and destroyed, and only small elevations remained from them, which formed the basis of the ancient mountains. During the later phase of orogenesis within the Atlantic provinces, a blocky uplift of these destroyed mountain structures occurred to a height of more than 300 m above sea level. Traces of the Acadian orogeny in modern relief are presented in the form of smoothed mountain ridges crossing the Atlantic provinces from southwest to northeast. The subsequent - Appalachian - phase of mountain building, which took place in the Permian period (about 280 million years ago), culminated in the creation of mountain ranges extending parallel to the Acadian Mountains. Over time, they also underwent destruction, and then, during the Alpine folding, in some places they were raised to a height of up to 1200 m above sea level. This is how the Shikshok and Notre Dame mountains were formed east of the St. River. Lawrence in Quebec, having plateau-like summit surfaces. The Ice Age (Pleistocene) left the most striking traces on the topography of Canada. Huge ice sheets moved from north to south, reaching the Missouri and Ohio valleys. After they melted, glacial deposits remained everywhere - the so-called. main moraine - fragmentary material that the glacier captured as it moved along the surface of the underlying rocks. This moraine usually consists of the products of destruction of local rocks with a small admixture of distant debris. In particular, granite boulders from the Canadian Shield are found in the moraines of the Ohio River Valley. During the retreat of the last ice sheet, presumably ca. 10 thousand years ago, the relief of Canada acquired some specific features. When the ice melted in the area of ​​the St. Lawrence, the sea rushed there, which penetrated further into the basin of the lake. Ontario. Then the earth's crust, freed from glacial load, began to rise, and as a result, in the area of ​​Montreal and Quebec, extensive terraces formed, composed of marine silts, on which fertile soils. As the giant ice sheet slowly melted, there was also a significant restructuring of the river network; even major rivers such as the Red, Nelson, and St. Lawrence Rivers changed their course. The flow from the upper part of the Great Lakes basin, which is now carried through the Niagara River, where the famous waterfall is located, until recently occurred through the river. Trent, Mohawk Pass and river. Hudson.
RELIEF
Features of the geological structure of the large areas of Canada described above directly affect the lifestyle and well-being of the population. The Canadian Shield covers approximately 58% of the country's total area; 24% are made up of troughs, which in relief correspond to plains and plateaus, and 18% of the area is occupied by the high mountains of the Far West.
Shield surface. The ancient ice sheet left on the surface of the crystalline shield a cover of loose sediments with an average thickness of approx. 0.5 m, but in the depressions the thickness is much greater. Approximately 10% of the area is occupied by lakes and bedrock outcrops, devoid of loose cover. The landscape is characterized by poorly drained surfaces with dense coniferous forests growing on poor soils and extensive sphagnum bogs. In drier areas, such forests are used as a source of cellulose and timber. It is likely that in the future it will be possible to find economic use for low-grade wood, which can be provided by spruce and fir forests growing in the swampy northern regions of the shield, where the climate is colder.
Structurally predefined passages. Separate parts of this huge territory are connected by linearly elongated hollows, clearly expressed in the relief and serving as the main routes of communication. One of these depressions, creating an important transport corridor, extends approximately from the city of Sorel (northeast of Montreal on the right bank of the St. Lawrence River) through Richelieu and Lake. Champlain to New York. This passage probably corresponds to a graben, a relatively submerged zone characteristic of the structures of the region under consideration. Another similar depression connects the lowland adjacent to Hudson Bay with the valley of the St. River. Lawrence and partially follows the Ottawa River valley. The bottom of the hollow is raised 300 m above sea level. The third passage, which is of great importance, coincides with the valley of the Red River, flowing north in the province of Manitoba and flowing into Lake. Winnipeg. Initially, through this hollow there was a flow of melted glacial waters from the subglacial Lake Agassiz to the south, into the Mississippi River valley. Currently in the area of ​​the lake. Traverse (South Dakota, USA) at the bottom of the trough there is a very low watershed between the Red River and Mississippi river basins. Thousands of settlers descended the Red River Valley on their way to the Canadian prairies; here the Americans built a railway to the border town of Emerson, from where it was possible to transfer to another line and get to Winnipeg; the Canadian Pacific Railway was subsequently built there. The fourth passage is located in the center of the Rocky Mountains in British Columbia at an altitude of about 600 m above sea level, where the Peace River cut through the mountain range near Finley Forks. This pass maintains communication between the main plains of Canada and the Pacific coast. Probably, the Peace River flowed here even before the uplift and mountain building; As the mountains rose, the river cut in at the same speed. Northeast Canada is the most uplifted part of a huge granite shield, including the coastal areas of the Labrador Peninsula in the province of Newfoundland. The Torngat Mountains in the north of this territory reach a height of 1500 m. Here the ice cover remained much longer than in more southern areas, as a result such characteristic forms glacial relief, like semi-oval chair-shaped recesses - glacial cirques with pointed peaks between them. Further in the depths of the Labrador Peninsula, linear uplifts and subsidences are well expressed in the relief; a number of deep troughs are distinguished, elongated in a northwest direction (which corresponds to the prevailing orientation of structural-tectonic lines in most of Canada).
Northern Quebec. In the center of the northern part of the province of Quebec there is a vast Atticonak plateau with a height of more than 900 m in places. In the north, the plateau is limited by the Hamilton River, and in the west by the Manicouagan River. To the west of this plateau, the surface of the continent decreases, and the plains extend continuously to the foot of the Rocky Mountains, 3200 km to the west.
Atlantic provinces. In the western part of the Canadian Shield, the above-mentioned orientation of the structural-tectonic framework is clearly expressed from northwest to southeast; however, in the extreme southeast of Canada, within the Atlantic Provinces and Newfoundland, the basement folds are oriented differently - from southwest to northeast. This change in orientation is associated with the presence of ancient mountains that already existed at the time when mountain-building movements began in the adjacent territory. The highest altitudes (approx. 1330 m) in this area are the Chicchok and Notre Dame mountains in the Gaspé region in Quebec. Other greatly reduced ancient folded mountains are located in the provinces of Nova Scotia and New Brunswick, but there their peaks do not exceed 450 m. The river basin. St. Lawrence. The most geomorphologically interesting part of southeastern Canada is undoubtedly the St. Lawrence, where the earth's crust has the most complex structure. The ancient folded structures of the Appalachian Mountains here extend along the southern border of the shield, and in the depression separating them, along which the St. River flows. Lawrence, the earth's crust still retains clear signs of faulting and crumpling as a result of geological processes that occurred in the past. Small earthquakes occur more frequently here than in other areas of Canada, indicating that the Earth's crust is still shifting within an ancient weakened zone.
Valleys of Quebec. Interesting landforms can be observed in the province of Quebec, where relatively small areas earth's surface descended along the faults below regional level surfaces. Many valleys in the vicinity of Quebec City are such grabens. The depression occupied by the lake has a similar origin. Saint-Jean in the upper reaches of the Saguenay River.
Hudson Bay region. The most low-lying part of Canada is located west of Hudson Bay. In the distant past they penetrated there sea ​​waters(note that the entire trough has a characteristic orientation for a crystalline shield from northwest to southeast). Basement troughs of similar extent are also found in the Fox Basin, Baffin Island, and Smith Sound. Hudson Bay itself, despite its vast size, is characterized by shallow waters and low, gently sloping shores, especially in the southwest. The Great Lakes represent the largest reservoir of fresh water in the world and are unmatched anywhere except Africa. These lakes, despite their large size, receive quite a few rivers. The area of ​​their drainage basins is small, since the watershed line on the northern and southern sides of the lakes runs quite close to the shore, especially near the cities of Longlac (Ontario) and Erie (Pennsylvania, USA). Lakes Michigan, Huron, Erie and Ontario are located in deep depressions, partly carved out by ancient ice sheets. Lake Superior is located in a depression between the Canadian Shield and the cuesta, which impedes the flow of water in the southeast of the lake basin. The existence of the hall is explained in a similar way. Georgian Bay in the northeast of the lake. Huron. The basin of this bay is located within the Canadian Shield and is almost completely separated from the main water area of ​​the lake by the Brus Peninsula and Manitoulin Island.
Northwestern Ontario. Nowhere in the world can you find so many small lakes and intricately winding rivers as in northwestern Ontario. This area, located on the southern edge of the Canadian Shield, is a curious combination of very ancient and very young geological formations. The exposed surface of the shield is over 500 million years old, and the glacial deposits covering it accumulated here during the melting of the last ice sheet only 15 thousand years ago. They largely determine the appearance of the modern relief. The deposition of glacial material - the main moraine - occurred extremely unevenly on the undulating surface of the shield; Rain and glacial melt water accumulated in small depressions, forming lakes, which were then connected by winding rivers. Over time, the river network acquires a more ordered structure, and most lake basins are filled with sediment or completely drained. However, the people themselves, without waiting for the completion of these slowly occurring natural processes, made noticeable changes in the hydrographic network. For example, north of the lake. Nipigon, in the upper reaches of the Ogoki River, which previously carried its waters to Hudson Bay, a large dam was erected, and the river waters rushed through the canal into the lake. Upper.
Manitoba. Lake Winnipeg in Manitoba lies on the western edge of the shield, where extensive granite massifs strike northwest. Several thousand years ago, the entire southern part of Manitoba was covered by the waters of the vast periglacial Lake Agassiz; from the north it was dammed by the edge of the ice sheet. The silt deposited in this periglacial lake now forms the parent rock on which fertile soils develop. Runoff from Lake Agassiz was directed south through the Red River Valley, which inherited one of four major structural troughs. At a time when the ice sheet in the north melted, the lake acquired a flow to the north. All modern lakes in this area - Winnipeg, Winnipegosis and Manitoba - also flow to the north.
Saskatchewan. Along the western edge of the Canadian Shield there is a scarp formed by a younger structure superimposed on older granite rocks of the shield. This entire structure is known to geologists under the name "Paleozoic Cuesta", and its individual parts bear the names of the Riding, Duck and Porcupine mountains. To the west of them lies the relatively flat surface of the prairie plateau, which occupies most of the territory of the province of Saskatchewan. This is the raised bottom of the Cretaceous sea, which once (more than 140 million years ago) covered this territory. If you travel from the southwestern tip of Saskatchewan to the northwest, i.e. along the strike of the main structural lines, the surface of the plateau rises noticeably - to elevations of more than 600 m at the top of the second major cuesta - the Missouri ledge.
Northwest Territories. The Paleozoic cuesta continues from the Porcupine Mountains to the northwest and eventually reaches the shores of the Arctic Ocean north of Great Bear Lake. In places along the northwestern edge of the Canadian Shield, the relief of the cuesta impeded runoff and contributed to the creation of dammed lakes. This explains the presence of a long arm of Great Slave Lake extending to the north, as well as the formation (at least partially) of a structural depression containing Great Bear Lake. In the relief of the Northwest Territories there are numerous linear depressions of northwest strike; One of the most striking examples is the Mackenzie River valley.
Alberta. West of the Missouri Escarpment in Alberta, the surface gradually rises to 900 m at the foot of the Rocky Mountains. Here, older rocks are thrust over the deposits of the Cretaceous Sea, and from here begins a sharp increase in heights and a transition to mountainous terrain.
British Columbia. If we describe the relief of the province of British Columbia in general outline, first of all, we should highlight a vast intermountain basin with a width of approx. 480 km, the bottom of which is raised approximately 900 m above sea level; it extends from southeast to northwest and is bordered by mountain ranges 3000 m or more high. The Selkirk Mountains, which stretch between these ridges in the southeastern part of the province, somewhat complicate the picture. They close the basin from the south, connecting with the Coast Range near Penticton (near the US border). Cutting into the bottom of the basin, the rivers form deep canyons, especially pronounced along the Fraser River. The same geological forces that created the mountain ranges led to the formation of deep synclinal troughs, now occupied by the valleys of large rivers (Fraser, Columbia, Kootenay, etc.). This area was also repeatedly covered by glaciers and, in addition, experienced the impact of tectonic uplifts. As a result, a complex lenich topography was formed. The highest peak in the area is Mount Waddington (4012 m) in the Coast Range 300 km northwest of Vancouver. The highest peak in the Rocky Mountains, Mount Robson, reaches 3954 m. Many other peaks exceed 3000 m. Similar heights are also found in the Selkirk Mountains, where several large valley glaciers descend along the valleys of the Khomatko and Klinaklini rivers. There are several passes in the Rocky Mountains: Kicking Horse (1627 m), home to the Canadian Pacific Railway; Yellowhead (1133 m) and Crowsnest (1356 m). One of the lowest mountain passes - along the Peace River valley with a height of only 610 m - is little used due to its inconvenient position: it is located too far to the north. Central British Columbia also has access to the sea through a relatively low-lying section of the Coast Range. This is a wide passage through which the Skeena River flows.
Yukon Territory. On both sides of the river. Prince Rupert Coast Range elevations increase. The highest part is confined to the southwestern corner of the Yukon Territory, where the city of Logan rises to 5959 m, and located nearby on the border with Alaska, the city of St. Elijah reaches an altitude of 5489 m. The northern extension of the Rocky Mountains within the Yukon Territory, Mount Pelly and Mackenzie, have only a few peaks exceeding 2700 m.
CLIMATE
Temperature. On the territory of such a vast country as Canada, the distribution of temperatures depends not only on geographic latitude, but also on the orographic factor, i.e. positions in relief. Coastal areas are characterized by slight temperature fluctuations, having the so-called. maritime climate, while the interior parts of the country, especially in the north, are characterized by a continental climate with sharp temperature fluctuations. The climate on the west coast of Canada is milder than on the east. Summer temperatures differ little throughout the country, while the differences in winter temperatures between the coastal and inland regions reach almost 34 ° C. The severity of the continental climate is created not so much by cold summers as by very cold winters. The distribution of modern temperatures in Canada shows a general pattern: areas equidistant from the equator have similar temperatures. Nevertheless, the thermal regime of individual areas also reflects the influence of mountains or vast water areas. In mountainous areas, the climate is usually colder, and the temperature there decreases by about 0.6 ° C with an increase for every 100 m; and if masses of warm air from the tropical regions of the ocean do not penetrate into the highlands, a polar climate is established there. Hudson Bay is almost completely frozen in January and has no warming effect on the adjacent land. The only area of ​​Canada where temperatures remain above 0°C in January is the southwest coast near Vancouver. In summer, the configuration of isotherms is approximately the same as in winter, but temperature gradients between the south and north of the country are smoother. Throughout Canada, except for some Arctic islands covered with glaciers, summer temperatures are significantly above 0° C, and in most of the country it exceeds 10° C, which predetermines the development of fairly heat-loving vegetation. Since the average summer isotherm of 14° C in some places extends beyond the Arctic Circle and reaches Victoria Island, favorable conditions arise for a significant movement of some agricultural crops to the north. Annual temperature ranges in north-central Canada reach 35° C. This vast area between Hudson Bay and Great Slave Lake north of 60° N latitude. has a sharply continental climate. The rest of the country is dominated by a continental climate with annual temperature ranges of less than 28° C. The maritime climate appears only on the coast of British Columbia and in the basin of the St. Lawrence.
Precipitation. Based on the amount of precipitation in Canada, four regions can be distinguished. Thanks to the warming influence of the ocean, a lot of precipitation falls in the west and southeast of the country, while on the northern and northeastern shores, washed by cold waters, the amount of precipitation is small. The increased moisture supply in the St. Lawrence River valley is explained by the fact that it is here that descending polar air masses, passing over Hudson Bay, meet warm air masses moving from the Gulf of Mexico and Florida. A similar phenomenon is observed on the Pacific coast, where a lot of precipitation falls everywhere - 1500-2000 mm/year, and in some areas of Vancouver Island - over 5000 mm. With distance from the coast, the amount of precipitation decreases rapidly, and in the longitudinal valleys of British Columbia, stretching for long distances from north to south, there are even areas with desert vegetation. The slopes of mountains located further inland (for example, the Selkirk or Rocky Mountains) also receive precipitation, but much less than the Coast Ranges, since the warm air masses penetrating there have already lost most of their original moisture content. At the contact between polar and tropical air masses Heavy rainfall occurs on the Pacific coast. In these places, cyclones form, which then move east at a speed of approx. 800 km per day; At the same time, flows of cold air are drawn in from the north, and warm air from the south, so the passage of a cyclone is usually accompanied by heavy rains. There are two relatively dry regions within Canada. One of them is in the far north, the other in the southwest of the prairies. Much more important, however, are areas of moderate moisture, receiving from 300 to 380 mm of precipitation per year. In hot countries with high evaporation, this amount of precipitation would not be enough for the development of agriculture, but in Canada it is usually quite possible to grow many crops. Thus, farming is possible throughout almost the entire territory of Canada, except for the driest areas. The development of agriculture is complicated where precipitation occurs extremely unevenly, with large annual fluctuations (there are areas where about 300 mm of rain can fall one year, and only 130 mm the next). Climatically, there is a zone of fairly significant moisture (on average about 380 mm of precipitation per year), extending from Lake. Winnipeg to the west, towards Edmonton (Alberta) and the Rocky Mountains. Unlike the main territory of the United States, where the humid areas of the eastern part of the country are separated from the Pacific coast by deserts and semi-deserts, the central regions of Canada are sufficiently provided with moisture and are favorable for the development of agriculture.
Seasonal precipitation regime. Since precipitation is usually associated with intrusions of warm and moist air masses, it is natural that maximum precipitation in inland Canada occurs during summer months. It is interesting, however, to note that on the coast of Hudson Bay the onset of the warm period is delayed due to the long-lasting ice cover and low water temperatures. As a result, maximum precipitation here occurs in August - September, and not in June - July, as in central Canada. On the southwest coast of British Columbia, more liquid precipitation falls in winter than in summer, since polar air masses penetrate here only in winter.
Summer in the Arctic. The polar summer day is of great importance for the development of the northern regions of Canada. The length of daylight near the Arctic Circle (at Great Bear Lake) varies from 24 hours on June 21 to zero hours on December 21. Somewhat further south, in areas of pioneer development, for example in the basins of the Peace and upstream Mackenzie River, in the warm season from May to August, during the growing season of such important crops as wheat, oats and potatoes, the sun shines from 15 to 20 hours a day. Such a long day largely compensates for the very unfavorable winter conditions. The amount of solar energy received by plants per day on June 21 varies little at different latitudes, for example in Toronto (43° N) and Aklavik (66° N), while in winter the temperature difference in these points reaches 24° WITH.
Snow. In general, not much snow falls in Canada during the year. The heaviest snowfalls occur in humid areas, and in the north of the flat part of the country approximately 1000 mm of snow falls per year, which is approx. 100 mm in terms of water. The relief features and slope exposure are of great importance. The Selkirk Mountains, exposed to moist winds from the Pacific Ocean, receive more solid precipitation than the higher, but more distant Rocky Mountains. The eastern provinces of Canada are less mountainous and relatively drier; Here, in northern Newfoundland and in Quebec northwest of Anticosti Island, more than 3000 mm of snow falls. Snow is often important for farming. In particular, it is thanks to heavy winter snowfall that winter wheat can be grown in Ontario; The thermal insulation properties of snow allow seeds to remain in the soil, despite low temperatures on a surface. Snow cover facilitates logging: in winter, felled logs are transported along sled roads to rivers and then floated to pulp mills.
SOILS
Although many important properties of soils depend to some extent on the nature of the underlying rocks, the main factor determining soil quality is climate, especially the amount of heat and moisture. The second factor, which in turn largely depends on the climate, is natural vegetation. Dead plants or their parts, when decomposed, form humus, which makes up the upper soil horizon, on which the fertility of soils of any type depends. Thus, the distribution of soil zones in Canada depends on such climatic indicators as low temperatures in the north, dry interior areas and increased moisture on the coasts.
Podzols. Podzolic soils are the most common in Canada. Their profile is characterized by the presence of a light-colored eluvial horizon several centimeters thick. Its thickness increases to 5-30 cm in areas where there is particularly high precipitation (more than 1500 mm), for example on the coasts. Podzols develop where there is a humid climate for a long time and sufficient precipitation. a large number of liquid precipitation that “washes” the soil. Under these conditions, soluble compounds necessary for plant nutrition occur from the soil. Therefore, podzols, as a rule, are of low fertility. Under conditions of heavy rainfall and fairly low temperatures, the development of raised bogs and the accumulation of sphagnum peats, typical of northern Canada, also occur. Podzolic soils predominate in the tundra and in the vast zone located to the south coniferous forests. In a forest, a thin layer of plant residues (litter) is usually present on the soil surface, and a light-colored podzolic horizon is almost always developed under it. Lower along the profile - at a depth of 30 cm or more - an illuvial horizon is distinguished, in which soluble iron compounds and fine particles washed out from the surface horizons accumulate.
Chernozems. In areas where there is less precipitation and it mainly occurs in the summer, and temperatures are higher, special soils are formed - chernozems, one of the most fertile in the world. In these areas, coniferous forests give way to vast open spaces of prairie. Here, there is no removal of soluble salts important for plants from the soil, and the gradual decomposition of dying herbaceous vegetation contributes to the continuous replenishment of humus reserves in the surface horizon. These fertile soils are extremely favorable for agriculture. The area of ​​their distribution forms a triangle in plan, at the vertices of which are the cities of Winnipeg, Edmonton and Calgary.
Chestnut soils. Where there is less than 330-360 mm of precipitation per year, insufficient moisture prevents the formation of a large amount of humus and the soil has a chestnut color. They are somewhat inferior in fertility to chernozems, but are nevertheless widely used for agriculture. In the chestnut soil zone, agricultural crops produce good yields in wetter years, but in dry years, when precipitation falls below average, crop failure is possible. Very high yields can be obtained with the help of irrigation. To the south, where there is even less rainfall and summer temperatures are even higher than in the chestnut soil zone, the soils acquire a grayish tint. Sodium salts, carbonates and gypsum accumulate in their lower horizons; during rains, these soluble compounds are transported down the profile, and in the dry season they are pulled together with groundwater to the surface, where they are deposited, creating in places a surface crust of sodium salts and gypsum. There are no real sandy deserts in Canada, and such areas have a very limited distribution. These include the southern edges of Saskatchewan and Alberta, where annual precipitation is very low and rivers often end in dry salt lakes.
VEGETATION
Canada's vegetation, like its soils, shows a clear dependence on climate. The largest divisions of vegetation cover are the tundra zone, located in the north of the continent, and the vast zone of coniferous forests, known as taiga.
Tundra. This area, which occupies the northern coast and islands of the Canadian Arctic Archipelago, is often called “barren grounds”, which creates a misconception about the nature of the vegetation. For example, in the Tuktoyaktuk region, located 400 km north of the Arctic Circle, in the summer the soil is completely hidden under the cover of various herbaceous plants and shrubs. In the tundra, in the ravines, dwarf willows up to 90 cm high grow in abundance; dwarf birches, which do not exceed 15 cm in height, are also common. In the summer you can see entire lawns of flowering lupins, daisies, chistets, as well as clumps of buttercups, wintergreens, dryads and other plants . Primrose, wild rosemary, fireweed and cranberry participate significantly in the plant cover, along with a variety of sedges and grasses. It is this vegetation that constitutes the main food of caribou, large herds of which graze in these areas. The snow cover here is thin, so even in winter it is not difficult for these animals to get food.
Taiga. The term is traditionally applied to the coniferous forests that occupy much of mainland Canada. The taiga zone stretches across the entire country from northwest to east in the form of a strip more than 1,100 km wide and 4,000 km long. The central sector of this zone, where the predominant species is black spruce, is bordered on the south by a strip mixed forests, where aspen is found somewhat more often than spruce, but many geographers classify these forests as taiga. Traditionally, the taiga zone also includes spruce forests that grow in wide valleys in the Yukon Territory. The northern border of the taiga zone, where low-growing spruce trees grow, has uneven outlines; forests penetrate river valleys further to the north than on the flat interfluves. This border in the valleys of the Mackenzie, Anderson and Coppermine rivers reaches 69°N. in the heights surrounding Great Bear Lake, extends to the Arctic Circle, and nearby the hall. James on the Labrador Peninsula reaches 55°N. The main factor determining the position of the northern border of the taiga is the July temperature, since for trees to grow a temperature of at least 10°C is required. The southern border of the taiga zone runs approximately from Edmonton through Winnipeg to Quebec; its position is determined by another climatic indicator. It has been established that areas where temperatures exceed 6° C for more than 5.5 months a year are unfavorable for the growth of coniferous species. In these areas, tree vegetation is represented mainly by broad-leaved species such as maple and oak. However, if annual precipitation is less than 500 mm, as is the case in the central part of the continent, broad-leaved forests give way to steppes or prairies. Winnipeg occupies a special place in the botanical geography of Canada: the taiga extends to the north of it; to the southeast the climate is humid enough for maple, hemlock and oak to grow; to the west are drier prairie areas. While spruce dominates the northern taiga forests and even invades the tundra in separate tongues, to the south, American larch and White birch. Balsam poplar is also found up to the northern border of the taiga, everywhere except central Quebec. Banks pine, balsam fir, mountain ash, cedar, and Weymouth and pitch pines are native to the northern taiga, but the northern limits of their ranges vary because these species respond differently to temperatures. The southwestern part of the taiga zone is characterized by representatives of the poplar genus (Populus). Aspen is found throughout the taiga, and Canadian poplar is found only in its southwestern regions, which have a warmer climate. In the east, where there is more precipitation, sugar maple, hemlock and oak are more common on the southern edge of the taiga.
Forests of the Great Lakes region. Mixed forests predominate here, in which sugar maple is widespread; in the northeast, in the Ottawa area, the tree stand is dominated by birch, hemlock and Weymouth pine. North of the lake Huron birch, spruce and aspen are more common than sugar maple. Around Toronto, the forests were dominated by sugar maple and beech, but much of the area is now under cultivation. In the southeast of Quebec, spruce, fir, maple and birch are widely represented. The vegetation of a small forest area on the northern shore of the lake is very peculiar. Eri. This is the northern limit of the distribution of many tree species typical of the mainland United States, such as chestnut, tulipwood, hickory, forest nyssa, magnolia, pawpaw, scarlet and sassafras. Other species typical of the Great Lakes region are found in abundance, but conifers are very few in number.
Acadian forests. Many coniferous species, rare in the Great Lakes region, dominate in eastern Canada, in the so-called Acadian forests, common in the Maritime (Atlantic) provinces, where summers are cooler than in the interior of the mainland. The most common trees here are balsam fir, as well as black and red spruce. The vast swampy lowlands are home to cedar and American larch. On Prince Edward Island, maple is the most common species along with yellow birch, red spruce and beech. The most common conifers are pitch pine and black spruce. On Cape Breton Island the predominant species is balsam fir, and in the Halifax area it is red spruce. The prairie zone is located in the southwestern lowlands of Canada, where trees cannot thrive under conditions of prolonged dry periods. This area is divided into tallgrass and shortgrass prairie. The former are common where more than 360 mm of precipitation falls per year, and are characterized by the predominance of grasses of the genera Agropyron (wheatgrass) and Bromus (brome). In the shortgrass prairie, the main species are buteloua, keleria and feather grass.
British Columbia. The forests of British Columbia with its mountainous terrain are very distinctive. The Rocky Mountains are the eastern limit of the distribution of species such as Banks pine and American larch, but black and white spruce reach the middle reaches of the Fraser River. Engelmann spruce, hemlock, and lodgepole pine also grow in the forests of the Rocky Mountains. Ponderosa pine and Douglas fir are common in the forests of the intermountain basins of British Columbia, but other species of pines and aspen are also fairly common. Rainfall is so low that some desert plants, such as cacti, can grow here. The forests near the Pacific coast are home to some of Canada's most valuable tree species. Douglasia, which produces the bulk of lumber, sometimes reaches a height of 90 m. Virginia juniper and variegated hemlock are also found here. To the north another plant grows in abundance valuable breed trees - Sitka spruce, and in the extreme southwest, near Vancouver, where the climate is warm and humid, there are individual representatives of thermophilic species - madronya ( arbutus) and Oregon oak (the only species of oak found on the Pacific coast of Canada).
FAUNA
There are several faunal regions in Canada. The islands of the Canadian Arctic archipelago are home to polar bear, musk ox, reindeer (caribou), arctic fox and American hare. The most common birds in this area are the snowy owl, the gyrfalcon and the tundra partridge. For the Hudson Bay basin, where the vegetation is represented by northern taiga and temperatures even in July do not reach 14 ° C, wolverine and such predator birds, How great gray owl and the ruffed buzzard. The highlands of the western part of the country are inhabited by specific alpine species: snow goat, bighorn sheep, gray marmot, Canadian spruce grouse. Typical for the Algonquin region, adjacent to the Hudson Bay basin in the south, are the lynx, porcupine, and starfish, and among the birds - the white-necked sparrow bunting, the gray junco and the Canadian juck. The Assiniboine region corresponds to the prairie zone, where steppe animals are found - pronghorn, coyote, hare, badger. The Allegheny region, located in the extreme southeast of the country, includes the northern parts of the ranges of the blackbird, cat-tailed mockingbird, and bobolink.
POPULATION
According to statistics for 1997, the population of Canada is 30,286,600 people. During the 130 years of the federation, there was constant population growth, fueled by rapid economic development, a moderately high birth rate, and the influx of numerous immigrants; At times - mainly during periods of economic recession - the rate of population growth slowed. In the early 1900s, when the influx of immigrants was particularly large, the population growth rate reached 3% per year; during the Great Depression of the 1930s, growth fell to 1% per year. World War II and the postwar economic recovery contributed to both the birth rate and immigration; as a result, the country's population grew by 2.7% per year in the 1950s. The subsequent decade, the 1960s, was marked by a slowdown in growth (to an average of 1.7%) due to a sharp decline in the birth rate and a smaller influx of immigrants. In the 1970s, annual population growth dropped to 1.2% and remained at this level in the following decades of the 20th century.
Canada's population growth. The settlement of Canada, like the United States, was a direct result of European expansion that began in the 17th century. The number of inhabitants of the British Isles who left their homeland for the New World is estimated at 250 thousand in the 17th century. and 1.5 million people - in the 18th century. Of the 54 million who arrived in America between 1821 and 1932, most went to the United States, but more than 5 million settled in Canada. By 1860 there was virtually no free land left in the east of the country, and immigration declined until territories in the west became available for settlement. Over the next 40 years, the outflow of immigrants (mainly to the United States, where land was cheaper and wages were higher) exceeded the number of immigrants. A strong stream of immigrants flocked to Canada after the completion of the transcontinental Pacific Railroad (1885) and improved wheat sales (after 1895). From this time until the outbreak of the First World War, almost 3 million people arrived in Canada. Immigration peaked in 1913, when total arrivals amounted to 400,870 people, including 150 thousand from Great Britain, 140 thousand from the USA, and the rest from continental European countries. The massive influx of immigrants was partially offset by continued emigration, especially to the United States. From 1901 to 1911, 1,759 thousand people arrived in Canada, of whom emigrated during the same period. During the First World War the number of immigrants fell temporarily, but after 1920 their numbers began to rise and reached a new peak between 1926 and 1929 (although emigration was also significant during these years). With the onset of the Depression in the 1930s, there was a sharp decline in both immigration and emigration. After World War II, the rapid development of Canada's economy brought a significant influx of immigrants, which helped cope with the shortage work force caused by falling birth rates in the 1930s. Between the 1951 and 1961 censuses, Canada admitted 1,542,853 people. In 1957 alone, immigration amounted to 282 thousand people. In the late 1950s, when the economic recession set in, the rate of immigration fell sharply - to the level of 71,869 people in 1961, after which there was a rise again, to 222,876 people in 1967. On average, during the period 1964-1982, the annual number of immigrants was about 150 thousand people, and in these same years about 70 thousand people left the country annually. In the mid-1980s, immigration fell to 90 thousand people per year, but in the late 1990s it increased again and reached 190 thousand people per year. Of the three main factors influencing the size and composition of the population - fertility, mortality and migration - in Canada, fertility played the largest role; it was she who determined the population growth in the country after the formation of the confederation. During the first 100 years of its existence, Canada's population grew by 15 million people; of which 13 million were due to natural increase (i.e., the excess of birth rates over deaths). In just 10 years, from 1951 to 1961, the total natural population growth amounted to 3,150 thousand people.
Ethnic composition and origin. From an ethnic point of view, Canada is a unique entity. For many years, two cultures and two languages ​​coexisted here - the result of the struggle between England and France that took place in the early stages of colonization of the part of North America that was later destined to become Canada. The French were the first to explore this territory, and earlier than others they began to populate it and conduct trade here; after a century of rivalry and conflict with the British, the French Canadian population increased from 3,215 people in 1665 to approximately 70 thousand people in 1765. This growth was due to both natural increase and immigration; However, after 1670, the main reason for the rapid increase in the French Canadian population was the excess of births over deaths. By 1861, just before confederation, the population of Quebec, where most French Canadians lived, was 1,111,566. In 1763, when political control of Canada passed to Great Britain, the majority of the population did not speak English. And only after about 40 thousand “loyalists” from the American colonies moved here after the revolution, a fairly large group of the English-speaking population settled here. Soon after the formation of the confederation, British-born Canadians outnumbered French-Canadians. The British-born population was also not homogeneous. Until 1901, the Irish were the largest group; they were subsequently surpassed by the English and Scots. Of all the ethnic groups, the largest and most ethnically homogeneous group has almost always been the French; the British outnumbered them only twice, in 1921 and 1971. Although immigration from France virtually ceased, French Canadians, through natural increase alone, maintained their numbers at 30% of the total population of the country between the formation of confederation and 1991. Proportion of the population of British origin , however, fell relatively from 60% (of the total population of the country) in 1871 to 38% in 1991. During the same period, the proportion of the population belonging to ethnic groups other than British and French increased significantly, from 8% to 38 %, as a result of which modern Canada is an example of the coexistence of different cultures in one country. The third largest ethnic group in Canada is made up of people of Germanic descent. Immigrants from Germany settled near Halifax in Nova Scotia. Other groups of them, belonging to the Protestant sect of Mennonites, founded in the mid-19th century. the city of Berlin, now called Kitchener (Ontario), and in 1873 settled south of Winnipeg (Manitoba). As of 1991, the largest numbers of Canadians of German descent live in the provinces of Ontario, Alberta, British Columbia and Saskatchewan. Looking at the period of intense immigration to Canada in the early 1900s, almost a third of those arriving were immigrants from continental European countries, with a predominance of Germans and Slavs. It should be noted that the Russians and Ukrainians who moved to Canada, despite the similarity of their languages ​​and cultural traditions, preferred to settle more or less separately from each other. The 1991 census shows the greatest concentration of Russian-born populations in British Columbia, Ontario, and Alberta, while the areas of greatest concentration of Ukrainian descendants are concentrated in the provinces of Ontario, Alberta, and Manitoba. Russian religious sect Doukhobors settled in Saskatchewan. Later, a group of extremists emerged from the sect and took the name “Sons of Liberty”, which moved to the southeast of British Columbia. Descendants of immigrants from Poland live mainly in the province of Ontario and in the steppe provinces (Manitoba, Saskatchewan, Alberta). Descendants of immigrants from the Scandinavian countries and the Netherlands also live in the steppe provinces and in British Columbia (as of 1981). Jews and Italians live mainly in the cities of Ontario and Quebec. During the period of intensive railroad construction in the 1870s and 1880s, the Chinese arrived in British Columbia. In 1896, immigration from Japan began, mainly to British Columbia, and at the beginning of the 20th century. Several thousand people from India moved to Canada. However, from this time until the end of the Second World War, immigration from Asia almost ceased as a result of the Canadian government's harsh immigration policies. This changed in the mid-1980s, and since then Asian immigrants have dominated the overall immigration flow. The most numerous immigrants are from India, Hong Kong and Vietnam. In 1995, about 593 thousand Indians and 36 thousand Eskimos (Inuit) lived in the country. The latter currently live mainly in the tundra zone on the continent, as well as on Baffin Island and the Hudson Bay Islands. The standard of living of both indigenous peoples is significantly lower than the national average, and their traditional way of life is undergoing drastic and irreversible changes. The Indians were forced either to retreat before the expanding colonization of their territory by whites, or to merge with them. About 60% of Indians now live on reservations, the number of which exceeds 2000, and the total area is about 2.5 million hectares. Many Indians, living both on and off reservations, mastered various professions and crafts. Their number in the 1990s was less than 2% of the country's total population. The Eskimos, who inhabit the northernmost regions of Canada, traditionally lead a nomadic lifestyle, but now an increasing number of them are moving to paid work and sedentary life. IN last years The number of Eskimo children attending school increased sharply. Fishing cooperatives, adapted to Eskimo traditions, successfully harvest and export char, a fish related to trout. Their carvings made from soapstone and other materials have received worldwide recognition.
Language. State languages in Canada they are English and French. The French-speaking population is concentrated in the province of Quebec, where in the 1991 census 80% of the population reported French as their mother tongue. In other provinces the native language is English language. As of 1991, 16% of the population speaks both French and English, 68% speaks only English and 15% speaks only French. Of those who indicated French as their native language, 36% can speak both French and English; of those who consider English their native language, only 8% speak both languages. Although the number of French-speaking Canadians (who report French as their first language) continues to increase, their share of the population fell from 29% in 1941 to 24% in 1991. In contrast, the share of residents whose first language is English increased over the same time from 56 % to 61%. This is partly due to the fact that newly arrived immigrants settled mainly in English-speaking provinces and preferred to study English as their main language. Of other languages, the most common are Italian (according to 1991, native to 1.9% of the population), Chinese (1.8%), German (1.7%), Portuguese (0.8%), Polish (0.7 %), Ukrainian (0.7%), Spanish (0.7%), Dutch (0.5%) and Punjabi (0.5%). In 1969, the House of Commons passed the Official Languages ​​Act, according to which in all territorial districts where the French-speaking population is at least 10%, French should be used in public institutions on an equal basis with English.
Religion. Among the ten largest (by number of believers) religious groups, the Roman Catholic Church should be mentioned, to which 45.2% of the population belongs; United Church, which includes Methodists, Presbyterians and Congregationalists (11.3%); Anglican Church (8%); Baptists (2.4%); non-United Church Presbyterians (2.3%); Lutheran (2.3%); Pentecostals (1.6%); Orthodox (1.4%); Jews (1.1%) and Muslims (0.9%).
Population distribution. Most of Canada's population is concentrated along the Canada-US border. This latitudinal zone irregular shape in some places it forms “protrusions” to the north, corresponding to areas with the most favorable topography, soils and climate. In 1991, 62% of the population lived in the provinces of Quebec and Ontario. The country's initial dominance of the rural population gradually decreased as a result of the process of urbanization until a balance was established between the numbers of rural and urban residents in the 1920s. However, even after this, the population movement from rural areas to cities continued, as a result of which by 1971 the share of the urban population increased to 76%. After 1971, the trend reversed - people began to move from the city to the countryside more residents than from village to city. By 1981, the rural population was growing almost twice as fast as the urban population, largely as a result of internal migration. The level of urbanization varies across provinces: for example, in 1991, in the province of Ontario, about 82% of the population was classified as urban, while in the province of Prince Edward Island, urban residents accounted for only 40% of the population. The number of farmers and their families was constantly declining, by the end of the 20th century. it made up less than 4% of the country's population (most of them lived in Alberta, Manitoba, Saskatchewan).
Population structure. In 1991 average age was 33.5 years. The proportion of the population over 65 years of age more than doubled, from 4.1% in 1881 to 11.6% in 1991. The ratio of the older age group to the working age group (15 to 64 years of age) increased slightly in the 1970s and 1980s years, reaching 17% or more in 1991 (in 1961 it was 13%). By age structure Canada's population is similar to European countries, where the population under 15 years of age makes up no more than a fifth. Population growth due to immigration in the early 20th century. (and among immigrants there has always been more men than women) led to the fact that the proportion of men in the population was higher than if the increase in numbers had occurred only due to natural increase. In 1911, there were 112.9 men per 100 women. Gradually this disproportion decreased. By 1976, the total number of women in the country's population exceeded the number of men. A disproportionate number of men (117 per 100 women) remained in rural areas. In cities, on the contrary, the number of women was greater.
Cities. By the time of the formation of the confederation, the level of urbanization in Canada exceeded the world average at that time - 7% of Canadians were residents of cities with a population of at least 20 thousand people. By 1901, five cities had populations of more than 50 thousand people, and Montreal and Toronto exceeded 200 thousand people. By 1921, Canada had 11 cities with a population of more than 50 thousand people. In 1991, 77% of the country's population lived in cities, and 61% lived in the 25 major metropolitan areas (metropolitan areas). The largest city in terms of population - 3,893,046 people according to the 1991 census - is Toronto, which “overtook” Montreal according to the 1976 census. Montreal with its suburbs numbered (in 1991) 3,127,242 people. The process of population concentration in especially large cities continues. In 1961, about 25% of the population were residents of cities with a population of at least 500 thousand people; by 1991, large cities already accounted for 48% of the population. The suburbs of big cities are growing even faster than the cities themselves. For example, if we consider the Montreal agglomeration, then in 1961 the city itself accounted for 56% of the total population of the agglomeration; in subsequent years, this share fell to 44% in 1971, to 35% in 1981 and to 33% by 1991. In the Toronto metropolitan area, the share of the central city population was 37% in 1961, 27% in 1971, 20% in 1981 and 16% in 1991. The outflow of population from the center of Montreal occurred between 1966 and 1981, and Toronto - between 1971 and 1981. Montreal is located at the confluence of the St. Lawrence and Ottawa rivers, 1600 km from the ocean; until the completion of the deep sea route along the St. River in 1959. Lawrence, it was the final destination of many sea transport lines. Its advantageous strategic location has made it one of the most important inland ports, and since the fur trade in the early stages of colonization, Montreal has always been the country's largest commercial, industrial and cultural center. It is the second largest city in the world where the official language is French. Toronto is also a leading trade and financial center by volume industrial production it is second only to Montreal. In 1793 it was made the capital of Upper Canada, and in 1834 it was given city status. It was originally settled by immigrants from Great Britain, but since the end of the Second World War the city has acquired the characteristics of a multicultural entity. Toronto and Montreal occupy a leading position - one in the west, the other in the east - in a chain of cities stretching from Windsor, Ontario to Quebec City. The narrow strip of land on which the string of cities are located occupies only 2% of Canada's area, but more than half the country's population is concentrated here and 13 of the 25 urban agglomerations are located here. The capital of the country, Ottawa, forms a single agglomeration with the city of Hull located on the other side of the Ottawa River. The third largest urban agglomeration is the Vancouver metropolitan area, one of the country's most important seaports. Even before the construction of the Panama Canal, it was a very important transport hub, where railway and sea ​​routes; After the canal was completed in 1914, a more convenient route opened for traders in western Canada to Europe and the ports of the Atlantic coast of North America. When the transcontinental railroad was built (completed in 1885), Winnipeg became important, serving as the main gateway to the West. However, as the western lands were settled and developed, Winnipeg began to yield in size and importance to Edmonton and Calgary. It is expected that further development of Canada's resources, especially oil and natural gas, will lead to faster economic development and urban population growth in the west of the country compared to the east.

Collier's Encyclopedia. - Open Society. 2000 .

Canada is located in the north of North America, so the climate there is quite harsh. In winter, temperatures in some regions can drop to −45 °C, and snow accumulates in snowdrifts up to 3 meters high and higher. Only the coast of British Columbia has a mild climate, temperate in winter, and hot and humid in summer.

Such climate features have shaped northern in terms of the composition and number of species, the nature of Canada, whose remarkable feature is the preservation of the original, pre-technological biodiversity.

Flora of Canada

Canada's vegetation is mainly a world of tundra and taiga. In the tundra, which stretches across the north of the country (except for the areas of snowy white deserts on the polar islands) and penetrating south along the western coast of the Hudson, dwarf birches and willows grow, the clearings are sown with lupins, daisies and buttercups, primrose and cereals, and heather. Large and very healthy northern cranberries are scattered throughout the wetlands.

The Canadian taiga, stretching from northwest to east for 4 thousand kilometers, mainly consists of black spruce and aspen in the east and white spruce, pines, larches, and thujas in the west. There are also forests of common spruce (Yukon, western Canada), oak groves, maples, white birches, cedar, larches, and rowan trees.

The Great Lakes region is dominated by mixed forests with maples, birches, beeches, Weymouth pine, chestnuts, fir, spruce, aspen, magnolia, hickory, forest nyssa, and Canadian tsugami.

In the southwest of the taiga, different types of poplar grow; in the east, in areas of high humidity, sugar maple, tsuga, and oaks grow. Prince Island is home to picturesque forests of red spruce, beech, maple and yellow birch.

The Pacific coast is inhabited by Douglas and Sitka firs, red and Alaskan cedar. In the Vancouver area there are strawberry trees and Oregon oaks. The Atlantic provinces are home to Acadian forests of balsam fir, red and black spruce, American larch, cedar, beech and yellow birch.

Wildlife of Canada

The Canadian tundra zone has become home to reindeer, lemmings, polar hares, arctic foxes, and musk oxen. Musk oxen are also able to live in Arctic regions, withstanding severe frosts and winds under the protection of thick dark wool.

As you move south, there are more animals; in the forests you can find forest caribou, elk, and wapiti red deer. The mountains are home to bighorn goats and bighorn sheep.

Canada's forests are extremely populated by rodents. Everywhere - Canadian chikari squirrels, beavers, American flying squirrels, jerboas, spiny porcupines, muskrats, American and meadow hares, pikas.

The Canadian world of predators is also representative, in which there are cougars and Canadian lynxes, gray grizzly bears, wolves, foxes, raccoons, coyotes, gray wild cats (considered endemic animals), sables, otters, pecans, wolverines.

In addition to grizzly bears - the most aggressive and dangerous among bears, in Canada you can find smaller brown bears (Pacific coast), black bears and even white bears, which are tirelessly protected by the state due to their small numbers.

Wildlife is so well protected by the state and the residents themselves that it is gradually penetrating into cities. In many areas of Canada, it is common to see wild rabbits running around city lawns and parks, excellently replacing cats in urban areas.

As a northern and maritime country, Canada is famous for its bird diversity - 451 species of birds live there. There are especially many beautiful loons, great blue herons, and wild Canada geese on its territory.

Colonies of Atlantic petrels (“sea parrots”) nest on the islands, and northern cormorants nest on the cliffs of the East Coast. The beauty of Canada's nature is golden eagles, ruby ​​hummingbirds, and Canada geese. Tundra and white partridges and snowy owls live or nest in the Arctic.

Canada is called the “Klondike” for fishermen. Thousands of lakes and rivers are filled with fish - pike, perch, trout, carp. There are a lot of largemouth bass, lake trout growing up to 20 kilograms, and freshwater muskellunge in the reservoirs.

Most of Canada is a hilly plain, bounded to the east and west by mountain peaks along the coast of the Pacific and Atlantic oceans. In the west of the country, the mountainous country of the Cordillera stretches along the Pacific coast (the width of the mountain belt is about 600 km). The Canadian Cordillera begins with a series of mountain ranges on the border with Alaska (Ogilvie Range, Mackenzie, Pelly, Cassiar), reaching an altitude of 2000–2700 m. From the Layard River basin, the Rocky Mountains go south, which are divided by river valleys into two meridionally located ridge; their western slopes are covered with coniferous forests, their eastern slopes are bare and rocky; individual peaks exceed 4000 m in height. The western ridge is called in the northern part of Mount Caribou; to the south it is divided into separate branches (Golden Mountains, Selkirk and Purcell). West of the Rocky Mountains lies the volcanic plateau of the Fraser and Columbia Rivers. The Pacific Coast Mountains also consist of two meridionally running ridges, separated by a longitudinal valley, in the southern part flooded by the sea. The highest sections of the western mountain belt in the south are the coastal islands of Vancouver, Queen Charlotte, etc., and in the north, on the border with Alaska, they end in the wide massifs of the St. Elias and Logan mountains (5959 m, the highest point in Canada), covered with powerful glaciers , going down to the sea.
Along the Atlantic coast there are low mountain ranges that continue the Appalachian Mountains of the United States. These include the hills east of Quebec, the Notre Dame Mountains on the right bank of the river. St. Lawrence, the Shikshok massif in the north of the Gaspé Peninsula, the Kibkid Mountains, running in a latitudinal direction from the northeastern corner of the Bay of Fundy, and the heights of New Brunswick, cut through the valley of the Saint John River. The height of these mountains does not exceed 700 m. The surface of Newfoundland Island is elevated (height up to 805 m).
North of the St. River Lawrence and Lake Superior, the vast region of the Canadian Shield extends to the shores of the Arctic Ocean - a low country composed of hard crystalline rocks (granites, gneisses and schists). Its modern surface bears clear traces of geologically recent glaciation - curly rocks processed by ice (“ram’s foreheads”), numerous lakes, fast rapids rivers, and a thin soil layer. The Labrador Peninsula is characterized by bare rocky hills and cliffs. Along the southern and western coasts of Hudson Bay, the elevation does not exceed 200 m; to the east and closer to Lake Superior, the terrain rises, but not higher than 500 m, and only in the eastern part of Labrador do the Torngat Mountains rise. A strip of lowland stretches along the northern coast of Canada, extending far into the continent along the Mackenzie River. To the west of the Canadian Shield to the meridional belt of the Rocky Mountains there is a plain, wide in the south and tapering towards the Mackenzie River basin. Towards the mountains, it rises in a series of steps: on the first of them (height 200–400 m) lie lakes Manitoba, Winnipeg, Winnipegosis, the height of the second is 400–700 m, the third is formed by the Coto de Missouri plateau (height up to 1000 m.). Near the southern border of Canada lie the flat-topped Wooded and Cypress Mountains, 1000–1100 m high.

Soils

In Canada, the most common soils are podzolic soils, which are usually infertile. They predominate in the tundra and the vast zone of coniferous forests located to the south. In areas where there is less precipitation, and it occurs mainly in the summer, highly fertile chernozems are formed, unusually suitable for agriculture (the Winnipeg-Edmonton-Calgary triangle). Coniferous forests give way to vast prairies. Where there is less than 330–360 mm of precipitation per year, chestnut soils are formed, which are widely used in agriculture. High yields here can be obtained in wet years and with the help of irrigation. To the south, grayish soils are common, characteristic of arid regions.

Water resources of Canada: lakes, oceans, rivers

Most of Canada's rivers belong to the Atlantic and Arctic oceans; significantly fewer rivers flow into the Pacific Ocean. The most significant river is the navigable river St. Lawrence with numerous tributaries (Ottawa, Saguiney, Saint-Maurice, Manicouagan, etc.). It connects the Great Lakes basin to the Atlantic Ocean. The Saskatchewan River flows into Lake Winnipeg, from where the river flows. Nelson, flowing into Hudson Bay. The Churchill River also flows there. The Athabasca and Peace Rivers merge into the Slave River, which is a tributary of Great Slave Lake. From it flows the mighty Mackenzie River, which flows into the Northern Arctic Ocean. Its basin extends far into the Rocky Mountains. The Fraser River, as well as the Yukon and Columbia rivers partially passing through Canada, flow into the Pacific Ocean.
Canada is one of the richest countries in the world with lakes. On the border with the United States are the Great Lakes (Superior, Huron, Erie, Ontario), connected by small rivers in huge swimming pool with an area of ​​more than 240 thousand square meters. km. Less significant lakes lie on the territory of the Canadian Shield (Great Bear, Great Slave, Athabasca, Winnipeg, Winnipegosis), etc. Among the powerful waterfalls is the famous Niagara on the border with the United States.

Canadian Climate: Temperature. Winter

Due to the large latitudinal extent and topography, Canada's climate is extremely diverse. A number of climatic regions can be distinguished, from cold in the north to mild-temperate on the Pacific coast. main feature climate - its continentality, sharp transitions between extreme types of weather: hot summer and cold winter. The cold zone contains the Polar Archipelago, the large northern part of the Mackenzie River basin, and the northern half of the Labrador Peninsula. The annual temperatures of the cold zone are 5–10°, the ground is covered with snow most of the year and freezes to great depths. Summers are short and cold, precipitation (mostly in solid form) is insignificant. To the south, in the area of ​​the middle reaches of the Mackenzie, the climate becomes somewhat less severe; precipitation approx. 400–500 mm. in year. In southern Canada, average winter and summer temperatures are increasing, but daily temperature ranges reach 20–25 degrees.
The climate of the Great Lakes and St. Laurentia is moderately warm; winters are characterized by abundant precipitation and frequent snow storms. Precipitation increases towards the Atlantic Ocean. On the Atlantic coast, winters are milder, but summers are cool; fogs are frequent. The Pacific coast has mild, rainy winters and cool summers. The area near Vancouver is the only one where temperatures remain above 0° in January. There is a lot of precipitation on the Pacific coast - 1500–2000 mm per year, and on Vancouver Island - St. 5000).
On the plateau between the Rocky Mountains in the east and the Coastal Mountains in the west, the climate is sharply continental - harsh winters give way to hot summers, and the amount of precipitation is insignificant. The strip between Lake Winnipeg, Edmonton and the Rockies receives approx. 380 mm of precipitation per year. The upper reaches of the Yukon experience some of the coldest winter temperatures in all of North America (minus 60°).

Flora of Canada. Forests

The polar islands are located in a zone whose surface is covered with snow and glaciers that do not even melt short summer. Baffin Island and other islands off the northern coast of Canada are covered with tundra, which occupies the entire northern mainland of Canada, extending far to the south along the western coast of Hudson Bay and the Labrador Peninsula. Heathers, sedges, shrubby birch and willow grow here. South of the tundra between the Quiet and Atlantic Oceans there is a wide strip of forests. Coniferous forests predominate; the main species are black spruce in the east and white spruce in the west (in the valley of the Mackenzie River), pine, larch, thuja, etc. Less common deciduous forests consist of poplar, alder, birch and willow. Forests in the Great Lakes region are especially diverse (American elm, Weymouth pine, Canadian tsuga, oak, chestnut, beech). On the Pacific coast, coniferous forests of Douglas fir, Sitka spruce, Alaskan and red cedar are common); Arbutus and Oregon oak are found near Vancouver. In the coastal Atlantic provinces there are Acadian forests with balsam fir, black and red spruce; also cedar, American larch, yellow birch, beech.
South of the forest belt west of Lake Winnipeg to the foot of the Rocky Mountains is a prairie steppe zone, mostly plowed under wheat fields. Among the wild ones are wheatgrass, bromegrass, buteloua, keleria and feather grass.

Animal world

The tundra zone is home to reindeer, polar hare, lemming, arctic fox and the original musk ox. To the south, the fauna is more diverse - forest caribou, red elk, elk, and in mountainous areas - bighorn sheep and bighorn goats. Rodents are quite numerous: the Canadian chikari squirrel, chipmunk, American flying squirrel, beaver, jumper from the jerboa family, muskrat, porcupine, meadow and American hare, pika. Of the feline predators for Canada - Canadian lynx and a puma. There are wolves, foxes, gray bears - grizzlies, and raccoons. Mustelidae include sable, pecan, otter, wolverine, etc. There are many nesting migratory birds and game birds. The fauna of reptiles and amphibians is not rich. There are a lot of fish in freshwater waters.

The material explains what causes quite low level development of economic activities in the country. Explains the similarities between Russia and Canada. Gives an idea of ​​the minerals that make up the natural resource potential of the state.

Nature of Canada

The country is one of the largest territories in terms of area in the world. The fascinating and wonderful nature attracts travelers who dream of plunging into the world of Canadian wildlife.

The country's natural reserves are preserved in their pristine and natural state. This is not prevented even by the rather close proximity to modern populated areas.

Almost 1/10 of the country's area is virgin nature in its natural form. Local inhabitants are filled with a sense of pride in their natural resources in the form of untouched areas of the territory and they try to preserve them by any means.

Rice. 1. Canadian beaver.

The Canadian beaver is considered the animal symbol of the country.

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In Canada you can find a lot the rarest representatives flora and fauna of our planet.

Natural conditions of Canada

In terms of the specifics of natural conditions and the provision of natural gifts, Canada is often compared to Russia. Canada has a significant mineral resource base.
The state has significant reserves of non-ferrous metal ores, including:

• nickel;
• copper;
• zinc;
• lead.

In addition, there are deposits of iron ore, uranium, oil and gas of natural origin, as well as potassium salts, asbestos and coal.

Canada is the largest importer of mineral raw materials in the developed countries world, including the United States.

Canada's climate is varied. In most of the territories the climate is quite harsh.

It is this fact that does not allow carrying out economic activities in full.

A significant part of the country's territory (about 45%) is covered with forests. The country ranks third in the world in terms of total timber reserves. Canada's natural resources, which relate to the animal world, are of great importance, namely: fur-bearing animals and commercial fish.

Rice. 2. Salmon fishing.

A special place in the natural resource potential of the country belongs to water resources.

In terms of the availability of natural sources of fresh water, the country is in third position after Russia and Brazil. Great transport and energy importance is assigned to the Great Lakes of Canada and the St. Lawrence River.

Rice. 3. Great Lakes of Canada.

The natural specificity of the territory has created the preconditions for uneven development of the territories in the economic aspect.

What have we learned?

We found out what Canadians are proud of. We found out how much of the country's territory is occupied by forest plantations. We got an idea of ​​what natural resources Canada's land is rich in. We got acquainted with information about which representative of the Canadian fauna is recognized as a symbol of the country. They realized that it is an additional and no less valuable source of the state’s natural resources besides minerals.

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