One of the oldest philosophical categories is matter. The concept of it was initially very specific, then it developed, expanded and, in the end, turned into a description that we can feel.

The most generalized category is identical to the existence of the world, as philosophy understands it. Movement, space, time are its attributes. In this article we will talk about one of the most important philosophical categories. It's about movement. We can say that this term covers all processes occurring in nature and society.

We can say that this category describes the way of existence of matter. In principle, very general outline movement in philosophy is any change, interaction of material objects, transition from one state to another. It explains all the diversity of the world. It is difficult to imagine any existence without it. After all, to exist means to move. Any other existence is practically unprovable. It cannot be detected, because it does not interact with objects or with our consciousness.

Matter and motion in philosophy are also interconnected. They cannot exist one without the other. Therefore, movement is considered an absolute philosophical concept. Peace, on the contrary, is relative. Why? The fact is that thinkers agreed with the definition of rest as one of the. Astronomers prove this very well. If a certain body, for example, is at rest on Earth, then it moves in relation to other planets and stars.

Aporia - are there changes and processes?

Even in the ancient world, attention was paid to the contradictions of this problem. Movement in philosophy is, from the point of view of the Eleatic school, a subject for a special kind of reasoning - aporia. Their author, Zeno, generally believed that this could not be thought about in a consistent manner. Therefore, it is impossible to think about movement at all. The philosopher gave examples that if in practice a fast runner (Achilles) can catch up with a slow turtle, then in the realm of thought this is impossible, if only because during the time that the animal crawls from one point to another, a person also needs time to get to where it was. And he is no longer there. And so on to infinity, into which space is divided.

The same thing happens when we watch the flight of an arrow. It seems to us (our feelings indicate this) that it is moving. But every moment the arrow is (rests) at some point in space. Therefore, what we see does not correspond to what can be thought. And since feelings are secondary, there is no movement.

Unity

True, even in the era of antiquity there were critics of these statements. For example, the famous authority of the Ancient World, Aristotle, spoke out against the aporia of the Eleatics. Movement in philosophy is a kind of unity with space and time, the thinker argued. They do not exist in isolation. Therefore, mechanically dividing them into infinite points is incorrect and illogical. The world is changeable, it develops due to the confrontation of elements and principles, and the consequence of this is diversity. Thus, movement and development in philosophy began to be identified. Evidence of this appeared during the Renaissance. IN specified time there was a very popular idea that both happen because the whole world is an arena for the formation of the soul or life. The latter is diffused throughout existence. Even matter is spiritualized and therefore develops.

Source

However, in modern times, philosophers began to search for what is the basis of the movement. They identified matter with substance, and endowed the latter with inertia. Therefore, they could not come up with a better explanation than the fact that someone, for example, God or a Supreme Being, made the “first push”, after which everything began to develop and move according to established laws.

In the era of mechanism, the problem of movement was mainly explained from the point of view of deism. This somewhat transformed the popular religious theory that God “winded” the Universe like a clock, and is therefore the only and original source of movement in it. This is how the reason for change was explained in the times of Newton and Hobbes. But this is not surprising, since then a person was also considered something like a complex mechanism.

Materialism

Marxists also talked a lot about the movement. They, first of all, rejected the idea of ​​its external source. Representatives of these views were the first to declare that movement in philosophy is an attribute of matter. The latter itself is its source. We can say that she develops herself because of her own contradictions. The latter push and encourage her to move.

The movement of matter occurs due to the interaction of various opposites. They cause changes in specific states. Matter is a certain whole that cannot be destroyed. It is constantly changing. That's why the world is so diverse. If some processes occur in it that do not change the structure of the object, then they are called quantitative transformations. But what if an object or phenomenon is internally transformed? Then these changes are called qualitative.

Diversity

Dialectical materialism came up with a concept that described the forms of movement. In the philosophy of Marxism, there were initially five such types of change - from simple to increasingly complex. It was believed that the characteristics of the forms of movement determine the qualities of objects. They also represent the source of the specificity of the phenomena of the material world.

In the nineteenth century, five such forms were distinguished. These are mechanics, physics, chemistry, biology and social processes. Each of them has its own material carrier- bodies, atoms, molecules, proteins, people and society. However, later the development of science showed that this classification does not entirely correspond to reality. The theory about the structural forms of organization of matter has demonstrated that it is inherently complex, not simple. Physical processes have their own micro and macro levels. It turned out that each structural organization of matter has its own complex hierarchy, and the number of forms of their movement tends to infinity.

Development

Both matter and society are in constant change. If they are consistent, irreversible and of high quality, then they are usually called development. Movement and development in philosophy are very connected. The second term is broader in meaning than the first, because there is also movement that does not lead to qualitative changes, for example, displacement. But development also has several levels and meanings. For example, there are mythological and religious explanations, not just scientific ones, about how the world came to be and where it is moving.

In the understanding of dialectical materialism, there is such a development as progress. This means that the level of structural organization increases and becomes more complex. If the reverse process occurs, it is called regression. But this is also development. This is also the name for the self-movement of nature and society. In general, development is believed to be a universal quality of the Universe.

Philosophy of existence

Let's draw some conclusions. In different schools of thinking, movement is understood ontologically and acts as the basis of being. It is recognized not only as an integral property of matter, but also as the principle of the unity of the world and the source of its diversity.

Movement in the philosophy of being is a connecting link between space and time. It is not only but also the foundation of the life of nature, man and society. The movement is characterized by contradictions and dialectics. It is both absolute and relative, changeable and stable, located at some point and does not do so. In modern ontology, movement also has the form of an ideal. We are talking about subjective processes in the world of human consciousness. This is probably the movement that the great Goethe called happiness.

Everything in the world is in motion, from atoms to the universe. Everything is in an eternal striving for a different state, and not by force, but by its own nature. Since movement is an essential attribute of matter, it, like matter itself, is uncreated and indestructible. Movement is a way of existence of matter. Movement lies in the very nature of matter. Some forms of movement transform into others and not a single type is taken from anywhere. Movement is the unity of variability and stability, restlessness and rest. In a flow of unceasing movement, there are always discrete moments of rest, manifested primarily in the preservation of the internal nature of each given movement, in the form of equilibrium of movements and their relatively stable form, i.e. relative peace. Rest, therefore, exists as a characteristic of movement in some stable form. No matter how the object changes, as long as it exists, it retains its definiteness. The river remains a river. Absolute peace is impossible. There are several quality various forms movements of matter: mechanical, physical, chemical, biological, social... The qualitative diversity of one level cannot be explained by the qualitative diversity of another. Exact description the movement of air particles cannot explain the meaning of human speech. However, it is necessary to keep in mind the general patterns inherent in all levels, as well as their interaction. This connection is expressed in the fact that the higher includes the lower (DNA is a chemical compound). However, higher forms are not included in lower ones (there is no life in chemical compounds). Tracing the connections between various forms of matter movement allows us to create a picture of their development in the universe. At its different stages, new levels of organization of matter and corresponding forms of motion arise, and the appearance of each
Rest should be understood as a moment of equilibrium unity in the movement itself, and not outside it. Relative rest not only does not exclude movement, but, on the contrary, is only its special moment.
The opposition between rest and movement was previously expressed in a sharp contrast between “things” and “processes”. In connection with the development of knowledge in the field of the microworld, this metaphysical opposition has lost its meaning. The unity of a thing and a process is especially striking if we take a micro-object as a thing. The corpuscular and wave properties of a micro-object prove that it simultaneously acts as both a thing and a process. Therefore, in the theory of relativity, the concept of event becomes a fundamental concept.
Relative peace, understood as a moment of temporary stability and balance, is inherent in any specific state of matter. It gives it qualitative certainty. Thanks to him, the boundaries of things exist, the world appears as a variety of qualitative and quantitative formations. The movement of matter is absolute precisely because it is irrespective of anything else, external, no matter what it depends on. In this regard, statements like “there is nothing in the world except ever-moving matter” are true and justified.

22.The idea of ​​development in the history of philosophical thought. Dialectics and metaphysics.

The history of philosophy is an integral part of the history of culture. It is possible to periodize in different ways the path traversed by philosophy over two and a half thousand years (from the times of the ancient Greeks and ancient Romans). But in the most general terms, large periods, stages historical development philosophies are based on socio-economic formations, methods of social and spiritual production. Following this view, they talk about ancient philosophy(philosophy of slave society), medieval philosophy(philosophy of the era of feudalism), philosophy of the New Age (philosophy of the bourgeois formation) and modern philosophy, meaning by it the philosophical thought of the 20th century, ideologically and politically extremely ambiguous. The national uniqueness of philosophical ideas should not be underestimated. In this context, German, French, and Russian philosophy (which is comparable to national art) is considered as relatively independent spiritual constructs.

The first historically major stage in the development of philosophy is ancient philosophy (VI century BC - VI century AD). Its creators were the ancient Greeks and ancient Romans (the latter in late antiquity). The greatest achievement of these philosophers was the very formulation of the eternal problems that always accompany man: about the beginning of all things, about the existence and non-existence of the world, about the identity of opposites, about freedom and necessity, life and death, freedom and necessity, the place and role of man on earth and in space, about moral duty, about the beautiful and sublime, about wisdom and human dignity, about love, friendship, happiness and many other things that cannot but excite the mind and soul of a person. The ancient thinkers had one “tool” of knowledge - contemplation, observation, subtle speculation.

Ancient philosophy arose as a spontaneous-dialectical natural philosophy. It is to her that ancient thought owes two remarkable ideas: the idea of ​​a universal, universal connection of all things and phenomena of the world and the idea of ​​endless, world development. Already in ancient philosophy, two alternative epistemological directions emerged: materialism and idealism. The materialist Democritus, ahead of centuries and millennia, put forward the brilliant idea of ​​the atom as the smallest particle of matter. The idealist Plato, relying not only on the power of abstract thought, but also on amazing artistic intuition, brilliantly developed the dialectic of individual things and general concepts, which is of enduring importance in all areas of human creativity to this day.

Often, historians of ancient philosophy draw a line between earlier and later ancient philosophers, classifying the former as the “Pre-Socratics” and the latter as the Socratic schools. This emphasizes the truly key role of Socrates (5th century BC) as a philosopher who moved the center of philosophical knowledge from the problems of natural philosophy to the field of human knowledge, primarily ethics. The ideas of late antiquity (the Hellenistic era) inherited the humanistic thought of Socrates. At the same time, deeply experiencing the impending death of ancient culture, the philosophers of this period took an undoubted step from Socratic rationalism towards irrationalism and mysticism, which became especially noticeable in the philosophy of Plato’s followers - the Neoplatonists.

The second stage in the development of European philosophy is the philosophy of the Middle Ages (V-XV centuries AD). In spirit and content, this is a religious (Christian) philosophy, which substantiated and strengthened in all countries Western Europe Christian (Catholic) faith. For more than a thousand, the orthodox ideology of Christianity, relying on the power of the church, waged a stubborn struggle against “heresies”, “freethinking”, that is, with the slightest deviations from the dogmas and canons of the Vatican. Although in these conditions philosophy defended the rights of reason, it was subject to the recognition of the dominance of faith over reason. Those who did not agree with this faced the fires of the Inquisition.

The philosophers and theologians who developed the basic dogmas of the Christian religion in the first centuries of the new era received the highest degree of recognition in the eyes of their successors and followers - they began to be revered as the “fathers” of the Church, and their work began to be called “patristics.” One of the most prominent “fathers of the church” was Augustine the Blessed (IV-V centuries AD). God, in his opinion, is the creator of the world, and he is also the creator, the engine of history. The philosopher and theologian saw the meaning and destiny of history in the worldwide transition of people from paganism to Christianity. Each person bears full responsibility for his deeds and actions, since God gave man the ability to freely choose between good and evil.

If Augustine - bright representative early Middle Ages, the established system of Christian medieval philosophy is most fully and significantly expressed in the works of Thomas Aquinas (XIII century). His philosophy is the pinnacle of scholasticism. (By this time, this was the name given to philosophy taught in schools and universities.) Putting Aristotle above all his predecessors, Thomas made a grandiose attempt to unite, organically connect ancient wisdom with the dogma and doctrine of Christianity. From these positions, reason (science) and faith do not contradict each other, unless it is the “Correct” faith, that is, the Christian faith.

In medieval scholasticism we find the germs of real problems. One of them was the problem of dialectics, the connection between the general and the individual. Does the common really exist? Or does only the individual really exist, and the general is only a mental abstraction from individual objects and phenomena? Those who recognized the reality of general concepts constituted the direction of realists, while those who considered the general only a “name”, and only the individual as really existing, constituted the direction of nominalism. Nominalists and realists are the predecessors of the materialists and idealists of the New Age.

The third, transitional stage in history Western philosophy is the philosophy of the Renaissance. There are Early Renaissance (XIII-XIV centuries) and Late Renaissance (XV-XVI centuries). The very name of the era is very eloquent; we are talking about the revival (after a thousand-year hiatus) of the culture, art, and philosophy of the ancient world, the achievements of which are recognized as a model for modernity. The great representatives of this era were comprehensively developed people (Dante, Erasmus of Rotterdam, Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo, Montaigne, Cervantes, Shakespeare). Brilliant artists and thinkers put forward in their work not a theological, but a humanistic system of values. Social thinkers of that time - Machiavelli, More, Campanella - created projects ideal state, expressing primarily the interests of the new social class - the bourgeoisie.

In the XVI-XVII centuries. capitalism began to establish itself in Western European countries. Great geographical discoveries unusually expanded man's horizons; the development of production required serious scientific research. Modern science relied increasingly on experiment and mathematics. Young science of the 17th-18th centuries. achieved outstanding success, primarily in mechanics and mathematics.

The philosophy of modern times - the fourth historical stage in the development of European philosophy - not only relied on the data of the natural sciences, but also acted as their support, arming science with logic and research methods. The philosophical basis for experimental knowledge was the empirical-inductive method of F. Bacon (1561-1626), while mathematical science found its philosophical methodology in the works of R. Descartes (1596-1650).

Philosophy of the XVII-XVIII centuries. was predominantly rationalistic. In the 18th century first in France, then in other countries of Western Europe, the socio-philosophical movement Enlightenment made itself widely and powerfully known, playing an outstanding role in the ideological preparation of the French Action of 1789-1793.

From the last quarter of the 18th century. and until the middle of the 19th century. Germany is coming to the forefront in the field of philosophical creativity. Being backward at that time economically and politically, this country became the birthplace of great artists and thinkers; Kant, Goethe, Fichte, Hegel, Beethoven, Schiller, Schelling, Heine, Feuerbach. The outstanding theoretical merit of classical German philosophy and overcoming the contemplative, naturalistic view of the world, the awareness of man as a creative, active subject, the in-depth development of the general concept of the development of dialectics.

In the middle of the 19th century. There (in Germany) Marxism emerged, the philosophical heir of German classics and European rationalism. Marx's main contribution to philosophy was the discovery and substantiation materialistic understanding history and in in-depth development - on the material of contemporary bourgeois society - materialist dialectics. However, Marxism entered the real social life of mankind (in the 20th century in particular) mainly through its own - not scientific and philosophical, but ideological path, as the ideology of open and harsh class confrontation, justifying (in the name of abstract class interests) extreme forms of class struggle and violence.

European rationalism (from Bacon to Marx) in the dialectic of the social and the individual gave undoubted priority to the social (general). The study of classes, formations, and historical eras moved to the forefront, while the problems of the individual - the internal organization of the personality - remained in the shadows (the phenomenon of the unconscious also remained in the shadows). But real experience life convinced that reason is not the only force governing the behavior of man and society. On this basis, in the 19th century. An irrationalistic philosophy emerged (A. Schopenhauer, S. Kierkegaard, F. Nietzsche), which began to assign the leading role in the life and destinies of people not to reason, but to passion, will, and instincts. Irrationalist philosophers saw and expressed with great force the shadow side of life and progress. But they drew different conclusions from this. Schopenhauer's ideal is nirvana, that is, detachment from life as unconditional evil. Kierkegaard demands that we recognize that the highest truths (which include deeply intimate experiences of fear and expectation of death) cannot be expressed, but can only be experienced by each person alone and in his own way. Nietzsche's voluntarism is only outwardly “optimistic”, since it affirms the will to power as to the fullness of life. But this is a blind life, without any reasonable purpose. Nietzsche did not hide his extreme hostility to Christianity.

REST AND MOTION – UNIVERSAL FORMS OF EXISTENCE OF MATTER

In philosophical encyclopedic dictionary 1989 there is no philosophical category and definition of the concept of “peace”. This circumstance is probably due to the fact that everything in the world moves, happens and changes. There is nothing that does not move and change. We imagine movement as an attribute of matter. In this capacity, together with matter, it is eternal in time and infinite in space. Movement forms a spatio-temporal form of existence of matter. Movement, like matter, is limitless and, in this sense, absolute. “Absolute” is something that has no boundaries. Rest is the absence of movement. It cannot exist because it can never exist.

However, this important knowledge is only one moment of truth, obtained by the thinking method of formal logic. We adhere to the method of modern scientific thinking - dialectical logic. Abstract (simple) movement truly has no boundaries. Does this mean that there is no peace at all? - not at all. Or rather, yes and no. Abstract absolute movement, distracted (pushing away) from everything, denies itself in concrete forms of movement, turning into its opposite - into peace. Likewise, in dialectics it never happens that there is one moment (movement) and there is not a moment of another, opposite to it (rest).

Movement, of course, is distracted from peace, which can never exist, but before that it strives for peace in order to push away from it, and inevitably enters into a necessary, albeit negative, connection with it. The negation of peace affirms peace. Any movement is accompanied by a movement towards rest and the emergence of rest (lack of movement). Thus, peace, which does not exist, is generated by movement and becomes a form of movement of being. If we, people, are not prepared for this knowledge and do not notice peace, then this circumstance does not mean at all that there is no peace.

Just as chance is a form of necessity, so rest is a form of movement. From the point of view of dialectics, we discover two truly existing moments of existence: movement and rest. Now we can say with complete confidence: there is peace. Here we see another truth (antithesis), opposite to the first. We must not forget that this knowledge, like all human knowledge, is relative. It is relative to being and essence. The truth (synthesis) is that there is peace and there is no peace. Everything is in motion and at rest at the same time.

Movement towards peace or absence of movement, from the point of view of dialectics, reveal the same essence - peace. Eternal movement endlessly strives for peace and gives rise to eternal peace. Two moments interact, transform into one another, losing their differences and, at the same time, maintaining the irreconcilability of opposing tendencies. Movement and rest are preserved by sublation in all forms of developing matter. They are contained in the movements of change and development, in all complex forms of movement of matter.

It is impossible to understand and explain the reason for the movement of change and the movement of development in the absence of internal contradiction (contradiction of moments: movement and rest) contained within these abstract movements. In every changing “something” there is a moment that does not change in the changes. Without this moment there can be no change and development. Without it, no definition of any scientific concept would be possible. G. Hegel gives the following definition of definition: “Definition is a quality that is in itself in a simple “something”, and is in unity with another moment of this “something” with being in it.” “Being-in-itself” in unity with “being-in-itself” is the necessary peace. The definition reflects a state of rest.

All known forms of movement of matter are in the movement of change and development. The essence of the existence of matter is preserved in all forms of matter and is defined as matter in motion. This essence does not depend on the change and development of matter. She always remains the same. Here it is - the necessary peace (lack of movement), which is in existence the content of the concept and a reflection of the universal laws of material essence. It is no coincidence that the definition of law is: “Law is a calm phenomenon,” that is, something that is stable in the face of change. Any definition of a law in a specific science establishes a state of rest in the process scientific knowledge.

Each transition from one quality of developing matter to another of its qualities occurs spasmodically and fixes a state of rest as a result of development. It is now clear that rest is the form and moment of motion of matter. Probably no one has any doubts about the necessity of the concept of “peace”. One can express regret at the absence of the category “peace” in a very good philosophical dictionary and bewilderment at the attitude of the dictionary’s compilers to this important scientific concept.

Rest in the physical form of the movement of matter is manifested by stability atomic nucleus, the strength of the crystal lattice of a solid material object, the laws of magnetism and mutual attraction various masses. Rest in the chemical form of the movement of matter is expressed by the stability of chemical bonds and patterns chemical reactions. Rest in the biological form of the movement of matter is ensured by the viability of individual forms of life. Peace in social form the movement of matter is determined by life with knowledge and meaning, the correspondence of production relations and productive forces.

The great Russian neurophysiologist I.P. Pavlov theoretically substantiated and successfully implemented in his life the principle of longevity based on active recreation. He saw the most effective rest, that is, peace, in changing the type of activity. This means that for good rest we need such rest, which is the most successful form of movement, including physical activity. The person who, thanks to properly organized activities, constantly rests in the process of his work never gets tired. In modern society, there is widespread disharmony between physical and mental labor. Physical activity is catastrophically insufficient for people with mental work.

Fatigue modern man, most often, neuropsychic. This is a depletion of the energy potential of the nervous tissue of the brain. It is necessary to spend the psycho-emotional energy of the brain sparingly and restore it faster using physical activity. It is necessary to develop the ability to active protection from stress, to resolving intrapersonal conflicts, to getting rid of cognitive dissonance. This is the movement towards peace, that is, peace itself.

This is why there is correct thinking, a disciplined consciousness, which is ensured by the developed ability to make clear assessments and judgments. Correct thoughts are also a movement that relieves neuropsychic tension. Correct thoughts (movement) generate and accumulate positive emotions, maintain peace of mind and psycho-emotional balance. Thus, we know that in social life peace of mind is possible, it exists, but it is the result and form of movement of a well-organized psyche.

The socio-economic formation in a developing society records a state of relative peace, when the form (relations of production) more or less corresponds to the content (productive forces). However, society and its mode of livelihood (mode of production) are developing non-stop. The stability of a socio-economic system is always relative. This happens because the form in the process of development, while corresponding to the content, never corresponds to it. At a time when society is in a state of relative stability (peace), we must never forget that there are always two opposing trends that are not always noticed by people - revolution and counter-revolution. Social scientists say in this regard that “the mole is digging for history.” His hard work is not visible on the surface for a long time.

Revolution as a process of development of society contains within itself a movement of change. The movement of change is a movement that has two directions: progressive, which promotes development, and regressive, which is opposite to development. So it was, is, and will always be. Any revolutionary movement is always accompanied by a counter-revolutionary reaction. However, this knowledge does not at all imply the fatal hopelessness of insurmountable disharmony and tragedy. public life. Social matter is living matter with knowledge and meaning. Knowledge and meaning provide a significant advantage to social existence in the conditions dictated by natural selection– the universal law of biological matter.

The advantage is expressed by a dialectical compromise: the revolution, denying the counter-revolution, preserves itself as a movement of improvement, creation and development. Denial of counter-revolution is always accompanied by reasonable, justified repression. IN AND. Lenin wrote that only that revolution is worth anything which is capable of defending itself. Only in this case is relative social peace possible. Counter-revolution can also be accompanied by relative social stability, but such “stability” perpetuates more low level development of society. A certain state of rest corresponds to a certain level of development of matter.

Movement and rest in dialectical psychology are reflected moments of social existence. Every man of sense strives to understand the surrounding world, its stable connections and universal laws, in order to be able to calculate the options for moving his life, which allow him to make a free choice with knowledge of the matter. Such conscious behavior ensures correct free choice and self-confidence. Knowledge generates peace of mind – psycho-emotional balance.

Everyone knows that emotion is an elementary evaluative reaction that accompanies not only an orienting reflex, but also any other mental process, primarily thinking. Right Thinking generates the right emotions, relieves excess, energy-consuming, psycho-emotional stress. This is how mental stability (mental spine) is formed - peace of mind. The culture of moral feelings, the culture of emotions depends on developed ability to clear assessments and judgments. A person’s beliefs, which make up the individual’s worldview concept, being its stable moment (peace), manifest themselves in individual existence as a strong character.

In modern textbooks on philosophy and philosophical dictionaries they write that movement is absolute, but rest is relative or (“if you look closely”) there is none at all. Perhaps this is not true. Everything absolute (having no boundaries) turns into its opposite. The same statement is true for absolute rest. Everything that is limitless in its infinity is unchangeable. There is only one infinity, it is one, although it turns into many. Infinity is one and unchanging. Absolute movement is an abstract category, isolated (abstracted) from everything, including movement as itself.

It is strictly limited by the meaning of the abstract concept of “absolute movement” and cannot go beyond its limits, and is incapable of movement beyond its limits, since it is a definition that fixes what does not change in changes. Only peace does not change in changes. The law is that which is stable (calm) in the phenomenon (in the definition). Absolute motion is a definition (concept), it is a law unto itself and, therefore, rest. Absolute movement is absolute rest. On the other hand, absolute peace cannot be absolute peace, since it cannot be distracted (push off) even from itself, because everything absolute contains movement towards the supposed border of the limitless. Rest is that which does not change, and everything that is unchangeable is revealed only in contrast with movement. Absolute rest is absolute movement.

Thus, if we talk about absolute motion, we are forced to admit absolute rest (and vice versa). In this case, both concepts become relative, moreover, they are moments that relate to each other as form and content. In this case, it makes no difference which of them is form and which is content. Rest is a form of movement, and movement is a form of rest. Movement is an attribute of matter, its integral property, which is a law that contains peace. Matter in motion is eternal in time and infinite in space, and this is also a law (rest). Matter in motion is always at rest, because, developing, it always remains matter in motion, that is, matter, changing in development, never changes (is at rest).

With the introduction of the philosophical category “matter”, the identity of the difference between the movement of matter and matter in motion is revealed. The movement of matter is assigned the concept of “form”, or “form of the movement of matter”, and the concept of “content”, which implies matter in development, is assigned to matter in motion. Movement and rest, thus, become moments of content, which are the essence of the material world in existence. Both concepts are both absolute and relative. For this reason, everything that moves does not move, everything that changes does not change, everything that develops does not develop.

In existence, people often do not notice peace (the unchanging), turning their attention exclusively to the movement of change. If we see only movement and do not notice peace, this does not mean that there is no peace at all. Each person, unfortunately, most often sees only what he can and wants to see. This happens because a person exists in a limited existence, where movement and development are striking. For that which is eternal, infinite and has no boundaries, neither space, nor time, nor movement, nor development matters. This means that matter, which is in motion, is at eternal rest. However, we, not detecting development in infinite matter, should not think that there is no movement at all.

Every finite movement is a moment of infinite movement, in which, therefore, there is movement, change, development and, at the same time, not. The fact is that two opposite movements - emergence and passing - are movements of equal rights, which excludes change and development. However, in the process of development of finite being, the equality of equal tendencies is constantly violated. In dialectical logic, any identity (equality and equity) exists as an identity of difference.

At some segment of the movement of being, the movement of emergence may predominate, which provides an advantage for being. This advantage, unfortunately, is as finite as concrete existence itself. But, in general, in an infinite world, the equality of two opposing tendencies remains. Everything in this world is transitory: it disappears and is destroyed. Everything in him arises again and again with boundless persistence.

As a result, abstract movement has an internal contradiction, which ensures the internal self-motion of the material world (its development); there is movement and it is not at the same time, and even time itself does not exist. The reason for any movement of development is the internal contradiction of two moments of the simplest movement - movement and rest. It is a universal contradiction that gives rise to the internal self-movement of content and the development of the material world.

Movement is any change in general, from the spatial movement of objects to human thinking. Movement is an attribute of matter, an integral property of any material object. There is no matter without movement and vice versa. Movement is an abstraction, the ability to change its parameters, abstracted by our consciousness from real material objects. Therefore, movement in its “pure form” exists only in thinking, but in reality only moving material objects exist. There cannot be an absolutely motionless material object. Rest is the opposite of movement (lack of movement). Any moving object is determined. time retains its qualitative certainty, the stability of the internal structure, that is, some constancy, immutability. This is an indispensable condition for the existence of any thing. That. -movement and rest are dialectically contradictory properties of a material object. Development is an irreversible qualitative change. It can be progressive - occurring with an increase in the complexity and orderliness of the object, and regressive - degradation of the object, its disintegration, death. Engels identified 5 main forms of movement:

1. Mechanical

2. Physical

3. Chemical

4. Biological

5. Social

All these forms of movement are interconnected and simpler ones are included in more complex ones, forming a qualitatively different form of movement. Each of these forms includes an infinite number of types of movement. Even, according to Engels, the simplest mechanical motion includes such types of motion as uniformly rectilinear, uniformly accelerated (slow), curvilinear, chaotic, etc.

The most complex form of movement is social, since the material carrier is the most complex type of matter - social. This form of movement also includes changes that occur in the individual’s body. Thus, the human heart is a mechanical engine that ensures the movement of blood in the vessels. But this is not a purely mechanical engine. Its activity is regulated by the mechanisms of human higher nervous activity. And the vital activity of the body is a condition for human participation in work and in public life. This includes changes social groups, layers, classes, ethnic changes, demographic processes, the development of productive forces and production relations and other changes determined by the laws of motion at the social level of matter.

It should be emphasized that various forms of motion are capable of transforming into each other in accordance with the laws of conservation of matter and motion. This is a manifestation of the property of indestructibility and non-creation of matter and motion. The measure of motion of matter is energy, the measure of rest and inertia is mass.

The concept of "matter" in the history of philosophy.

The concept of “matter” has been considered by various scientists and philosophers for many centuries, changing its meaning and acquiring new forms..

In the materialistic teachings of the Milesian school in ancient Greece, specific forms of matter were elevated to the rank of substance: water (Thales), air (Anaximenes), fire (Heraclitus), which form the sun, stars, all other bodies and determine the eternal variability of the world. Democritus, Leucippus, Epicurus, Lucretius Carus assumed the existence of the simplest particles - atoms, which are indestructible and indestructible, and are in continuous motion. The number of atoms in the Universe is infinite; living beings and man himself are formed from atoms. In the atomic theory, for the first time, the principle of conservation of matter was put forward in a specifically defined form as the principle of the indivisibility of atoms.

Atomistic theory was further developed in philosophy and natural science of the New Age in the works of Lomonosov, Hobbes, Holbach, Diderot and others. In contrast to atomism, various idealistic theories of substance arose, in which the divine will, world reason, absolute spirit etc.

In the XVII-XIX centuries. the well-known mechanical laws of motion have been absolutized, physical properties and state of matter. The unity of the world was understood as the endless repetition of the same stars, planets and other known forms of matter.

In the second half of the 19th century. Faraday and Maxwell's research established the laws of change in a qualitatively new form of matter compared to matter - electromagnetic field. At the end of the 19th - beginning of the 20th centuries. - New episode discoveries: radioactivity, complexity chemical atoms, electrons, variability of body mass depending on speed. Empirio-critics interpreted the radioactive decay of atoms as the “disappearance” of matter, the transformation of matter into energy.

Matter began to be viewed as a philosophical category to designate objective reality, which is given to man in his senses, which man can and tries to cognize, but at the same time, matter exists independently of man himself.

So, matter is not reduced to any specific types of it - particles of matter, sensory bodies, and the like.

Categories of movement, development, rest in ontology.

Movement, development and tranquility in ontology are components of matter, and can also be considered as ways of its existence. After all, from the point of view of philosophy, matter does not arise and does not disappear. It exists forever. Everything that exists is in motion. Even in ancient times they said that “life is movement. Where there is no movement, there is no life.”

Since movement is an essential attribute of matter, it, like matter itself, cannot be created or destroyed. The movement of matter is not only the mechanical movement of bodies in space, but also any interactions, as well as changes in the states of objects that are caused by these interactions. Movement is the mutual transformation of elementary particles, and the metabolism in the cells of the body, and the exchange of activities between people in the process of their social life. There are several qualitatively different forms of movement of matter: mechanical, physical, chemical, biological, social.

Processes associated with the transformation of the quality of objects, with the emergence of new qualitative states, which, as it were, deploy potential capabilities hidden and undeveloped in previous qualitative states, are characterized as development. The development process is always a transition from one quality to another, the directed formation of new systems, new types of organization that are born from previous systems.

Development is an irreversible, directed, natural change in material and ideal objects. As a result of development, a new qualitative state of the object arises, which acts as a change in its composition or structure.

The world, as already noted, cannot exist without movement. The movement is absolute. But in the general flow of material changes there may be moments of peace, moments of balance.

Rest is a state of movement that does not violate the qualitative specificity of an object, its stability. The moment of rest is relative. Peace does not occur in relation to all matter, but only in relation to certain individual material objects.

Thanks to the presence of relative peace, qualitatively defined things that differ from each other arise and exist for more or less a long time. Beneath the relative calm lies continuous movement and change. Thus, we can observe a person who is in a constant state of peace for a certain time. But at the same time, continuous biological processes, that is, changes, occur in the human body.