Standards. What is an Etalon? The meaning of the word Standard in the philosophical dictionary

Reference

- immutability

- reproducibility

- comparability

The standard is classified into the following:

primary standard- a standard that ensures the reproduction of a unit with the highest accuracy in the country (compared to other standards of the same unit).

secondary standard- standard, the value of which is set according to the primary standard.

Special standard- a standard that ensures the reproduction of a unit in special conditions and replacing the primary standard for these conditions.

State standard- a primary or special standard, officially approved as the reference for the country.

Witness reference- a secondary standard designed to check the safety of the state standard and to replace it in case of damage or loss.

Reference copy- a secondary standard designed to transfer the sizes of units to working standards.

Comparison standard- a secondary standard used to compare standards that, for one reason or another, cannot be directly compared with each other.

Working standard- a standard used to transfer the size of a unit to exemplary measuring instruments of the highest accuracy and in some cases - to the most accurate working measuring instruments.

11. Standard. Verification schemes.

Reference- a measuring instrument (or a set of measuring instruments) that provides reproduction and (or) storage of a unit in order to transfer its size to measuring instruments lower in the verification scheme, made according to a special specification and officially approved in the prescribed manner as a standard.

The standard must meet three basic requirements:

- immutability(the ability to keep the size of the unit reproduced by him unchanged for a long period of time);

- reproducibility(reproduction of the unit with the smallest error for a given level of development of measuring technology);

- comparability(the ability not to undergo changes and not introduce any distortions during comparisons).

Verification scheme is a source document that establishes the metrological subordination of standards, exemplary measuring instruments and the procedure for transferring the size of a unit to exemplary and working measuring instruments.

Verification schemes are divided into state and local (individual bodies of the state metrological service or departmental metrological services)

The verification methods indicated on the verification chart should reflect the specifics of verification of this type of measuring instruments. They correspond to one of the following general methods:

Direct (without comparators) comparison of the calibrated measuring instrument with an exemplary measuring instrument of the same type;

Comparison of a verified measuring instrument with an exemplary measuring instrument of the same type using a comparator;

Direct measurement by a calibrated measuring instrument of a value reproduced by an exemplary measure;

Direct measurement by an exemplary measuring instrument of the value reproduced by the measure subjected to verification;

Indirect measurements of a quantity reproduced by a measure or measured by an instrument subject to verification;

Independent verification, i.e. verification of measuring instruments of relative (dimensionless) quantities that do not require the transfer of unit sizes from standards or exemplary measuring instruments graduated in units of dimensional quantities.

General provisions. To ensure the uniformity of measurements, the identity of the units is necessary, in which all existing measuring instruments of the same physical quantity must be graduated.

This is achieved by accurate reproduction and storage in specialized institutions of established units. physical quantities and transfer of their sizes to the applied measuring instruments with the help of standards.

Etalon - a measuring instrument (or a complex of measuring instruments) designed to reproduce and store a unit of a physical quantity (multiple or fractional values ​​of a unit of this quantity) in order to transfer its size to other measuring instruments of this physical quantity.

Classification, purpose and general requirements for the creation, storage and use of standards are established by GOST 8.057-80 GSI. Standards of units of physical quantities. Basic provisions.

The standard must have interrelated properties: reproducibility, immutability and comparability.

Reproducibility - the ability to reproduce a unit of physical quantity (based on its theoretical definition) with the smallest error for the current level of development of measuring technology. This is achieved by constant study of the standard in order to determine the systematic errors and eliminate them by introducing appropriate amendments.

Immutability - the property of the standard to keep the size of the unit reproduced by it unchanged for a long period of time, while all changes that depend on external conditions, must be strictly defined functions of quantities that can be accurately measured. The implementation of these requirements led to the idea of ​​creating natural standards of various quantities based on physical constants.

Comparability - the ability to ensure the comparison of the lower ones according to the verification scheme, primarily secondary standards, with the highest accuracy for the current level of development of measurement technology. This property assumes that, in terms of their structure and operation, standards do not introduce any distortions into the results of comparisons and do not themselves undergo changes during the comparison.

According to their metrological purpose, standards are divided into primary, special and secondary.

The primary standard ensures the reproduction and storage of a unit of physical quantity with the highest accuracy in the country (compared to other standards of the same value). Primary standards are unique means measurements, which are the most complex measuring complexes created taking into account the latest achievements science and technology. Primary standards form the basis of the state system for ensuring the uniformity of measurements.

A special standard ensures the reproduction of a unit of a physical quantity under special conditions in which a direct transfer of the size of a unit from a primary standard with the required accuracy is not feasible, and for these conditions it replaces the primary standard.

A primary or special standard officially approved as a reference for a country is called a national standard. Its approval is carried out by the main metrological body of the country - federal agency on technical regulation and metrology. State standards are created, stored and used by the central metrological scientific institutes of the country. The composition of state standards includes measuring instruments that store and reproduce the size of a unit of physical quantity with an accuracy that must correspond to the level of the best world achievements and meet the needs of science and technology, as well as measuring instruments that control the measurement conditions and the invariance of the reproduced or stored the size of the unit and transmit the size of the unit. The state standards of Russia are periodically compared with the state standards of other countries. For example, the standard of a meter and kilogram is compared once every 25 years, the standard of light - once every three years.

Secondary standards are part of the subordinate means of storing units and transmitting their sizes, they are created and approved in cases where it is necessary to organize verification work, as well as to ensure the safety and minimum wear of the state standard.

According to their metrological purpose, secondary standards are divided into copy standards, comparison standards and witness standards.

Standard-copy - designed to transfer the size of the unit to the working standards. The standard-copy is a copy of the state standard only for metrological purposes, therefore it is always its physical copy.

Comparison standard - used to compare standards that, for one reason or another, cannot be directly compared with each other.

Standard-witness - designed to check the safety and invariability of the state standard and replace it in case of damage or loss.

Working standard - used to transfer the size of a unit from a copy standard to exemplary measuring instruments and in individual cases- the most accurate working measuring instruments.

The reference base of Russia has about 120 state standards and more than 250 secondary standards of units of physical quantities located in the leading metrological research institutes of the country.

In the field of mechanics, 38 state standards have been created and used in the country, including the primary standards of the meter, kilogram and second, the accuracy of which is extremely important, since these units are involved in the formation of derivative units of all scientific areas.

Methods for expressing the errors of standards are established by GOST 8.381-80 GSI. Standards. Ways of expressing errors.

Standards of units of the SI system. Standard unit of length. The meter was among the first units for which standards were introduced.

The current unit of length, the meter, is the distance traveled by light in a vacuum in 1/299792458 of a second.

This definition of the meter was adopted at the XVII General Conference of Weights and Measures in December 1985 after the approval of the common standards of time, frequency and length.

Standard unit of time. The unit of time - a second - is the time interval during which 9,192,631,770 oscillations occur, corresponding to the transition between two hyperfine Levels of the ground state of the cesium-133 atom in the absence of perturbation by external fields.

A brief history of the development of the standard unit of length - the meter. With the socio-economic development of human society, there was a need for measurements, for the establishment of units of measurement and the use of measuring instruments for various physical quantities and, first of all, length.

Thus, the measurement of a land plot allocated to an individual from the land ownership of a meadow community was carried out with the soles of the feet, placed close one in front of the other, or with steps. Hence the name of the unit of length - foot (from the English foot - leg, foot). In the same way, a unit of length appeared - an inch (from the Dutch duim - thumb). Since ancient times, the width of a grain (especially barley), the thickness of a camel or mule hair has been used as smaller units of length.

The given units of measurement were at the same time measures, that is, a kind of measuring instruments. The dimensions of the measured quantities were determined by comparison with these measures.

From old Russian measures(XI-XII centuries), the origin of which is associated with ancient Egyptian measures of length, the main ones were a verst, sazhen, cubit, span.

A verst (approximately 1,140 m) was used to estimate relatively large distances.

The fathom (about 152 cm) has been widely used mainly in measuring small distances, in the construction of various structures. There were measured ropes, the length of which was a multiple of a sazhen.

Elbow (approximately 51 cm) - the distance in a straight line from the elbow to the end of the outstretched middle finger. For the first time, the cubit as a measure of length was mentioned during the time of one of the rulers of Kievan Rus, Yaroslav the Wise. The elbow was widely used in the retail trade in canvas, linen, and foreign cloth.

A span (18...19 cm) meant a hand in Old Russian. This is the maximum distance in a straight line between the ends of the elongated large and index finger hands. The span was often used in everyday life for an approximate determination of small lengths, especially the dimensions of cylindrical bodies.

In ancient Rus', purely approximate household measures were also used, inaccurate and not materially reproducible, for example, shooting (the distance that an arrow shot from a bow flew, about 60 ... 70 m), day (distance traveled per day).

With the unification and development of the Russian State, the old Russian system of measures of length (1 verst = 750 sazhens = 2,250 cubits = 4,500 spans) is undergoing changes.

An arshin (72 cm) borrowed from the East appears, displacing the cubit over time, and a vershok (4.5 cm), its shares.

For measuring distances between settlements began to use a verst of 1,000 sazhens, later - a verst of 500 sazhens. In the future, this measure became the only Russian verst.

The use of units of measurement based on the dimensions of the human body, units of measurement that do not have a material body, and units of measurement that do not have a material embodiment for direct measurement (for example, a verst) did not ensure the unity of measurements and their reliability.

Separate units of measurement were not only individual countries, but there was no uniformity within countries. So, under Peter I, in order to create the Russian fleet, the existing system of units (measures) of length was increased by the introduction of English measures - feet (304.8 mm), inches (25.4 mm), lines (2.54 mm). This was necessary for ordering sea vessels behind the border, drawing up the required specifications and controlling the dimensions. In addition, in addition to the English standard and working measuring instruments of the highest accuracy - an exemplary measuring instrument of the 1st category.

Currently, in order to streamline the terminology and bring it closer to the international one in the technical literature, the term exemplary measuring instrument is replaced by the term working standard.

Measures are one of the most common exemplary measuring instruments.

A measure is a measuring instrument designed to reproduce and (or) store a physical quantity of one or more sizes, the values ​​of which are expressed in established units and are known with the required accuracy, for example, a 1 kg weight, a plane-parallel end measure of 50 mm, a capacitor of constant capacitance, a dashed measure of length.

With the highest accuracy, by means of measures, the main physical quantities are reproduced: length, mass, frequency, voltage.

For linear and angular quantities, length measures and angular measures are widely used.

Measures of length according to structural features are divided into terminal and dashed.

End measures of length. End measures of length have the form of a cylindrical rod or a rectangular parallelepiped with two flat mutually parallel measuring surfaces, the distance between which reproduces a certain length value. They are designed to transfer the size from the standard to the product.

With their help, the size of a unit of length is stored and reproduced, measures and measuring instruments, such as optimeters, micrometers, calipers, etc., are verified and graduated, and gauges are verified.

Line measures of length. Line measures of length - measures in which the size, expressed in certain units, as well as the size of their parts, is determined by the distance between the axes of the two corresponding strokes (line bars, measuring rulers, tape measures).

Line length measures are used as secondary and working standards, exemplary length measures when checking working length measures, in the form of scales for measuring devices and machines, as well as in tools for direct measurement of linear dimensions and distances.

The main types, parameters, dimensions of line measures and technical requirements for them are regulated by GOST 12069-78 Line measures of length.

Stroke measures are made unambiguous and multivalued.

Unambiguous line measures of length have two strokes applied at the ends of the measure, the distance between which reproduces the length of the scale of the measure (for example, secondary standards of length).

Multi-valued line measures have a scale of strokes applied at certain intervals along the entire length of the measure or in its individual sections. The scales of such multi-valued line measures are made with decimeter, centimeter or millimeter divisions (for example, rulers, tape measures, scales of measuring instruments).

Depending on the accuracy of manufacturing the actual length of the scale of line measures for various intervals of scales from 100 to 4,000 mm, six accuracy classes are established in descending order of accuracy: 0; 1; 2; 3; 4; 5.

For metrological purposes, exemplary line measures are used, which certify for categories: exemplary line measures 1 m long of the 1st and 2nd categories, exemplary measuring tapes of the 1st and 2nd categories, exemplary scales of the 1st and 2nd categories .

An exemplary line measure with a length of 1 m of the 1st category is a rigid metal ruler 4 with beveled (one or both) edges at an angle of 45° or 35°. On inclined surfaces scales are applied - the main one with a division price of 0.2 mm and the auxiliary one with a division price of 1 mm. The measure is equipped with a guide edge 3, along which two magnifiers 1 with a sevenfold increase can move, and a thermometer 2, to make the appropriate temperature correction at different materials verifiable and exemplary measure.

The permissible error of the scale of a one-meter exemplary line measure of the 1st category is ±0.05 mm, and the certification error is ±0.01 mm.

According to the exemplary line measures of the 1st category, the line measures of the 2nd category and high-precision working measuring instruments are checked, according to the line measures of the 2nd category, working measuring instruments (tape measures, rulers, scales of measuring instruments) are checked.

Angular measures. Prismatic angle gauges are designed to store and transfer a unit of flat angle: verification and graduation of goniometric measuring instruments, angle templates, as well as for direct control of product angles.

Measures are used as exemplary means for transferring the size of an angle to working measures, goniometric instruments and devices, and for verification work.

Exemplary polyhedral prisms of the 1st category, accuracy class 00 are used to transfer the angular size to exemplary measures of the 2nd category.

Exemplary angular measures of the 2nd category, accuracy class 0 are used to transfer the angular size to exemplary measures of the 3rd category.

Exemplary angular measures of the 3rd category, accuracy class 1 are used to transfer the angular size to exemplary measures of the 4th category.

The transfer of the size of the unit of angle from the standard to the working measuring instruments is carried out according to the verification scheme (GOST 8.016-81).

Verification schemes and methods for verification of measuring instruments. Ensuring the correct transfer of the size of units of physical quantities in all links of the metrological chain is carried out by means of verification schemes.

Verification scheme - a normative document approved in the prescribed manner, which establishes the subordination of measuring instruments involved in the transfer of the unit size from the standard to working measuring instruments, indicating methods and errors. Verification schemes are divided into state, departmental and local.

The state verification scheme applies to all measuring instruments of a given physical quantity available in the country. It is developed in the form of a state standard, consisting of a drawing of a verification scheme and a text part containing an explanation of the drawing.

The departmental verification scheme applies to measuring instruments of a given physical quantity subject to departmental verification.

The local verification scheme applies to measuring instruments of a given physical quantity, subject to verification in a separate body of the metrological service.

Departmental and local verification schemes should not contradict state verification schemes for measuring instruments of the same physical quantities. They can be drawn up in the absence of a state verification scheme and must consist of at least two steps of size transfer. Departmental and local verification schemes are drawn up in the form of a drawing.

A drawing of any verification scheme must contain:
- name of measuring instruments and verification methods;
- nominal values ​​of physical quantities or their ranges;
- permissible values ​​of errors of measuring instruments;
- permissible values ​​of errors of verification methods. The main provisions on verification schemes, the rules for calculating the parameters of calibration schemes and the design of drawings of calibration schemes are given in GOST 8.061-80 GSI. Verification schemes. The content and construction and in the instructions MI 83-76 Method for determining the parameters of verification schemes.

Methods for verification of measuring instruments. Verification is an operation that consists in establishing the suitability of a measuring instrument for use on the basis of experimentally determined metrological characteristics and monitoring their compliance with the requirements. The main metrological characteristic determined during the verification of a measuring instrument is its error. It is based on a comparison of the calibrated measuring instrument with a more accurate one - a working standard or exemplary measuring instrument. There are verifications: state and departmental, periodic and independent, extraordinary and inspection, complex, etc.

The main requirements for the organization and procedure for verification are given in the rules for metrology PR 50.2.006-94 TSI. Verification of measuring instruments. Organization and procedure.

Verification is performed by metrological services, which have been given the right to do so. A measuring instrument recognized as fit for use is formalized by issuing a verification certificate, applying a verification mark, or by other means established by regulatory and technical documents.

Measures can be verified by:
- comparison with a more accurate measure by means of a comparating device. Comparison of measures with the help of a comparator is carried out by the methods of opposition or substitution. Common to e. methods of verification of measuring instruments is the generation of a signal in the presence of a difference in the sizes of the compared values. If this signal is reduced to zero under the standard measure, then the zero measurement method is implemented;
- measurements of a reproducible measure of a quantity with measuring instruments of the appropriate accuracy class. In this case, verification is called calibration. Graduation - making marks on the scale corresponding to the indications of the exemplary measuring instrument or determining, based on its indications, the refined values ​​of the quantity corresponding to the marks on the scale of the working measuring instrument;
- calibration, when only one measure of a set or one of the scale marks of a multi-valued measure is compared with a more accurate measure, and the actual sizes of other measures are determined by their mutual comparison in various combinations on comparators and during further processing of the measurement results.

Verification of measuring instruments is carried out by methods:
- direct comparison of the measured values ​​and the values ​​reproduced by exemplary measures of the corresponding category;
- direct comparison of the readings of the calibrated and exemplary measuring instruments when measuring the same quantity.

There are other verification methods that are used much less frequently by metrological services.

Dictionary Ushakov

Reference

standard n, standard, husband. (Frenchétalon). Sample measure used to check measuring devices in circulation ( those., physical). Meter standard.

| trans. Template, ready measure for something ( books.).

Modern economic dictionary. 1999

REFERENCE

Dictionary of economic terms

Reference

exemplary measure, sample for comparison.

Explanatory Translation Dictionary

Reference

1. Exact sample of the established unit of measure; such an exact measure.

2. Measure, standard, sample.

Thesaurus of Russian business vocabulary

Reference

Syn: sample, standard, standard sample, original

encyclopedic Dictionary

Reference

(French etalon),..

1. measure or measuring device, which serves to reproduce, store and transmit units of any size. The standard approved as the initial one for the country is called the State standard ...
2. (In a figurative sense) - a measure, a model. The international standard for the unit of mass - the kilogram - is a standard platinum-iridium weight in the form of a cylinder with a diameter and a height of 39 mm.

Ozhegov's dictionary

ETAL ABOUT H, A, m.

1. An exact example of an established unit of measurement, such an exact measure itself. Meter-e. International e. units of mass. Radio engineering e.

2. trans. Measure, sample. E. beauty. E. behavior.

| adj. reference, oh, oh (to 1 value). reference time.

Dictionary of Efremova

Reference

1. m.
   1. :
      1. An exact measure or precise measuring device used to reproduce, store and transmit a unit of measurement of smth.
      2. A high precision measuring instrument designed to test other similar instruments.
   2. trans. Measure, role model, comparison.

Encyclopedia of Brockhaus and Efron

Reference

Standards are called samples of measures containing possibly a precisely defined number of units of the measure, the model of which should be E. The measurement of most of the quantities accepted in science and technology can, as is known, be reduced to the measurement of lengths, masses and time intervals. For these basic quantities, ideal units were originally chosen: for a unit of length - one ten millionth part of a quarter of the Parisian earth meridian (meter) and one hundredth of it (centimeter); for a unit of mass - the mass of one cubic centimeter pure water at the temperature of its highest density (gram) and a thousand such units (kilogram); for a unit of time intervals - one second or 86400th part of the mean solar day. As the methods of measurement improved, the conviction became more and more rooted that the above ideal units could not be considered definite, since any researcher who wishes to reproduce these units on the basis of their definitions will receive a value of units different from the previous ones and more or less different from the ideal ones. , depending on the skill of the researcher and on the accuracy of the measuring methods and instruments that he has at his disposal. In view of this, the international congress, which met in Paris in 1875, decided to accept some arbitrary units as units of length and mass, namely: 1) as a unit of length - meter - the prototype of the meter stored in Paris (see Measures) and extremely close to the ideal meter, and 2) as a unit of mass - the prototype of the kilogram, also kept in Paris (see Measures) and extremely close in magnitude to the ideal kilogram. Samples of lengths and masses, precisely verified with prototypes, are available in all states and are normal standards ; about their device, see Measures. All other E. used for accurate measurements are compared with normal E.; this comparison makes it possible to find out the exact value of E. in units of the prototype. E. for periods of time does not exist; the unit of time is still ideal, but the accuracy with which it can be determined is more than sufficient in the present state of science, and the magnitude of the unit can always be controlled very simply by comparatively simple astronomical observations; any good astronomical clock can be considered an E. of time.

Most of the other units accepted in science and technology can be reduced to the basic units of length, mass and time. So, for example, an electrostatic unit of the amount of electricity is taken to be such an amount that, acting in a vacuum on an equal amount located at a distance from it units of length , repels it with a force equal to one force; the unit of force is taken to be the force which, acting on unit of mass , informs it of uniformly accelerated motion with a unit of acceleration; as a unit of acceleration, such an acceleration of the movement of the body is taken when the speed of the body in unit of time increases by one unit of speed; finally, the unit of speed is taken to be the speed of a body passing through unit of length V unit of time.

Thus, the measurement of most physical quantities could be made using only the measures of length, mass and time. But in most cases the methods of such an absolute measurement of quantities are extremely complicated and, if it is desired to achieve significant accuracy, require special instruments, special conditions and extreme care in work. Meanwhile, methods comparisons two homogeneous quantities are usually much simpler, do not require such a complex environment, and in general have much greater accuracy than absolute measurements. So, for example, the absolute measurement of electrical resistance, by reducing it to the measurement of lengths, masses and time, is extremely difficult, while the comparison of resistances is a relatively simple task that is easy to perform even with considerable accuracy. In view of this, in science, wherever possible, they strive to replace the absolute measurement of quantities by comparing them with homogeneous ones, the magnitude of which has once and for all been accurately determined in absolute measure. For this purpose, E. of those quantities are created, the absolute measurement of which presents difficulties. So, for example, in electrical measurements (see), they create standards for potential difference (normal elements, see), resistance, capacitance (capacitors with a known capacitance), self-induction (coils with precisely defined self-induction), etc. These E. times forever measured with great accuracy in absolute measure; copying them, they create other E., and comparing with them homogeneous quantities to be measured, they determine the latter in absolute measure. Since only homogeneous quantities of approximately the same order of magnitude can be compared with great accuracy, one usually tries to have standards of the same physical quantity of different orders. Ordinarily, when possible, one tries to construct standards in such a way that they contain a simple multiple of units, or a simple subdivision of the unit characterized by the standard of magnitude; so, for example, E. resistance, the unit of which is 1 ohm, are in 0.01, 0.1, 1, 100, million ohms. This is not always possible; so, for example, E. potential differences - normal elements - usually give a potential difference that is not in any simple relation to a unit of potential difference - a volt, but still quite precisely defined. Even more important role E. play when measuring those physical quantities that could not be reduced to the basic measures of length, mass and time. An example of such a quantity is the luminous intensity, the unit of which is taken as the luminous intensity of an arbitrarily chosen, but precisely established light source (see Photometry). Absolute measurement of such E. cannot exist, and the only guarantee of the certainty of such E. is its precise manufacture according to certain, once and for all established prescriptions, and its application in once and for all precisely defined conditions. The most important property of any E. is its possible immutability from time and environmental conditions. Therefore, when designing E., they try to build them from materials that are as little subject to wear as possible, they try to give them forms that guarantee their greatest safety and the least influence of environmental conditions on them. In addition, if the influence of external conditions (for example, temperature) is unavoidable, then this influence is carefully studied so that it is known what absolute value the given E. has under any possible combination of external conditions. When using E., it is necessary to know exactly the nature of these influences and try to put E. in such conditions that this influence is either as insignificant as possible or is precisely defined.

The absolute measurement of E. and their comparison with each other is so difficult task that it is sometimes beyond the power of not only individual observers, but also well-equipped laboratories. In view of this, all works of this kind try to Lately concentrated in special government institutions specially adapted for this purpose. The first such institution was the Bureau des Poids et Mesures at Sèvres near Paris; in Germany, a similar institution is the Physikalisch-Technische Reichsanstalt in Charlottenburg near Berlin, in Russia - the Main Chamber of Weights and Measures in St. Petersburg.

A. G.

Russian language dictionaries

French etalon - sample, measure, ideal or established type of something) - 1) the same as the standard; 2) a special form of the ideal, that is, a model that should be imitated. If the standard sets the lower limit of certain characteristics of an object, then E. is the upper limit. The subordination of life and activity (above all, production and technical) to a certain set of E. was especially characteristic of early traditionalist cultures. In the absence of an institute of science and limited experience, the optimal type of product and the optimal method of its manufacture were determined by trial and error. Since literal repetition was impossible, some products turned out to be the most successful and became e. They tried to reproduce, but, as a rule, they achieved only a more or less successful approximation.

The need to subordinate activity to one or another E. ancient philosophy derived from the categories of harmony and measure. Measure as the best, standard proportion was considered an essential sign of harmony. Accordingly, in any kind of activity, a person had to strive to follow E. In this case, the results turned out to be the best and organically included in the overall harmony of the Cosmos. During this period, the term "canon" (i.e., rule, prescription), synonymous with E., was more often used. In art, the canon meant a set of rules that had to be followed in the process of creating artwork. The rules contained the optimal ratio of the parts of the depicted or created objects. In logic, the canon included rules for the knowledge of truth. Subsequently, in religion, the canon is a set of sacred books containing unconditional truth.

The culture-creating function of E. was most significant for medieval Western European culture. The craftsman sought to reproduce E. products that are generally accepted for the workshop, of which he was a member. A student became a master if he managed to make a masterpiece - a product approaching E. The generally accepted E. determined the standard technology in its main features, contributed to the formation of figurative object representations explaining it, set the structure of the association of artisans, within which E. was reproduced, i.e. shop, which was both a production and social unit. The activities of all social strata were built according to a similar scheme. So, for chivalry, the object of imitation served as a material form of E. - one of the heroes of antiquity, the legendary knights of the past or illustrious contemporaries; technological form - a set of generally accepted rules of conduct that were subject to strict observance; ideal - a set of qualities befitting a knight. The analogue of the craft workshop was the knightly order, the production of the masterpiece corresponded to the standard feat, giving the squire the right to the status of a knight. IN cognitive activity the general tendency to reproduce E. determined the predominance of such a form of knowledge as commenting on the standard (canonical) text. Since such a text was recognized as the highest form of knowledge containing complete truth, a direct appeal to the object of knowledge was not considered necessary. The role of the masterpiece-feat in academic environment played the public defense of a dissertation - a scientific treatise in which reference texts were commented on according to certain standard rules.

In modern times, the main areas of functioning of E. became exact sciences and technique. E. refers to measuring instruments or their complexes that ensure the reproduction and storage of legal units of physical quantities, as well as the transfer of their size by other measuring instruments. Without E. it is impossible to achieve comparability of the results of measurements performed using different instruments in different places and in different time. These include the metrics of the meter, kilogram, and second. The development of the metrics system was stimulated by a general cultural value orientation toward precision, which was set by machine production and by the universal spread of standardization.

In modern spiritual culture, the cultural phenomena of the past, which are considered the most significant, for example, the art of antiquity and the Renaissance, Russian classical literature, German classical philosophy, etc., act as E. They do not seek to imitate literally, but, since progress is not clearly expressed in the spiritual sphere , they a) set the "height" of creativity, b) are sources of creative experience and comprehension. The presence of E. ensures the continuity of spiritual culture. Personalized forms of E., despite the weakening of the tendency to imitate, characteristic of the pre-industrial era, persist. As a rule, for the people of E. are not "great" or prominent figures, known for their services to society, and those that can be imitated for ordinary person. As an E., literary characters or heroes of cinema can act. The preference shown to this or that person, her recognition as E. to a large extent characterizes the corresponding historical period and social group.

A reference (measurement standard) may be a physical measure, a measuring instrument, a reference material, or a measurement system designed to define, realize, store, or reproduce a unit or one or more quantity values ​​to serve as a reference. For example, a unit of mass is given a physical form in the form of a cylindrical piece of metal weighing 1 kg; and graduated blocks represent specific length values.

The benchmark hierarchy starts with the international benchmark as the top and goes down to the working benchmark. The definition of these terms, which is given in the International Dictionary of Basic and General Terms in Metrology, is given below:

The international standard is:

standard recognized international agreement in order to serve internationally as a basis for assigning values ​​to other standards for measuring the quantity in question.

The custodian of international measurement standards is the Bureau International des Poids et Mesures (BIPM) in Sèvres, near Paris. The oldest measurement standard in use is the kilogram standard.

The national benchmark is:

a standard recognized by national law to serve in a given country as the basis for assigning values ​​to other standards for measuring the quantity in question.

Usually the custodian of national standards is a national laboratory called the national metrology institute, the national bureau of standards, or the national bureau of weights and measures. Some countries do not have national standards.

The primary standard is:

a standard that is widely recognized as having the highest metrological qualities and whose values ​​are accepted without reference to other standards of the same magnitude.

Examples of primary standards are Josephson devices for realizing the "volt" value, or stabilizing lasers with interferometers for realizing the "length" value. These instruments are used as national standards by many national metrology institutes and some well-equipped calibration laboratories.

The secondary standard is:

a standard whose value is assigned by comparison with a primary standard of the same magnitude. Typically, primary standards are used to calibrate secondary standards.

The working standard is:

a standard that is used for the routine calibration or verification of physical measures, measuring instruments or reference materials.

Typically, a working standard is calibrated against a secondary standard. The working standard used in daily work to ensure that measurements are made correctly is called a verification standard.

There is no general requirement for the accuracy of a working standard. In one place it may be good enough as an initial reference, or even as a national reference elsewhere.

There are weight classes starting with E1 as the highest class, followed by E2, Fl, F2, Ml, M2, M3. A set of balances of accuracy class E2 can serve as a working standard in a calibration laboratory to calibrate a set of balances of accuracy class F1 or lower. The E2 set can serve as a reference material in another laboratory calibrating balances mainly with an accuracy of class F2 or lower. A set of weights of class E2 can be used as a national standard in a country where there is no demand for more accurate measurements mass than F1.

It should be noted that the accuracy of some measuring instruments used in industry is so high that even primary standards need to be calibrated.

The original standard is:

standard, which, as a rule, has the highest metrological properties, available at a given place or in a given organization, according to which the size of the unit is obtained in measurements performed at that place.

Calibration laboratories use reference standards to calibrate their working standards.

The benchmark for comparison is:

a benchmark used as an intermediate for comparing benchmarks.

Resistors are used as reference standards to compare voltage standards. Weights are used to compare balances.

The mobile standard is:

standard, sometimes of a special design, intended for transportation, and used to compare standards with each other.

A portable cesium battery powered frequency standard can be used as a mobile frequency standard. Calibrated dynamometric elements (load cells) are used as mobile force standards.

Related information:

1. A. In a liquid state. B. In an amorphous state. B. In a gaseous state. D. In a crystalline state. E. Such an arrangement of atoms is possible in any state of matter