Ancient Ethiopia. What is the history of Ethiopia

Short story Ethiopia

Kirill Lesitsko

Ethiopia - a country with ancient Christianity and imperial organization has become the "promised land" for all Rastas. But not every Rasta knows "where it came from-" That's why we will try to cover this issue at least briefly.
Ethiopia or Abyssinia (from the Arabic name of the country - Habashat) is mainly inhabited by the peoples of the Semitic-Hamitic family, that is, Semites and Kushites. If the Kushites can be called Negroes (Negroids), then the Semites are closer to the Arabs and Jews. The Semites are the main peoples who created the first Ethiopian state: Amhara, Tigre, Tigray, Gurage.
The landscape of the country is mainly a plateau with small (50-800m in diameter and 5-20m) rounded table mountains (amba). As the name implies, they have an absolutely flat surface and sheer walls. Therefore, they are natural fortresses, which during the invasions, if necessary, were additionally strengthened and served as shelters for the population.
The first Ethiopian state - Aksum. Begins to be mentioned from the end of the 1st century. It originated in the north of modern Ethiopia, in the territory now inhabited by tigers. The reigning dynasty leads its own from Menelik - the son of the biblical King Solomon and the Queen of Sheba, and therefore is called the Solomonides. The first king (Negus) was Zoskal. The events of pre-Christian Ethiopia are practically unknown to us due to the lack of annals. Meanwhile, the fame of Aksum grew and at the end of the 3rd century, the Copts-Manichaeans already called it "one of the four kingdoms of the world" along with Rome, Persia and China. Aksum takes part in big politics. Huge irrigation facilities, dams, reservoirs are being erected. The capital is built up with majestic palaces. Seven giant stelae are being erected in the center of the capital. The largest of them was a monolith with a height of 33.5 m. Only a 23-meter stele has survived to this day, decorated with images of windows, which makes it look like modern American skyscrapers.
The language of Aksum was Geez. In contrast to the general Semitic tradition, writing here developed from left to right, as in Europe.
In 330, two young Christians from Tyre, after their ship was wrecked, were received at the Aksumite court. One of them, Frumentius, converted King Ezanu to his faith.
Ordained a priest by Patriarch Athanasius of Alexandria, Frumentius returned to Ethiopia and became the first bishop of Aksum. Ezana's reign was brilliant: South Arabia was annexed, Nubia and Shoah were conquered, representatives of the Ethiopian church participate in ecumenical councils on a par with the Byzantines.
Then came the time of Ezana's successors, about whom we know little, but that they lost control of South Arabia (Himyar) is an irrefutable fact.
A century and a half later came the reign of Caleb (510-558), as glorious as the reign of Ezana. It was then that Cosmas Indicoplus visited and described Aksum (circa 520). At the same time, the whole of Christendom was agitated by the war of the Aksumites with Himyar. In South Arabia, the influence of the Jews greatly increased; cases have come to light religious intolerance. One Jewish king, Dhu Nuwas, even massacred Christians in the city of Nagran. Caleb sent a military expedition there. Thus, the ruler of Aksum acted as a champion and defender of the Christian faith, and by the way, again annexed Himyar. Emperor Justinian saw fit to send in 531. an embassy to the Aksumites with a request for help from powerful fellow believers against Persia.
After Kaleb's death, one of the viceroys of Himyar, Abraha, declared himself independent. Envying the great sanctuary of the Kaaba and wanting to turn his own basilica in Sanaa into the religious center of Arabia, he equipped a military campaign against Mecca with the participation of elephants. The name of one of the surahs of the Koran is determined by this event: thus the year of the birth of the prophet is called "the year of the elephant." The unsuccessful campaign entailed dire consequences. He contributed to the awakening of the Arabs of the Hijaz and thus prepared the birth of a new religion.
As a passive observer, Aksum is present at the birth and development of Islam. In the beginning, relations between Aksumites and Muslims were friendly. In 615, Osman, the nephew of Muhammad, took refuge in Ethiopia, and after him other supporters of the prophet took refuge in the kingdom of Aksum during the Hijra period, Bilal, the first muezzin of Muhammad, was an Ethiopian. Ethiopia was not affected by the great waves of Arab conquests, but there was a gradual Islamization of the surrounding pagan tribes (Danakil, Hadendoa, Zanefaj, etc.), which later turned into a big problem.
The once lush civilization of Aksum was slowly fading away. Ethiopia's relations with the Christian kingdoms of Nubia were not close. And in general, Ethiopia was cut off from the rest Christendom: for centuries, Europe almost did not remember its existence. The most serious clashes in early middle ages happened not with Muslims, but with pagans and Jews. Especially with the Agau tribes (partly pagans, partly Jews). These ancient tribes occupied the highlands in the great bend of the Blue Nile. A certain queen from Simen, a Jewess named Gudit, destroyed the city of Aksum and persecuted Christians for 40 years. At the very end of the 10th century, the ruler of Aksum sends a letter to King George in Nubia; he describes the devastation caused by the invasion of the troops of the neighboring queen, and asks him to mediate before the patriarch of Alexandria, so that he would send a metropolitan (abune) to Ethiopia. Indeed, the ruler attributed all the hardships that befell his country to the fact that the place of abune had been empty for a long time. The new metropolitan arrived and the invasion was repulsed. Nevertheless, the Aksumite civilization was declining.
At the beginning of the 12th century, the ruling king of the Solomonid dynasty, Delnoad, was overthrown, and the Zagüe dynasty, of Agau origin, took over the kingdom. She moved the capital from Aksum to Roha, which later became known as Lalibela, after the most famous king of this dynasty, who is considered a saint. We owe him 11 churches carved into the rock, which are the pearl of world architecture. His son Naakueto Laab also built churches. But this did not help Zagüe stay on the throne.
In the middle of the 13th century, Yikune Amlak, a descendant of the last Solomonid king, led a rebellion against Zague, and the fifth king of this dynasty, Yetbarak, was killed in battle in 1268. The story of the fall of Zagüe is obscure due to conflicting tradition and written sources, which say that the great Ethiopian saint Tekle Haymanot persuaded Yetbarak to return the kingdom to the rightful dynasty.
Yikune Amlyak reigned for 15 years under the name of John (Yohannis), then his son, Yagbya Tziyon, reigned under the name of Solomon, ascended the throne, he is credited with introducing a practice that then existed for several centuries: when the king ascended the throne, he was thrown into prison on Mount Amba Geshen, all my brothers to eliminate possible contenders to the throne from royal family without putting them to death.
In 1312, Amde Tsion ascended the throne under the name Gabre Mascal. It was during his reign that the first major clash with the Muslims took place. In 1329, Sabr ad-Din, the king of Yifat attacked Ethiopia threatening to conquer the whole country. Amde Zion gathered his army and fought stubbornly against the much larger army of Muslims, which, in the end, was utterly defeated by him. Five Muslim states - Ifat, Khadya, Davaro, Bali and Fatagar became vassals of the king of Ethiopia. During his reign, Abune (Metropolitan) Yaykob (Jacob) established the position of ychege (head of all monks), making him the second person in the Ethiopian church. And although later the ychege was appointed king, he was usually the abbot of Debre-Libanos (the monastery of St. Tekle Haymanot, the main one in Ethiopia). In contrast to the Abune, who until 1950 was always an Egyptian appointed by Alexandria, the ychege was an Ethiopian.
After Amde Zion, due to the increasing frequency of Muslim raids, the permanent capital ceased to exist, and the kings moved around living in a tent, and settled in various places during the rainy season, some of these temporary residences to some extent received the status of the capital. Such residences were guarded by a triple ring of guards, not only military, but also spiritual. Around the king's tent, inside the perimeter of the camp, and from the outside of its limits, day and night, hundreds of monks read prayers, made religious processions, sprinkled with holy water, preventing evil from penetrating inside.
The son of Amde Zion - Nevaya Krystos reigned under the name of Saif Arad (1342-1370), he started a war with Egypt, due to the fact that the Egyptian sultan imprisoned Markos, the patriarch of Alexandria, and achieved his release.
Davit I (1380-1409) the son of Nevaya Krystos is known only for ending the war with the Sultan of Egypt.
Yishak (1412-1427) reigned under the name Gebre Maskal. The youngest son of Davit I, he fought with the Muslims, led by Saad ad-Din. He defeated Saad ad-Din and drove him to the coast and captured the port of Massawa.
Zera Yaykob (1433-1468), the younger brother of Davit I, reigned under the name Kastantinos, was a powerful and skillful ruler. The kingdom to which his authority extended extended from Tigre to Shoah. He built many churches and wrote seven theological books. He fought those who still worshiped pagan gods, including his own children, he killed four of his five sons.
He reorganized the administrative apparatus. The most significant was the establishment of the post of behtvadad (first minister), under subsequent kings, this function began to be performed by two behtvadad, on the right side (highest) and on the left side (assistant).
Libne Dyngyl (1508-1540) reigned under the names Vanag Sagad, Davit, Ytana Dyngyl. A lot happened during his reign, the main thing is, of course, the invasion of Gran, which for Ethiopia is the same as the invasion of Batu for Russia. But first there was the arrival of an embassy from the Portuguese king, with a proposal for an alliance against the Muslims, which was headed by Rodrigo da Lima. The embassy also included the Reverend Francisco Alvares, who represented not so much the Portuguese as the Jesuits. As a result, there were continuous quarrels between Lima and Alvarish, which terribly shocked the Ethiopians, who were uninitiated in the intricacies of European politics, and for whom it was strange to imagine their king and metropolitan in such a situation, which was the main reason for the failure of the embassy.
In the unfortunate year of the departure of the Portuguese ambassadors, Libne Dyngyl sent an army to Adal, under the command of the azmach (voivode) Dygalkhan, to take countermeasures against the Muslim raids. Unfortunately, Zeila was on his way, the troops of the ruler of which were commanded by Ahmed ibn Ibrahim al-Ghazi, nicknamed Gran (Lefty). In a short battle near the walls of Zeila, the Ethiopian army was defeated, Dygalkhan himself was killed. After that, the Muslims, raised by Gran's call to exterminate the infidels, flooded into Ethiopia en masse. The country was devastated from south to north. Many monasteries and churches were looted and burned, even the cathedral in Aksum was destroyed. Libne Dyngyl was chased all over the country. He died in 1540 when the country fell almost entirely into Muslim hands.
In his unfortunate reign, the gradual penetration of Galla pastoralists into Ethiopia began. They spread from the southwest, coming from the area of ​​Lake Rudolf, moved northward, occupying a significant part of Central Ethiopia. The Galla did not cause terrible destruction to the country, their presence was of a different, more long-term nature, they mixed with the Ethiopian population, remaining forever. The Ethiopians were occupied with the war with Gran, and could not appreciate the scope and significance of this.
Galavdevos (1540-1559) reigned under the name of Atznaf Sagad. Although Galavdevos was the youngest of the surviving sons of Libne Dyngyl, it was he who became king, since the eldest son Minas was a prisoner of the Muslims. Although he was young and inexperienced, he continued the war with Gran very vigorously and assertively.
One of the members of the Portuguese embassy, ​​Juan Bermudish, who remained in the country, was sent by Libne Dyngnyl to Portugal with a request for help against Gran. João III of Portugal ordered the viceroy of India, Garcia da Noronha, to send an expedition to Ethiopia. But Noronha died suddenly, and his successor Estevan da Gama was in no hurry to send help, which was so lacking; he equipped an insignificant expedition to the Red Sea only in 1540, when Libne Dyngyl died. Nevertheless, about 400 Portuguese musketeers, armed with the most modern firearms, under the command of the viceroy's brother, Cristovan da Gama, joined the Ethiopian army.
On February 11, 1542, to the east of Lake Tana, a great battle took place, in which Cristovan da Gama, with a well-aimed shot, defeated Gran. This put an end to the war, the country was gradually liberated, the power of the king was restored everywhere. The Portuguese, as a reward for their help, received vast lands in the best parts of the country.
Bermudish, who brought the Portuguese, was an ignorant and tactless person, began to claim the title of head of the Ethiopian church, his behavior caused misunderstandings between the Portuguese and the king. He was expelled for general peace and tranquility.
In 1555 the Jesuits sent Andre de Oviedo to Ethiopia as a "bishop". One of the theologians who accompanied him wrote a treatise in which he argued for the superiority of the Catholic religion. To this Galavdevos, himself, brilliantly answered with the "Confession of Faith", which has theological significance even today.
Believing that the Behtvadads gradually became too powerful, Galavdevos abolished these positions and began to rule without the help of ministers. But such measures greatly hampered the king's struggle against the invasion of the Gauls.
In 1558, Nur ibn Mujahid, emir of Harar and Gran's nephew, resumed hostilities to avenge his uncle's death. In March 1559, in one of the battles, he killed Galavdevos and returned to Harar with his head on a spear.
Minas (1559-1563) reigned under the name of Admas Sagad. He inherited his younger brother who had no sons, who freed him from Muslim captivity. But Minas, just like his father, was unsuccessful in governing the state. An army revolted, proclaiming as king a certain Tazkaro, the illegitimate son of one of his brothers. The uprising was crushed, but the main instigator of the uprising, Bahr Negash (governor of the coastal provinces) Yishak, fled, and prompted the Turkish pasha in Massawa to attack Minas, who soon died.
Serce Dingyl (1563-1597) reigned under the name Malyak Sagad. This son of Minas became king at the age of 13. With the support of Yishak, actions against the king continued, puppet kings were proclaimed. While the uprisings continued, the king organized two military campaigns to the south, against the Gauls who attacked the Vaj, and inflicted a serious defeat on them in 1572.
The treacherous Bahr Negash Yishak revolted again in 1575. Promising his support, he induced Mohammad, king of Adal, to capture Waj; however, Mohammad was defeated. Then Yishak joined the Turks in Massawa. Serce Dingyl went to the Tigris, defeated the Turks and killed Yishak in 1579. In addition to periodic battles with the Gauls (who, in particular, were defeated in 1572, 1577, 1585, 1587), Serce Dyngyl was busy with wars against the Falash in Simen and Agau west of Gojjam. The Falasha chiefs were defeated in 1590. Agau were subordinated during two campaigns. Then the king went to Enarya, where he converted the leader Badancho to the Christian faith and erected Christian churches.
In 1588 when the Turks from Massawa invaded the Tigris and defeated Daharagot, the Makwannin (governor) of Tigris, the king hastily arrived there at the head of an army and crushed them.
Serce Dingul restored the post of first minister, although with some changes: instead of two ministers, there was now one, who took the title of races; his duties included military affairs rather than civil administration.

Ethiopia is home to approximately 80 different nationalities, as well as many religious and linguistic groups of people, which speaks of the very colorful nature of this country. Ethiopia is a combination of poverty and wealth, urbanization and nature. In this country you can see rock temples, the largest African market, unique nature and no less unique wildlife.

Ethiopia is located in East Africa. It borders Eritrea to the north, Djibouti and Somalia to the east, and Sudan to the west. South Sudan, and in the south with Kenya. There is no access to the sea. The total area of ​​this state is 1,104,300 sq. km., and the total length of the state border is 5,328 km.

Most of Ethiopia is located in the Horn of Africa, which is the easternmost part of the African continent. The territory of this African country is very diverse - there are not only lowlands, steppes, deserts and semi-deserts, but also mountains, as well as rainforests. In general, about 70% of the country's territory is occupied by the Ethiopian highlands. The highest local peak is Mount Ras Dashen, whose height reaches 4,620 meters.

Addis Ababa is the capital of Ethiopia. The population of this city is now more than 3 million people. Addis Ababa was founded in 1886 by the Ethiopian Emperor Menelik II.

The official language is Amharic, belonging to the Ethiopian group of the South Semitic branch of the Semitic language family.

About 62 inhabitants are Christians (Ethiopian Eastern Christian church and Protestants), about 32% are Muslims, and approximately 2.6% consider themselves supporters of traditional African religious cults.

According to the 1995 Constitution, Ethiopia is a federal democratic republic headed by a President elected for 6 years.

The bicameral Ethiopian Parliament is called the Federal Parliamentary Assembly, it consists of the Federation Council (110 people) and the Council of People's Representatives (547 deputies).

Main political parties- "Revolutionary Democratic Front of the Ethiopian Peoples", "Democratic Party of Somalis" and "Democratic Party of the Peoples of Benishangul-Gumuz".

Administratively, the country is divided into 9 states and two self-governing cities (Addis Ababa and Dire Dawa).

Ethiopia has three climatic zones, depending on the height above sea level. It is cooler in the highlands and hot in the lowlands. Kolla ( tropical zone) - mean annual temperature air + 27C, and the average annual rainfall is 510 mm. (Woina dega) subtropical zone) - the average annual air temperature is +22C, and the average annual rainfall is from 510 to 1,530 mm. Dega (cold zone) - the average annual air temperature is +16C, and the average annual rainfall is 1,270 mm.

The rainy season starts in June and ends in September. Dry season is from October to May best time to visit Ethiopia).

The most full-flowing Ethiopian rivers flow in the west of the country. This is, first of all, the Blue Nile River, whose length reaches 1,600 kilometers. To the north is Lake Tana, which is the source of the Blue Nile.

Ethiopia is home to over 80 ethnic groups of people, each with their own language, culture and traditions. In this country, men and women have clearly defined roles in society. Traditionally, men are responsible for representing the family outside the home, while women are responsible for all homework and for the children.

Ethiopian parents are often more strict with their daughters than with their sons. In general, men have more freedom than women. However, over time, the roles of men and women, even in such a traditional society as the Ethiopian, are gradually changing.

In Ethiopia, you can still find tribes that do not wear any clothes at all. People in these tribes simply decorate their bodies with tattoos.

Ethiopian cuisine is unique even for Africa, it has developed in isolation from the culinary traditions of others African countries. It should be noted that Ethiopians do not eat pork for religious reasons.

A traditional Ethiopian dish is "wat", which is a hot spicy stew with a large thin pancake (flat cake) "injera". There are many varieties of "wat" (chicken, lamb, beef, vegetables, lentils, peas). Often this dish is served with hot spices called "berbere".

Berbere is made from dried hot red peppers, herbs, spices, dried onions, garlic and salt. Usually "wat" is placed on "berbere". This dish, however, like many others, is eaten by Ethiopians with their hands.

We also recommend trying Asa wat (fish stew), Doro wat (chicken stew), Enkulal (omelette with peppers and tomatoes), Kai wat (very spicy beef, or goat or sheep meat), Messer "(lentil curry), "Shiro" (mashed chickpeas), "Tere sega" (raw meat, considered a delicacy), "Tibs" (fried lamb with garlic and vegetables).

Traditional soft drink - "bunna" (coffee) The preparation of "bunna" in Ethiopia is very unique, and therefore this process is called "coffee ceremony".

Traditional alcoholic beverages are tella (Ethiopian barley beer), tej (honey fermented alcoholic beverage) and kaitaka (strong alcoholic grain beverage).

Ethiopia has many interesting sights. It can even be said that a trip to any attraction is even more interesting than it in itself.

In Addis Ababa, we recommend that you definitely visit the National Museum, which has a huge collection of objects that tell about the centuries-old history of Ethiopia. Also, do not forget to see the largest African market "Merkato" in the Ethiopian capital, the palace of Emperor Menelik II, the Archaeological Museum and the Coptic Church of St. George, built in 1896 in honor of the victory over the Italian colonialists.

Of great interest to tourists is the medieval city of Lalibela, in which 11 rock temples have survived to this day.

In the north of the country there is a huge granite obelisk of Aksum, built in the 3rd century AD. Its weight is 160 tons. In the late 1930s, the Italians removed this historical monument from Ethiopia, and returned it only at the beginning of the 20th century.

Most big cities- Addis Ababa (more than 3 million people), Dire Dawa (more than 355 thousand people), Nazrete (more than 300 thousand people), Gondar (250 thousand people) and Mekele (220 thousand people).

Most tourists come to Ethiopia to see the sights of this country, look at its cities, get acquainted with the customs local residents and with unique local nature.

As souvenirs, handicrafts, embroidered soft toys (most often rhinos and camels), traditional Ethiopian knives with leather sheaths, jewelry, Ethiopian coffee beans are brought from Ethiopia as souvenirs.

Banks:
Mon-Thu: 08:00-15:00
Fri: 08:00-11:00 and 13:30-15:00
Sat: 08:30-11:00

The shops:
Mon-Fri: 08:00-13:00 and 14:00-20:00
Sat: 09:00-13:00, 15:00-19:00

In 1-4 centuries. in the Ethiopian province of Tigray and on the territory of today's Eritrea, an autochthonous civilization and statehood, the early feudal kingdom of Aksum, was born and developed. It became the historical and geographical source of the Ethiopian state. From the 4th c. Christianity spreads in Aksum. 8th-10th centuries - the period of the decline of Aksum and the beginning of Islamic expansion. In the 12th century there is a consolidation of Christian Ethiopian lands. From con. 13th c. the conflict between the Christian kingdom and the Muslim sultanates grew.

For the 16th century the resettlement of the pastoral Oromo tribes into the territory of E., to the end. centuries, they settled widely in the Ethiopian highlands and became part of its multi-ethnic population. The prevailing myth of a Christian island in a sea of ​​Islamic encirclement reflected the non-factual ratio of Christians and Muslims in the population of a vast territory, where for centuries common history Islamic and pagan states coexisted with Christian feudal states. The myth reflected a single trend in the development of the Ethiopian civilization, the ideology of which was the culture of orthodox Monophysite Christianity.

Feudal fragmentation characterizes E. during the 17-18 and 1st half. 19th centuries Attempts to collect under their rule all the provinces that were ever part of the empire were made by Emperor Tewodros II (from 1855) and Emperor Yohannis IV (from 1872). But only Emperor Menelik II (1889-1913) managed to centralize the Ethiopian state. Under the threat of expanding the expansion of the Italian colonialists, Menelik ceded some northern territories to Italy. Having united the occupied territories on the Red Sea into one colony - Eritrea, Italy made further attempts to conquer the Ethiopian territories. The Battle of Adua on March 1, 1896 was decisive for the victory of the Ethiopians. Italy recognized the independence of Estonia. In contrast to plans to seize the Ethiopian territories in the south, southwest and southeast of the country, Menelik in 1893-98 expanded the borders of the empire at the expense of regions, some of which were once part of it.

Emperor Haile Selassie I, who ascended the throne in 1930, turned E. into absolute monarchy. In 1936-41 the country was occupied by fascist Italy. After the end of the 2nd World War, the mandate to govern Eritrea was transferred to the UN. In accordance with a resolution of the UN General Assembly, against which only the USSR opposed, in 1952 Eritrea, together with Eritrea, formed federal state. However, as early as 1962, Eritrea became one of the provinces of Eritrea. Despite the Constitution of 1955, which provided for a parliament elected by the citizens, Eritrea continued to be a purely feudal country. The general economic backwardness and the ever-increasing uprisings of the brutally exploited peasants gradually weakened the ruling regime. In January 1974, the army came out against the emperor. The monarchy was officially abolished in March 1975.

At the head of the state stood the Provisional Military Administrative Council (VVAS, or "Derg" in Amharic). The VVAS became the vanguard of the Ethiopian revolution, overcoming disagreements with its opponents with brutal physical reprisals. In February 1977, the first deputy chairman of the Council, Lieutenant Colonel Mengistu Haile Mariam, physically eliminating rivals, seized power, taking the post of chairman of the BBAS. The red terror began in the country, the victims of which were thousands of people. In 1977, Mengistu announced a course of socialist orientation, in 1984 the Workers' Party of E. (RPE) was created, in 1987 a new constitution was adopted, the country became known as the People's Democratic Republic of E.

Under Mengistu, power was even more centralized than under the monarch, and even the appearance of democracy disappeared, aided by a one-party system. The radical nature of the agrarian reform of 1975 was the abolition of feudal ownership of land. However, by transferring all the land to public ownership, the state took the place of the feudal lord as the owner of the land, which made it possible to carry out programs for collectivization, resettlement from farms to common villages and resettlement large masses population. The role of the state was decisive in intervening in the economy, i.e. the essence of the regime was command system economic management. For 17 years totalitarian regime in almost all indicators of economic growth, the country did not move forward, was defeated national policy authorities, in different parts countries have matured or have long operated clandestine, illegal separatist movements. Allied TPLF military successes ( People's Front Liberation of Tigray) and EPLF (People's Front for the Liberation of Eritrea) contributed to their activation. In 1989, the TPLF established control over the province of Tigray and merged with the People's Democratic Movement of E., an organization of the Amhara people, to form the Revolutionary Democratic Front of the Ethiopian Peoples (RDFEN). As we moved south, other organizations were created and merged with the Front. On May 28, 1991, EPRDF forces entered Addis Ababa and established an interim government. At the same time, the NPLF seized control of the entire territory of Eritrea. In July 1991, at a conference on the transition to peace and democracy, a Transitional Charter and a Declaration on Eritrea were adopted, providing for its right to independence through a referendum. In May 1995, multi-party parliamentary elections were held, and in August 1995, parliament approved new constitution and the name of the country.