The emergence of needs leads, according to P.K. Anokhin (1949, 1968), to the appearance of negative emotions that play a mobilizing role, contributing to the most rapid satisfaction of needs in the best way. When Feedback confirms that the programmed result has been achieved, i.e. that the need is satisfied, a positive emotion arises. It acts as the final reinforcing factor, being fixed in memory, it participates in the motivational process in the future, influencing the decision to choose the way to satisfy the need. If the result obtained is not consistent with the program, emotional anxiety arises, leading to the search for other, more successful ways to achieve the goal. Repeated satisfaction of needs, colored with positive emotion, contributes to the learning of the corresponding activity, and repeated failures in obtaining the programmed result cause inhibition of inefficient activity and the search for new, more successful ways to achieve the goal.

Chapter 2 THEORIES OF EMOTION

2.14. Cognitive theory of emotions M. Arnold - R. Lazarus

For M. Arnold, an intuitive assessment of an object acts as a cognitive determinant of emotions. Emotion, like action, follows this assessment. “First I see something, then I imagine that this “something” is dangerous – and as soon as I imagine it, I am scared and run.” Thus, according to Arnold, we are afraid because we think we are being threatened. She believes that as soon as a person in a direct and intuitive way comes to the conclusion that this or that subject is worth mastering, he immediately feels the attraction of this subject. As soon as a person intuitively concludes that something threatens him, he immediately feels that it has acquired a repulsive character and that it must be avoided. The emerging tendency to act, being expressed in various bodily changes, is experienced as an emotion. Evaluation, according to Arnold, is characterized by immediacy, immediacy and unintentionality, i.e. intuition. This intuitive evaluation is understood by the author as a "sensory judgment", in contrast to the abstract "reflexive judgment".

In the concept of R. Lazarus (Lazarus et al., 1970), the idea of ​​cognitive determination of emotions is also central. He believes that cognitive mediation is necessary condition for the emergence of emotions. However, he criticizes M. Arnold for the fact that the concept of "assessment" remains subjective and is not associated with facts that can be directly observed, which leads to ignoring the question of the conditions that determine the assessment.

Two provisions are central to the concept of Lazarus:

Every emotional reaction, regardless of its content, is a function of a special kind of cognition or evaluation;

The emotional response is a kind of syndrome, each of the components of which reflects some important point in the overall reaction.

The central concept of the concept of Lazarus is "threat", understood as an assessment of the situation based on the anticipation of a future collision (confrontation) with harm, and the anticipation is based on signals assessed using cognitive processes. In essence, Lazarus considers affective reactions, and not just experience, since for him emotion, judging by the first and especially latest work, is a syndrome that includes three main groups of symptoms - subjective experiences, physiological changes and motor reactions. As soon as a certain stimulus is assessed as threatening, processes are immediately set in motion aimed at eliminating or reducing harm, i.e. threat management processes. Trends in action regarding the presence of a threat and its elimination are reflected in various symptoms emotional reactions. Thus, the scheme of the emergence of emotion looks like this: perception? primary assessment? research activity? (personal meaning of actions in the assessed situation) ? secondary assessment? action trend? emotion as a manifestation of a tendency in experience, physiological changes and motor reactions.

Positive in the author's ideas is that the determinants of the assessment are both situational and dispositional factors, i.e. personality traits. Hence, the same situation causes different people a different assessment and, as a result, a different emotional reaction. However, it should be noted that in Lazarus's theory too much attention is paid to both the analysis of the determinants of the evaluation process and adaptive reactions to the perception of a threat, and less attention is paid to the mechanisms of the emergence of the emotion itself.

A detailed critical analysis of the concept of Lazarus was given by I.A. Vasiliev (1976). Assessing this concept as a whole as a step forward on the path of rapprochement between emotion and action, the emotional sphere and behavior, he makes a number of remarks. The most significant, in our opinion, are the following:

1. Emotion appears not only at the end of cognitive activity as its results, but also in the course of cognitive activity, contributing to its success. Lazarus ignores this.

2. There are two meanings of the concept of "evaluation", in one of which emotion itself performs an evaluative function (emotional evaluation). Lazarus does not correlate his understanding of evaluation with the existing one in psychology, which creates uncertainty in its interpretation.

3. Lazarus proves the dependence of the emergence of emotions on evaluation, using in experiments a primitive cognitive activity. Therefore, the actual evaluation processes remain hypothetical in the author's concept.

4. Lazarus, identifying motivation only with motivation, i.e. narrowing this concept, not entirely justified criticism of the motivational theory of emotions. (This is striking; after all, the diagram above itself resembles the stages in the development of motivation.)

5. If emotion is the final stage of the evaluation process, then it remains unexplained what it is for.

Finally, it is hardly justified to associate the emergence of emotions only with cognitive activity.

One version of the cognitive theory of emotions (Ortony et al., 1988) argues that only the verbal factor (language and self-report) is relevant to the mechanism of triggering emotional experiences. At the same time, physiological and behavioral manifestations of emotions are considered only an accompaniment or consequence of these experiences. According to N. Frijda (Frijda, 1986), the neurophysiological mechanism is not capable of evoking emotions, it only creates the conditions for them.

Cognitive theories do not take into account the presence of emotions that arise unconditionally reflexively. Biologically significant stimuli are the source of various emotional experiences. At least, all experiences associated with the emotional tone of sensations (pleasant - unpleasant, pain, etc.) cause an emotional response on their own, without cognitive processes. Many emotions do not require the participation of the cerebral cortex and the processes of conscious processing of information. J. LeDoyx (1989) showed that when the visual and auditory cortex is removed from rats, the fear reaction occurs when the subcortical structures of the thalamus and amygdala are excited. Thus, often we first feel, experience the sensation, and only then do we recognize and understand what we experience. Consequently, the path of the emergence of emotion can be not only the same as described by cognitive theories: cognitive process (attribution) ? emotion, but also like this: sensation? emotional reaction? cognitive responses? increased emotional response.

As N.N. Danilova (2000), cognitive, evaluative operations that affect emotions are realized in the brain, which is already emotional and is not affectively neutral. She believes that a purely cognitive determinant of emotions does not exist at all. Emotion to a significant stimulus is the unity of affective-cognitive processes.

Chapter 2. THEORIES OF EMOTION

Questions for self-examination

1. What are the main concepts of the evolutionary theory of Ch. Darwin.

2. What is the essence of the "associative" theory of W. Wundt?

3. What are the features of the psychoanalytic theory of emotions?

4. What are the theories that explain the mechanisms of the emergence of emotions.

5. Theory of W. Cannon - P. Bard.

6. Information theory P.V. Simonov.

7. The theory of differential emotions K.

8. Fundamental emotions.

9. Biological theory of emotions P.K. Anokhin.

Every adult knows what emotions are, because. experienced them many times since early childhood. However, when asked to describe some emotion, to explain what it is, as a rule, a person experiences great difficulties. Experiences, sensations that accompany emotions are difficult to describe formally. A lot has been written about emotions both in fiction and in literature. scientific literature, they are of interest to philosophers, physiologists, psychologists, clinicians. Emotions were studied by such prominent scientists as R. Woodworth (1950), D. Lindsley (1960), P. Fress (1975), J. Reikovsky (1979), K. Izard (2000), domestic scientists M.P. Jacobson (1958), W.K. Vilyunas (1973), B.I. Dodonov (1987), P.V. Simonov (1962, 1975, 1981, 1987), L.I. Kulikov (1997).

However, the problem of emotions is still mysterious and largely unclear.

The role of emotions in managing human behavior is great, it is no coincidence that almost all authors writing about emotions note their motivating role, associate emotions with needs and their satisfaction. In the first half of the 20th century, they already spoke of affects as emotional reactions aimed at defusing the emotional excitement that has arisen.

Emotional response is characterized by:

1) a sign (positive or negative experiences);

2) influence on behavior and activity (stimulating or inhibitory);

3) intensity (the depth of experiences and the magnitude of physiological changes);

4) the duration of the course (short-term or long-term);

5) objectivity (the degree of awareness and connection with a specific object).

1. Sign of emotional response. According to what experiences a person has (positive - pleasure or negative - disgust), emotional response is marked with a "+" or "?" sign. (It should be noted that the division is largely conditional. For example, such an emotion as fear is classified as negative, but it also has positive value for animals and humans, and, in addition, can give pleasure to humans. K. Izard notes the positive role of such a negative emotion as shame. In addition, he notes that joy, manifested in the form of gloating, can bring the person experiencing it the same harm as anger.)

2. Intensity of emotional response. High degree positive emotional response is called bliss. Bliss is characterized by a pleasant sensation throughout the body. (For example, a person experiences bliss by warming himself by a fire after a long stay in the cold, or drinking a cold drink in hot weather.) The highest positive emotion of response is called ecstasy. Usually people experience ecstasy when they experience the height of happiness. (This may be religious ecstasy.) This state is characterized by the fact that it covers the entire consciousness of a person, becomes dominant, due to which the outside world disappears in subjective perception and the person is outside of time and space. In the motor sphere, either immobility or bodily lightness is observed, expressed in violent movements. Ecstatic states are observed in mental illness: in hysteria, epilepsy, schizophrenia. At the same time, hallucinations are often observed: heavenly aromas, visions of angels.

3. The duration of the emotional response. Emotional response can be of different duration: from fleeting experiences to states lasting hours and days.

V.M. Smirnov and A.I. Trokhachev (1974) single out emotional reactions and emotional states. Emotional reactions: anger, joy, longing, fear. Reactions are subdivided by them into an emotional response, an emotional outburst and an emotional outburst (affect).

Emotional states, according to V.M. Smirnov and A.I. Trokhachev, are the emotional component of mental states. The emotional component is close to the emotional tone (mood).

4. Objectivity as a characteristic of emotional response. VC. Vilyunas (1986) writes that non-objective emotions usually also have an object (for example, the situation as a whole can cause anxiety: night, forest, hostile environment) or unconscious (when the mood is spoiled by failure, which a person cannot admit).

So, we are delighted or indignant, saddened or proud of someone or something. Pleasant or painful is something that we feel, perceive, think.

Chapter 3. EMOTIONAL RESPONSE AND ITS CHARACTERISTICS

Emotions

Emotions(French emotion, from lat. emovere - excite, excite) - physiological states of the body that have a pronounced subjective coloring and cover all types of human feelings and experiences - from deeply traumatic suffering to high forms of joy and social life.<.. .>

The evolution of emotions. If we proceed from the fact that emotions are such a form of reactions that certainly cover the entire organism and acquire a pronounced "subjective" character, then we must raise the question: what is the origin of emotions, when and how did they appear in the process of evolution?

On the basis of Darwin's understanding of the evolution of adaptive reactions of the body, it can be argued that emotional states once played a positive role, creating conditions for a wider and more perfect adaptation of animals to environmental conditions. The primitive sensations of primitive animals could not be retained; ! process of evolution and develop into such multifaceted and refined emotional states of man, if they did not serve as progress in the adaptive activity of animals. Otherwise, they would have been eliminated by natural selection long ago.

What is this more perfect adaptation?

The decisive feature of the emotional state is its integrality, its exclusivity in relation to other "g states and other reactions. Emotions cover the entire organism, they give the human state a certain type of experience. By producing almost instantaneous integration (unification into a single whole) of all body functions, emotions themselves in itself and in the first place can be an absolute signal?! criterion of all life on Earth - survival - and gave emotions a universal significance in the life of an organism. saving speed to respond to them with the help of a certain quality of the emotional state, reducing them, so to speak, to a common biological denominator: whether this effect is beneficial or harmful to him.

How important this integration of the organism in the emotional state is, can be seen in the example of a simple pain emotion, which, to one degree or another, every person has experienced in life.

Let's say that there is some kind of traumatic lesion of the articular bag. As you know, such a lesion creates an extremely painful pain sensation, a painful emotion. What means can our body use to build a new motor coordination with the exception of the affected joint? Practice shows that in such cases there are exceptionally wide opportunities for involving new muscles, new joints, and even entire limbs. However, in all these cases, only the sensation of pain is the limiting factor. In these cases, the human body performs numerous movements, "bypassing" the pain sensation as soon as it occurs. In this case, pain emotion plays the role of a kind of negative "bearing", helping the body to refrain from movements incompatible with life ("sparing" in medical practice).

One has only to imagine that this selection of healthy movements would be made on the basis of some other criteria, for example, the degree of muscle tension, the angle of deflection in the joint, etc., when all the perfection of the universal nature of emotional states and extreme their advantage in an adaptive sense. Almost the entire life experience of a person, starting from the first days of life, helps him avoid harmful effects not on the basis of taking into account the objective parameters of a harmful agent (for example, the sharpness of a damaging object, the depth of its immersion in the skin, etc.), but on the basis of precisely that " common denominator”, which is expressed by the emotional state: “it hurts”, “unpleasantly”.<...>

It can be said that without exception, all vital needs and functions, including manifestations of intellectual activity, are accompanied by an appropriate emotional tone, thanks to which the body continuously remains in line with optimal vital functions.

Numerous facts established by psychologists and physiologists demonstrate a certain unified plan in the architecture of a living organism, thanks to which all its various functions are sanctioned or rejected on the basis of one and the same principle - the principle of their correspondence to the one formed in given time certain emotional state.<...>

Biological theory of emotions....Theories of emotional states differ in one feature, which is the reason for their insufficiency: they do not consider emotional states as a natural fact of nature, as a product of evolution, as an adaptive factor in the life of the animal world. Based on the Darwinian point of view on the evolution of useful adaptations, it must be assumed that the emotional states that were retained in the process of evolution and developed to their subtlest manifestation in man could neither appear nor be preserved, much less be fixed by heredity, if they were in any -some degrees were either harmful or useless to the vital functions of the animal. The question comes down only to what is the biological and physiological usefulness of emotions and emotional sensations in the implementation of the vital functions of the organism.

If given general characteristics behavior of living beings (and man in particular), then it can be roughly divided into two stages, which, continuously alternating, form the basis of life activity. The first stage could be called the stage of formation of needs and basic drives, . and the second - the stage of satisfaction of these needs. A careful analysis of the behavior of animals and man shows that such a classification is quite acceptable for all kinds of drives and for any kind of satisfaction of need. There is every reason to think that emotional states, when they first appeared in the animal world, were included precisely in this cycle of changing two cardinal states of the organism. All types of needs have acquired a motivating character, creating anxiety in the behavior of the animal and forming various types of acquiring or, conversely, rejecting behavior. These needs are associated with a certain emotional state, mostly of a painful, restless nature. On the contrary, the satisfaction of a need or the performance of some function that eliminates an urgent need is associated with a feeling of pleasure, pleasant, and even sometimes with a feeling of a hedonic nature (enjoyment).

Thus, if the problem of emotions is considered from a biological point of view, then it will be necessary to recognize that emotional sensations have become fixed as a kind of tool that keeps the process within its optimal boundaries and prevents the destructive nature of a lack or excess of any life factors of a given organism.

Usually, the satisfaction of any biological need of a person is not only a simple elimination of this need, which is painful. As a rule, satisfaction, eliminating the need, is accompanied by an independent emphasized positive emotional experience. Therefore, from a broad biological point of view, satisfaction can be viewed as the ultimate reinforcer that pushes the organism to eliminate the original need.

From a physiological point of view, we are faced with the task of revealing the mechanism of those specific processes that ultimately lead to the emergence of both a negative (need) and a positive (satisfaction) emotional state. And first of all, it is necessary to analyze the question: by virtue of what specific mechanisms the satisfaction of a need creates a positive emotional state.

The biological theory of emotions (Anokhin, 1949) is built on the basis of the idea of ​​a holistic physiological architecture of any adaptive act, such as emotional reactions.

The main sign of a positive emotional state is its reinforcing effect, as if sanctioning a useful adaptive effect. Such a fixing action is manifested only in a certain case, precisely when the effector act associated with the satisfaction of some need has taken place with an absolute beneficial effect. Only in this latter case is a positive emotion formed and becomes a fixing factor. Take, for example, such a gross emotional act as the act of sneezing. Everyone knows the hedonic and protopathic character of the sensation that a person receives during a successful sneeze act. In the same way, the opposite is well known: a failed sneeze creates for some time a feeling of dissatisfaction, an unpleasant feeling of something unfinished. Such fluctuations in emotional states are inherent in absolutely all vital functions of animals and humans. It is for such vitally important acts that emotion has developed in the process of evolution as a factor that reinforces the correctness and completeness of the perfect act, its correspondence to the initial need.

How does the central nervous system “know” that some vital act is performed on the periphery in the proper sequence and in a full form (hunger satisfaction, thirst quenching, emptying of the pelvic organs, coughing, sneezing, sexual intercourse, etc.) ? To answer this question, it is necessary to introduce two concepts: "efferent integral" and "afferent integral". Each act of peripheral satisfaction of a need is preceded by the formation of a central apparatus for evaluating the results and parameters of a future action - an "acceptor of action" and the sending of a multitude of efferent excitations going to the most diverse organs and parts of the system that must fulfill the act of satisfying a need. The success or failure of such an act is signaled by the afferent impulses coming to the brain from all receptors that register the successive stages of the function (“reverse afferentation”).

An assessment of the act as a whole is impossible without such accurate information about the results of each of the excitations sent through the efferent system. Such a mechanism is absolutely indispensable for every function, and the organism would be immediately destroyed if this mechanism did not exist.

Everyone knows from his own experience that any failure in the performance of certain acts creates a feeling of dissatisfaction, difficulty and anxiety. This is the consequence of the fact that the second part of the peripheral act, namely the resultative afferent integral, was not created on the periphery and, therefore, its adequate combination with the central premise did not take place.

The essence of biological theory is this: it states that positive emotional condition the type of satisfaction of some need arises only if the feedback from the results of the action that has taken place most accurately reflects all the components of the positive result and therefore exactly coincides with the apparatus of the action acceptor. Biologically, this emotion of satisfaction fixes the correctness of any functional manifestation and the usefulness of its adaptive results. On the contrary, the discrepancy between the reverse afferent sendings from the defective results of the act and the acceptor of the action leads immediately to the anxiety of animals and humans and to the search for that new combination of effector excitations that would lead to the formation of a full-fledged peripheral act and, consequently, to a full-fledged emotion of satisfaction. In this case, a full-fledged emotional state is sought by the method of test sendings of various effective excitations. It is quite obvious that in this sense, emotional states from a full-fledged or inferior peripheral act are a kind of "bearing", which either stops the search, or organizes them again and again. ; another efferent basis.

From the formulation of the biological theory of emotions, it is clear that James and Lange in their theory caught the right moment in the development of emotional states, in any case, in the appearance of those emotional states that are associated with vital functions.

However, fixing attention on the periphery, James and Lange, naturally, could not reveal the true central mechanism (coincidence with the action acceptor), which is an indispensable and decisive condition for the emergence of a positive emotion (Anokhin, 1949).

On the other hand, Kennon and Bard, fixing attention on the central substrate, were also right to some extent, since the final moment of the formation of the emotional state coincides precisely with the region of the subcortical apparatuses. However, fixing their attention only on the central mechanism did not give them the opportunity to reveal the true mechanism of the central-peripheral relationships in the formation of emotions and sensations. Emotions of visceral origin do not, of course, cover all those emotional states that constitute the area of ​​a person's emotional life. Many of these emotions, especially the pain emotion, do not require a gradual increase in need, they arise suddenly, and only the simple elimination of such an emotion creates a positive sensation. However, despite all these changes in the details of the development of various emotions, the architectural plan for the emergence of emotions remains the same. It also applies to needs of an intellectual nature. Needs that have arisen, for example, from any social factors (let it be the need to resolve some complex technical problem, the need to collect), end up with the highest positive emotion of satisfaction as soon as the results of a long and difficult search coincide t; original intention (action acceptor).

There is reason to believe that the same physiological architecture is used in all emotions, from the gross lower vegetative emotional states to the higher social emotions. However, this physiological architecture can only be considered as a general pattern inherent in life phenomena of varying degrees of complexity, but in no way making them identical in their qualitative character, according to their content. Similar general regularities are already known from the field of cybernetics. It is this regularity - the regularity of the formation of an apparatus for evaluating the results of an action before the action itself is performed and its results are obtained - that is common to various classes of phenomena in living organisms, in autoregulating machines and in social relationships. It is not surprising that on the basis of precisely this regularity and according to this universal architecture, the development of human emotional states also took place - from primary primitive plant sensations to higher forms of satisfaction in specifically human activity.

1. theory of emotions P.K. Anokhin. He was the first to show that emotions are a physiological category. Emotions arise as a result of satisfaction or dissatisfaction of motivation/need/. Goal Achievement, satisfaction of motivation/need/causes positive emotions(PE), if the motivation/need/ is not satisfied, then negative emotions (NE). Prolonged dissatisfaction of needs leads to the formation emotional stress. PC. Anokhin correctly, in principle, explained the mechanism of the emergence of emotions, but his theory was not UNIVERSAL.

2. ^ Theory P.V. Simonova. It was an evolutionary continuation of P.K. Anokhin. According to Simonov, the main role is played by the balance of information: the balance between the information that a person already has and the information that exists in reality:

E \u003d -P / In-Is / E \u003d P / Is-In /

P - need, In - necessary or available information, Is - existing information.

If Is is greater than Ying, then it turns out in brackets "+", then a positive emotion arises. If there is a lack of information, i.e. Ying is greater than Is, then a negative emotion arises. Negative sides theories of P.V. Simonov are that, according to his theory, when Yin and Is are equal, emotions do not arise, but in fact this is not so. EMOTIONS ARRIVE!

3. ^ Theory G.I. Kositsky. He expressed the idea that with any human activity, a state of tension arises, which is characterized by mobilization and activation mental processes, as well as activation of the energy supply of these processes. A tension reaction occurs when a person, on the one hand, has a goal, and on the other hand, a lack of means to achieve it. According to G.I. Kositsky, emotions are an integral part of the stress reaction. Therefore, it is clear from here that not always when a goal is achieved, a reaction of tension and emotions arises, because. very often in our life there are means to achieve the goal.

^ Formula G.I. Kositsky:

Sn \u003d f C / Ying En Vn - Is Es Vs /

Sn-state voltage, f-functions, C-target, In -necessary information, En - required energy, Vn - necessary time, Ex - existing information, Es - existing energy, Sun - existing time

According to G.I. Kositsky: if there is a goal and a shortage of means to achieve it, then the first stage arises - the stage of tension. It is characterized by mobilization of all nervous processes, vegetative indicators are usually normal or slightly increased, energy resources are mobilized. This leads to an acceleration of the operational actions of the brain - in fact, this is the state when we begin any kind of work. It happens that the stage of tension does not allow reaching the goal and then the 2nd stage arises - NEGATIVE STENIC EMOTIONS. This often leads to the achievement of the goal. The 2nd stage does not always lead to the achievement of the goal - if the 2nd stage dragged on in time and did not lead to the achievement of the goal, then there may be various diseases For example, cardiovascular. As a rule, the 2nd stage does not manifest itself in its extreme manifestations (rage, anger), but more often manifests itself in excitement, anxiety. If the gap between the achievement of the end and the means is large, then an extreme state may arise. Negative sthenic emotions can be removed only with the help of physical movements (a state of passion).

If the second stage does not lead to the achievement of the goal, then it passes into the 3rd stage - ASTHENIC NEGATIVE EMOTIONS (horror, longing, fear). This state manifests itself in the case when the set goal requires for the implementation of means that are much greater than those that are available. In this case, there is a sharp decrease in intellectual and energy resources (from fear, hands drop, legs give way - figurative expressions characterizing given state). This kind of defensive reaction encourages the body to abandon the goal. If the body has not abandoned the achievement of the goal, then a state such as NEUROSIS develops. (melanch. - depression; cholera. - hysteria)

^ POSITIVE EMOTIONS

G.I. Kositsky shares the opinion of P.K. Anokhin that positive emotions arise when a goal is achieved, but G.I. Kositsky believes that positive emotions do not arise on final stage when reaching the goal, but at intermediate stages. According to G.I. Kositsky - positive emotions arise when there was a shortage of funds to achieve the goal. Positive emotions are important for maintaining high performance and health. There is a relationship between the degree of tension and the degree of manifestation of positive emotions - the more difficult the goal, the stronger the need, the higher the degree of the state of tension, the stronger the positive emotion.

Highlight FUNDAMENTAL EMOTIONS /they are unique to humans/

1.Interest- excitement is the most frequent positive emotion that increases motivation for knowledge, learning, development of skills and abilities, creative aspirations / searches /.

2.Joy- forms the motivation for creation, creativity, constantly desired emotion.

3.Astonishment - emotion, concentrating attention on a particular object., leads to inhibition of current activity, motivates cognitive processes.

4.Woe- Suffering is an emotion associated with awareness of the feeling of loneliness, self-pity, reduces the energy and creative potential of a person.

5.Anger- an emotion associated with deep dissatisfaction with the situation, an emotion of aggression that causes a feeling of strength, self-confidence, a sense of courage.

6.Disgust- the emotion of rejection, non-perception, unwillingness / simple-disgusting /, usually occurs in combination with anger.

7.Contempt - emotion associated with the feeling of insignificance of someone / person / or something / threat /, often occurs together with anger and disgust. Anger, disgust, contempt - "hostile triad".

8.Fear- emotion caused by environmental factors signaling a real or imaginary/imaginary/ danger, mobilizes the energy potential to overcome crisis situation sometimes fear paralyzes.

9.Shame- emotion that forms the motivation of the desire to disappear, hide, not to see what happened, a feeling of worthlessness, mediocrity, contributes to the preservation of self-esteem.

10.Guilt- an emotion arising from a violation of a moral, ethical and religious nature, when the subject is aware not only of the violation, but also of personal responsibility for what happened.

Interacting fundamental emotions form complexes: 1. inferiority complex, 2. guilt complex, as well as other complexes - 3. anxiety, 4. depression, 5. hostility, 6. love.

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In this theory of emotions, emotions are considered as a biological product of evolution, an adaptive factor in the life of an animal. In this point of view, it can be seen that Anokhin relied on Darwin's theory. This theory tells us that when needs arise, negative emotions arise that mobilize the body to perform the tasks (in this case, satisfying any need) when performing a person feels pleasure. If it fails, then forces are sent to search for other solutions.

Information theory of emotions by P. V. Simonova

Simonov put forward his original theory about the origin of emotions. He suggests that emotions arise as a result of a lack or excess of information that we need to satisfy a particular need. emotional stress described as strength in the need and scarcity of pragmatic information that is necessary to fulfill the goal. He also introduces the formula (Figure 4)

where E - emotion; P - need; Ying - information necessary to meet the need; IS - information that the subject has at the time of the need.

Physiological structures of emotions

Having considered theories of the origins of emotions, let's move on to the consideration of the physiological structure of emotions. Jayme Peipez managed to commit to confirm scientific discovery about the "circulation of emotional excitation" in the structures of the brain. Emotions according to the concept of Peipeci are associated with certain structures of the brain. He singled out the "Circle of Peipets", which sets the emotional state of our psyche and involves many interconnected brain structures in emotional reactions at the same time. The Peipets circle includes the following structures:

1. Hypothalamus

2. Anteroventral nucleus of the thalamus

3. Belt gyrus

4. Hippocampus

5. Mamillary nuclei of the hypothalamus

The limbic system is interconnected with the new cerebral cortex, with its frontal, temporal and parietal lobes, as well as the reticular formation of the brain stem. The temporal region is responsible for transmitting information from the visual, auditory, and somatosensory cortex to the amygdala and hippocampus. The frontal region regulates the activity of the limbic cortex. The reticular formation increases the activity of ascending influences on the limbic system. It is through these connections that conscious control, the appearance and manifestation of emotions is carried out. Whatever the emotion experienced by a person, strong or barely expressed, it always causes physiological changes in his body, and these changes are sometimes so serious that they cannot be ignored.

Comparison of emotions and feelings

In this section, we will compare emotions and feelings. It is no secret that emotions and feelings are interconnected with each other, but it is still worth mentioning that these concepts have different meanings and they are not identified, as some scientists believe. To begin with, it is worth understanding the concept of terms.

Emotions according to Gamezo M.V. is a special class mental phenomena, which proceeds in the form of experience and reflects a person's attitude to the satisfaction or dissatisfaction of actual needs.

Feelings, according to Gamezo M.V., are the most stable human experiences that arise when social needs are satisfied or dissatisfied, such as love, pride, hatred, etc.

Exploring emotions and feelings and their relationships, scientists were divided into four groups:

1) Identify emotions and feelings

2) Consider emotions as one of the types of feelings

3) Define feelings as a generic concept that unites different types of emotions

The most clearly divided emotions, and feelings A.N. Leontiev, he gives emotions such a characteristic that they have a situational character, that is, they express an estimate of the current or future situation. Feeling is objective. Feelings are nothing but a stable emotional relationship. Leontiev also noted that emotions and feelings may not coincide and even contradict each other (for example, a person we love can cause us in certain situations a transient emotion of displeasure, and even anger)

V. A. Krutetsky (1980) adhered to the opinion of Leontev and believed that feelings are a more complex, permanent, established attitude of a person, a personality trait. And what distinguishes emotions is a simpler experience that we feel now.

R. S. Nemov in his works that emotions are not always recognized, and feelings are outwardly very noticeable. In my opinion, the situation is quite different; often a person cannot admit that he has a feeling, in contrast to emotions, which, as experiences, cannot be unaware. Nemov considers feelings and emotions to be personal formations that characterize a person socio-psychologically, thereby denying the biological nature of emotions.

Summing up about feelings and emotions, I propose to consider opinions, Ilna E.P. believes that feelings are expressed through certain emotions, depending on the situation in which the object to which this person experiencing a feeling. For example, during a session, parents worry about their child. On the day of the exam, parents will experience a sense of anxiety if they pass the exam, parents will experience joy, if they fail, disappointment and even anger. This example confirms that emotions and feelings are not the same. So we come to the conclusion that there is no direct correspondence between feelings and emotions, because the same emotion can express different feelings, and the same feeling can be expressed in different emotions. A person may not show emotions on the outside, thereby hiding his feelings.

Types of emotions

In Psychology, the following types and forms of emotions are distinguished:

By influence:

1) Sthenic increase vitality, active

2) Asthenic suppress vital activity, passive

By quality:

1)Positive

1.1) Joy

1.2) Pride

1.3) Trust

1.4) Tenderness

1.5) Love

1.6) Sympathy

1.7) Tranquility

1.8) Bliss

1.9) Glee

2) Negative

2.2) Sadness

2.4) Despair

2.5) Alarm

2.6) Pity

2.8) Hatred

3) Neutral (ambivalent)

3.1) Curiosity

3.2) Amazement

3.3) Indifference

3.4) Contemplation

3.5) Surprise

Emotions are also divided into:

1) Higher ones are associated with the satisfaction of social needs

2) The lower ones are associated with organic need

2.1) Homeostatic

2.2) Instinctive

Depending on the subjective value of B.I. Dodonov identifies the following types of emotions:

1) Altruistic - experiences that arise on the basis of the need for assistance, help to other people.

2) Communicative - arise on the basis of the need for communication: the desire to communicate, share thoughts and experiences, etc.

3) Glorious - associated with the need for self-affirmation, fame: the desire to win recognition, respect, a sense of narcissism.

4) Practical - determined by the success or failure of the activity, the difficulties of its implementation and completion.

5) Romantic - manifested in the desire for everything unusual, secret: the expectation of something unusual and very good.

6) Gnostic - associated with the need for congratulatory and spiritual harmony: the desire to know the essence of phenomena.

7) Aesthetic - associated with lyrical experiences: the need for beauty, a sense of grace.

8) Hedonic - associated with the satisfaction of the need for bodily and spiritual comfort: enjoyment of pleasant spiritual and physical sensations from knowledge.

9) Akizitive - arise in connection with the interest in accumulation, collecting.

10) Mobilization - come from the need to overcome danger, interest in the struggle.

From the list above, we can conclude that emotions are diverse, and each type affects us in its own way.

Functions of emotions

As you know, the main functions of emotions are aimed at ensuring that a person can understand another person without words, thanks to which he manages to better tune in to communication and cooperation. Such an exchange of information occurs with the help of facial expressions and gestures, in one word it is non-verbal communication. Let us consider in more detail the main functions of emotions:

1) The function of motivation - this function gives emotions the opportunity to stimulate activity that is aimed at satisfying a need or, on the contrary, slow it down. Emotions direct and control human behavior depending on the situation. Different needs induce a variety of emotions in a person.

2) Trace-forming function - this function appears only in extreme situations.

3) Heuristic and anticipatory function - a certain manifestation of emotions is clarified due to the psychological mechanism, which is at the source of these manifestations of emotional states.

4) Synthesizing (anticipating) function - this function is aimed at iterating manifested emotions with cognitive processes that provide the possibility of a structured and holistic reflection of experience and irritation.

5) Expressive function - this function is responsible for the influence of the social environment on human communication.

From the point of view of physiology, the following functions of emotions can be distinguished:

The functions of a particular emotion can be analyzed at three levels.

1) Emotion performs a specific biological function, for example, it directs the flow of blood and energy resources from the smooth muscles of the internal organs to the muscles responsible for movement, as happens when a person experiences the emotion of anger.

2) Emotion has a motivating effect on the individual, organizing, directing and stimulating his perception, thinking and behavior.

3) Each of the emotions performs social function. The signal aspect of the vital system of human interaction with other people consists of his emotional manifestations.

The functions of emotions are only positive, because otherwise they would not be fixed in our genotype. Undoubtedly, they can also affect our body negatively, but this happens only at high intensity and this refers to the role of emotions. To give an example, salt and vitamins in a moderate dose are useful, but if you use them in excess, a person can get poisoned. This is exactly what happens with emotions. When performing their functions, emotions do not “ask” whether they are useful or harmful for a person from his point of view.

Chapter 2 The Impact of Emotions

Considering the problem of emotions from a biological point of view, P.K. Anokhin emphasizes that emotions cover the whole organism and give a certain biological quality to the human condition. Producing almost instantaneous integration of all body functions, emotions can be an absolute signal of a beneficial or harmful effect on the body, often preceding the determination of the localization of the effect and the specific mechanism of the body's response. It is thanks to emotions that the body quickly assesses the nature of the impact, and is guided by the most ancient and universal criterion of all living things - the desire to survive; this gave the emotions a universal significance in the life of the organism.

He considers emotional states "as a natural fact of nature, as a product of evolution, as an adaptive factor in the life of the animal world." At the same time, he relies on the theory of evolution of Ch. Darwin. According to it, only useful devices are saved. Proceeding from this, emotional states, not only retained in the process of evolution, but also developed to a certain level, could not be preserved and consolidated by heredity if they were at least a little harmful or useless for life. At the same time, Anokhin argues that the question boils down only to what, in fact, is the biological and physiological usefulness of emotions in the implementation of body functions. Anokhin, answering this question, argues that in the process of evolution, emotional sensations have become fixed as a kind of tool that keeps the process within its optimal boundaries. Thus, emotions prevent the destructive nature of the lack and excessive information about any factors in the life of the organism.

The essence of the biological theory is that it states that a positive emotional state of any need arises only if the information about the action taken reflects all the components of a positive result. This emotion consolidates the correctness and usefulness of both the action itself and the adaptive actions that were used to achieve the result.

The result of deep theoretical thought is the biological theory of emotions by P. K. Anokhin. This theory considers emotions as a product of evolution, as an adaptive factor in the life of the animal world.

Activation theory D. Lindsley

In his theory, Lindsley replaced the broad concept of organismic excitation, which was proposed by Duffy, with the concept of activation.

Activation - "neuronal excitation of the reticular formation of the brain stem with concomitant changes in the electroencephalographic parameters of the cortex."

Lindsley's interpretation of emotions assumes the existence of a previous emotional stimulus, which can be external conditional or internal unconditional. These stimuli generate impulses, which in turn activate the brainstem, further impulses are sent to the thalamus and to the cerebral cortex. A "hypothetical activating mechanism" transforms all these impulses into behavior that is characterized by "emotional arousal".

According to the ideas of P. McLean, two circles play a role in the formation of motivational-emotional states: amygdala And septal. The first is associated with food and defense reactions, the second - mainly with sexual ones.

Subcortical emotional structures have an activating effect on the cerebral cortex. She, in turn, based on the evaluation of signals from external and internal environment determines the formation of emotionally colored holistic behavioral acts.

In humans and animals there is functional, interhemispheric asymmetry. The specialization of the cerebral hemispheres is also manifested in the emotional sphere. More emotional is right hemisphere, which plays a predominant role in the early stages of mastering skills. In humans, positive emotions are associated mainly with the left hemisphere, negative - with the right. Accordingly, the assessment of afferentation from peripheral receptors also differs: various psychosomatic manifestations are more often associated with the left half of the body. Left side of the face more reflects negative, right - positive emotions. These differences are already manifested in newborns, in particular, in the asymmetry of facial expressions during the taste perception of sweet and bitter.

Difficulties in determining the localization of the emotional structures of the brain in animals were largely overcome after the discovery in 1954 by J. Olds and P. Milner phenomenon of intracerebral self-irritation. The rat was given the opportunity, by pressing the pedal, to close the current circuit and thus stimulate its various departments through the electrodes implanted in the brain. High level positive reinforcement in those cases when the electrode was in a positive emotional structure ("reward zones", "pleasure centers", "reward system"), led to the development of an instrumental conditioned reflex within a few minutes.

"Reward zones" mature very early and already in the first days after birth are included in the regulation of behavior. Systems of negative reinforcement ("punishment zones") are also ready to function at the earliest stages of postnatal life. If the electrode is implanted in the "punishment zone", the animal, having closed the current circuit once, avoids pressing the pedal in the future.

Thus, according to the animal's desire to maximize or minimize the electrical stimulation of this "point", it can be attributed to the systems of positive or negative reinforcement.

Hypothalamic theory of E. Gelgorn

The activation function of emotions has been noted by many authors. E. Gelgorn (1948) believes, for example, that the acceleration and intensification of reactions that support the individual and species existence of living systems is one of the most striking features of emotional response. It consists in the fact that when emotions arise, activation occurs nerve centers, carried out by non-specific structures of the brain stem and transmitted by non-specific pathways of excitation (Lindsley, 1960; Arnold, 1967). According to "activation" theories, emotions provide an optimal level of excitation of the central nervous system and its individual substructures. Activation of the nervous system and, above all, its vegetative division leads to changes in the internal organs and the body as a whole, leading either to the mobilization of energy resources or to their demobilization. From here we can talk about the mobilization function of emotions.

Scientists came to the conclusion (E. Gelgorn) that emotions carry out energy mobilization of the body, for example, joy is accompanied by an increase in innervation in the muscles, while small arteries expand, blood flow to the skin increases, the skin becomes warmer, accelerated blood circulation facilitates tissue nutrition And contributes to the improvement of physiological processes. Joy makes you younger, because optimal nutritional conditions for all body tissues are created. On the contrary, the physiological manifestations of sadness are characterized by a paralyzing effect on the muscles, resulting in slow movements. And weak, the vessels are compressed, the tissues are bled, chills, lack of air and heaviness in the chest appear. Sorrows make you very old, because they are accompanied by changes in the skin, hair, nails, teeth. And etc.

Arnold's concept

Arnold's concept, according to which an intuitive assessment of a situation (for example, a threat) causes a tendency to act, which, when expressed in various bodily changes, is experienced as an emotion and can lead to action. If James said "we are afraid because we tremble," then Arnold's concept implies that we are afraid because we think we are being threatened. In the classification of emotions, M. Arnold divides emotions into positive and negative, the criterion for this division is the tendency (possibility) for action to approach / move away from the object.