Natural sources of hydrocarbons message. Natural sources of hydrocarbons. Oil refining. Coke production and the problem of obtaining liquid fuel

Compounds containing only carbon and hydrogen atoms.

Hydrocarbons are divided into cyclic (carbocyclic compounds) and acyclic.

Cyclic (carbocyclic) compounds are called compounds that include one or more cycles consisting only of carbon atoms (as opposed to heterocyclic compounds containing heteroatoms - nitrogen, sulfur, oxygen, etc.). Carbocyclic compounds, in turn, are divided into aromatic and non-aromatic (alicyclic) compounds.

Acyclic hydrocarbons include organic compounds whose carbon skeleton of molecules is open chains.

These chains can be formed by single bonds (al-kanes), contain one double bond (alkenes), two or more double bonds (dienes or polyenes), one triple bond (alkynes).

As you know, carbon chains are part of most organic substances. Thus, the study of hydrocarbons is of particular importance, since these compounds are the structural basis of other classes of organic compounds.

In addition, hydrocarbons, especially alkanes, are the main natural sources of organic compounds and the basis of the most important industrial and laboratory syntheses (Scheme 1).

You already know that hydrocarbons are the most important feedstock for the chemical industry. In turn, hydrocarbons are quite widespread in nature and can be isolated from various natural sources: oil, associated petroleum and natural gas, coal. Let's consider them in more detail.

Oil- a natural complex mixture of hydrocarbons, mainly linear and branched alkanes, containing from 5 to 50 carbon atoms in molecules, with other organic substances. Its composition significantly depends on the place of its production (deposit), it can, in addition to alkanes, contain cycloalkanes and aromatic hydrocarbons.

Gaseous and solid components of oil are dissolved in its liquid components, which determines its state of aggregation. Oil is an oily liquid of dark (from brown to black) color with a characteristic odor, insoluble in water. Its density is less than that of water, therefore, getting into it, oil spreads over the surface, preventing the dissolution of oxygen and other air gases in water. Obviously, getting into natural water bodies, oil causes the death of microorganisms and animals, leading to environmental disasters and even catastrophes. There are bacteria that can use the components of oil as food, converting it into harmless products of their vital activity. It is clear that the use of cultures of these bacteria is the most environmentally safe and promising way to combat oil pollution in the process of its production, transportation and processing.

In nature, oil and associated petroleum gas, which will be discussed below, fill the cavities of the earth's interior. Being a mixture of various substances, oil does not have a constant boiling point. It is clear that each of its components retains its individual physical properties in the mixture, which makes it possible to separate the oil into its components. To do this, it is purified from mechanical impurities, sulfur-containing compounds and subjected to the so-called fractional distillation, or rectification.

Fractional distillation is a physical method for separating a mixture of components with different boiling points.

The distillation is carried out in special installations- distillation columns, in which the cycles of condensation and evaporation of liquid substances contained in oil are repeated (Fig. 9).

Vapors formed during the boiling of a mixture of substances are enriched with a lighter-boiling (i.e., having a lower temperature) component. These vapors are collected, condensed (cooled to below boiling point) and brought back to a boil. In this case, vapors are formed that are even more enriched with a low-boiling substance. By repeated repetition of these cycles, it is possible to achieve almost complete separation of the substances contained in the mixture.

The distillation column receives oil heated in a tubular furnace to a temperature of 320-350 °C. The distillation column has horizontal partitions with holes - the so-called plates, on which the oil fractions condense. Light-boiling fractions accumulate on the higher ones, high-boiling fractions on the lower ones.

In the process of rectification, oil is divided into the following fractions:

Rectification gases - a mixture of low molecular weight hydrocarbons, mainly propane and butane, with a boiling point of up to 40 ° C;

Gasoline fraction (gasoline) - hydrocarbons of composition from C 5 H 12 to C 11 H 24 (boiling point 40-200 ° C); with a finer separation of this fraction, gasoline (petroleum ether, 40-70 ° C) and gasoline (70-120 ° C) are obtained;

Naphtha fraction - hydrocarbons of composition from C8H18 to C14H30 (boiling point 150-250 ° C);

Kerosene fraction - hydrocarbons of composition from C12H26 to C18H38 (boiling point 180-300 ° C);

Diesel fuel - hydrocarbons of composition from C13H28 to C19H36 (boiling point 200-350 ° C).

Residue of oil distillation - fuel oil- contains hydrocarbons with the number of carbon atoms from 18 to 50. Distillation under reduced pressure from fuel oil produces solar oil (C18H28-C25H52), lubricating oils (C28H58-C38H78), vaseline and paraffin - fusible mixtures of solid hydrocarbons. The solid residue of fuel oil distillation - tar and its processing products - bitumen and asphalt are used for the manufacture of road surfaces.

The products obtained as a result of oil rectification are subjected to chemical processing, which includes a number of complex processes. One of them is the cracking of petroleum products. You already know that fuel oil is separated into components under reduced pressure. This is due to the fact that at atmospheric pressure, its components begin to decompose before reaching the boiling point. This is what underlies cracking.

Cracking - thermal decomposition of petroleum products, leading to the formation of hydrocarbons with a smaller number of carbon atoms in the molecule.

There are several types of cracking: thermal cracking, catalytic cracking, high pressure cracking, reduction cracking.

Thermal cracking consists in the splitting of hydrocarbon molecules with a long carbon chain into shorter ones under the influence of high temperature (470-550 ° C). In the process of this splitting, along with alkanes, alkenes are formed.

In general, this reaction can be written as follows:

C n H 2n+2 -> C n-k H 2(n-k)+2 + C k H 2k
alkane alkane alkene
long chain

The resulting hydrocarbons can again undergo cracking to form alkanes and alkenes with an even shorter chain of carbon atoms in the molecule:

During conventional thermal cracking, many low molecular weight gaseous hydrocarbons are formed, which can be used as raw materials for the production of alcohols, carboxylic acids, and high molecular weight compounds (for example, polyethylene).

catalytic cracking occurs in the presence of catalysts, which are used as natural aluminosilicates of the composition

The implementation of cracking using catalysts leads to the formation of hydrocarbons having a branched or closed chain of carbon atoms in the molecule. The content of hydrocarbons of such a structure in motor fuel significantly improves its quality, primarily knock resistance - the octane number of gasoline.

Cracking of petroleum products occurs at high temperatures oh, so soot (soot) is often formed, polluting the surface of the catalyst, which sharply reduces its activity.

Cleaning the catalyst surface from carbon deposits - its regeneration - is the main condition for the practical implementation of catalytic cracking. The simplest and cheapest way to regenerate a catalyst is its roasting, during which carbon deposits are oxidized by atmospheric oxygen. Gaseous oxidation products (mainly carbon dioxide and sulfur dioxide) are removed from the catalyst surface.

Catalytic cracking is a heterogeneous process involving solid (catalyst) and gaseous (hydrocarbon vapor) substances. It is obvious that the regeneration of the catalyst - the interaction of solid deposits with atmospheric oxygen - is also a heterogeneous process.

heterogeneous reactions(gas - solid) flow faster as the surface area of ​​the solid increases. Therefore, the catalyst is crushed, and its regeneration and cracking of hydrocarbons are carried out in a "fluidized bed", familiar to you from the production of sulfuric acid.

The cracking feedstock, such as gas oil, enters the conical reactor. The lower part of the reactor has a smaller diameter, so the feed vapor flow rate is very high. The gas moving at high speed captures the catalyst particles and carries them to the upper part of the reactor, where, due to the increase in its diameter, the flow rate decreases. Under the action of gravity, the catalyst particles fall into the lower, narrower part of the reactor, from where they are again carried upwards. Thus, each grain of the catalyst is in constant motion and is washed from all sides by a gaseous reagent.

Some catalyst grains enter the outer, wider part of the reactor and, without meeting the resistance of the gas flow, descend to the lower part, where they are picked up by the gas flow and carried away to the regenerator. There, too, in the "fluidized bed" mode, the catalyst is burned and returned to the reactor.

Thus, the catalyst circulates between the reactor and the regenerator, and the gaseous products of cracking and roasting are removed from them.

The use of cracking catalysts makes it possible to slightly increase the reaction rate, reduce its temperature, and improve the quality of cracked products.

The obtained hydrocarbons of the gasoline fraction mainly have a linear structure, which leads to a low knock resistance of the obtained gasoline.

We will consider the concept of "knock resistance" later, for now we only note that hydrocarbons with branched molecules have a much greater detonation resistance. It is possible to increase the proportion of isomeric branched hydrocarbons in the mixture formed during cracking by adding isomerization catalysts to the system.

Oil fields contain, as a rule, large accumulations of the so-called associated petroleum gas, which is collected above the oil in the earth's crust and partially dissolved in it under the pressure of the overlying rocks. Like oil, associated petroleum gas is a valuable natural source of hydrocarbons. It contains mainly alkanes, which have from 1 to 6 carbon atoms in their molecules. Obviously, the composition of associated petroleum gas is much poorer than oil. However, despite this, it is also widely used both as a fuel and as a raw material for the chemical industry. Until a few decades ago, in most oil fields, associated petroleum gas was burned as a useless addition to oil. At present, for example, in Surgut, Russia's richest oil pantry, the world's cheapest electricity is generated using associated petroleum gas as fuel.

As already noted, associated petroleum gas is richer in composition in various hydrocarbons than natural gas. Dividing them into fractions, they get:

Natural gasoline - a highly volatile mixture consisting mainly of lentane and hexane;

Propane-butane mixture, consisting, as the name implies, of propane and butane and easily turns into a liquid state when pressure increases;

Dry gas - a mixture containing mainly methane and ethane.

Natural gasoline, being a mixture of volatile components with a small molecular weight It evaporates well even at low temperatures. This makes it possible to use gas gasoline as a fuel for internal combustion engines in the Far North and as an additive to motor fuel, which makes it easier to start engines in winter conditions.

A propane-butane mixture in the form of liquefied gas is used as household fuel (gas cylinders familiar to you in the country) and for filling lighters. The gradual transition of road transport to liquefied gas is one of the main ways to overcome the global fuel crisis and solve environmental problems.

Dry gas, close in composition to natural gas, is also widely used as a fuel.

However, the use of associated petroleum gas and its components as a fuel is far from the most promising way to use it.

It is much more efficient to use associated petroleum gas components as feedstock for chemical production. Hydrogen, acetylene, unsaturated and aromatic hydrocarbons and their derivatives are obtained from alkanes, which are part of associated petroleum gas.

Gaseous hydrocarbons can not only accompany oil in the earth's crust, but also form independent accumulations - natural gas deposits.

Natural gas - a mixture of gaseous saturated hydrocarbons with a small molecular weight. The main component of natural gas is methane, the share of which, depending on the field, ranges from 75 to 99% by volume. In addition to methane, natural gas contains ethane, propane, butane and isobutane, as well as nitrogen and carbon dioxide.

Like associated petroleum gas, natural gas is used both as a fuel and as a raw material for the production of various organic and inorganic substances. You already know that hydrogen, acetylene and methyl alcohol, formaldehyde and formic acid, and many other organic substances are obtained from methane, the main component of natural gas. As a fuel, natural gas is used in power plants, in boiler systems for water heating of residential buildings and industrial buildings, in blast furnace and open-hearth production. Striking a match and igniting gas in the kitchen gas stove of a city house, you "start" a chain reaction of oxidation of alkanes that are part of natural gas. In addition to oil, natural and associated petroleum gases, coal is a natural source of hydrocarbons. 0n forms powerful layers in the bowels of the earth, its explored reserves significantly exceed oil reserves. Like oil, coal contains a large amount of various organic substances. In addition to organic, it also includes inorganic substances, such as water, ammonia, hydrogen sulfide and, of course, carbon itself - coal. One of the main ways of coal processing is coking - calcination without air access. As a result of coking, which is carried out at a temperature of about 1000 ° C, the following are formed:

Coke oven gas, which includes hydrogen, methane, carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide, impurities of ammonia, nitrogen and other gases;
coal tar containing several hundred different organic substances, including benzene and its homologues, phenol and aromatic alcohols, naphthalene and various heterocyclic compounds;
supra-tar, or ammonia water, containing, as the name implies, dissolved ammonia, as well as phenol, hydrogen sulfide and other substances;
coke - solid residue of coking, almost pure carbon.

coke used in the production of iron and steel, ammonia - in the production of nitrogen and combined fertilizers, and the importance of organic coking products can hardly be overestimated.

Thus, associated petroleum and natural gases, coal are not only the most valuable sources of hydrocarbons, but also part of the unique pantry of irreplaceable natural resources, careful and reasonable use of which is a necessary condition for the progressive development of human society.

1. List the main natural sources of hydrocarbons. What organic substances are included in each of them? What do they have in common?

2. Describe the physical properties of oil. Why doesn't it have a constant boiling point?

3. After summarizing the media reports, describe the environmental disasters caused by the oil spill and how to overcome their consequences.

4. What is rectification? What is this process based on? Name the fractions obtained as a result of oil rectification. How do they differ from each other?

5. What is cracking? Give the equations of three reactions corresponding to the cracking of petroleum products.

6. What types of cracking do you know? What do these processes have in common? How do they differ from each other? What is the fundamental difference between different types of cracked products?

7. Why is associated petroleum gas so named? What are its main components and their uses?

8. How does natural gas differ from associated petroleum gas? What do they have in common? Give the equations of combustion reactions of all components of associated petroleum gas known to you.

9. Give the reaction equations that can be used to obtain benzene from natural gas. Specify the conditions for these reactions.

10. What is coking? What are its products and their composition? Give the equations of the reactions typical for the products of coal coking known to you.

11. Explain why burning oil, coal and associated petroleum gas is far from being the most rational way to use them.

It should be noted that hydrocarbons are widely distributed in nature. Most organic matter comes from natural sources. In the process of synthesis of organic compounds, natural and associated gases, coal and brown coal, oil, peat, products of animal and vegetable origin are used as raw materials.

Natural sources of hydrocarbons: natural gases.

Natural gases are natural mixtures of hydrocarbons of various structures and some gas impurities (hydrogen sulfide, hydrogen, carbon dioxide) that fill the rocks in the earth's crust. These compounds are formed as a result of hydrolysis of organic substances at great depths in the Earth's thickness. They are found in the free state in the form of huge accumulations - gas, gas condensate and oil and gas fields.

The main structural component of combustible natural gases is CH₄ (methane - 98%), С₂Н₆ (ethane - 4.5%), propane (С₃Н₈ - 1.7%), butane (С₄Н₁₀ - 0.8%), pentane (С₅Н₁₂ - 0 .6%). Associated petroleum gas is part of the oil in a dissolved state and is released from it due to a decrease in pressure when the oil rises to the surface. In gas and oil fields, one ton of oil contains from 30 to 300 sq. m of gas. Natural sources of hydrocarbons are a valuable fuel and raw material for the organic synthesis industry. Gas is supplied to gas processing enterprises, where it can be processed (oil, low-temperature adsorption, condensation and rectification). It is divided into separate components, each of which is used for specific purposes. For example, from methane synthesis gas, which are the basic raw materials for the production of other hydrocarbons, acetylene, methanol, methanal, chloroform.

Natural sources of hydrocarbons: oil.

Oil is a complex mixture that consists mainly of naphthenic, paraffinic and aromatic hydrocarbons. The composition of oil includes asphalt-resinous substances, mono- and disulfides, mercaptans, thiophene, thiophane, hydrogen sulfide, piperidine, pyridine and its homologues, as well as other substances. Based on the products, more than 3,000 different products are obtained using petrochemical synthesis methods, incl. ethylene, benzene, propylene, dichloroethane, vinyl chloride, styrene, ethanol, isopropanol, butylenes, various plastics, chemical fibers, dyes, detergents, drugs, explosives, etc.

Peat is a sedimentary rock of plant origin. This substance is used as a fuel (mainly for thermal power plants), chemical raw materials (for the synthesis of many organic substances), antiseptic bedding on farms, especially in poultry farms, and a component of fertilizers for gardening and field crops.

Natural sources of hydrocarbons: xylem or wood.

Xylem is a tissue of higher plants, through which water and dissolved nutrients come from the rhizome of the system to the leaves, as well as other plant organs. It consists of cells with a stiff shell, which have a vascular conduction system. Depending on the type of wood, it contains different amount pectins and mineral compounds (mainly calcium salts), lipids and essential oils. Wood is used as a fuel; methyl alcohol, acetic acid, cellulose, and other substances can be synthesized from it. From some types of wood, dyes are obtained (sandalwood, logwood), tannins (oak), resins and balsams (cedar, pine, spruce), alkaloids (plants of the nightshade, poppy, ranunculus, umbrella families). Some alkaloids are used as medicines (chitin, caffeine), herbicides (anabasine), insecticides (nicotine).

Remember: distillation (distillation) is a method of separating a mixture of volatile liquids by gradual evaporation followed by condensation.

Oil. Oil refining

Many of the organics you deal with in Everyday life, - plastics, paints, detergents, medicines, varnishes, solvents - are synthesized from hydrocarbons. There are three main sources of hydrocarbons in nature - oil, natural gas and coal.

Oil is one of the most important minerals. It is impossible to imagine our life without oil and its products. It is not for nothing that oil-rich countries play an important role in the global economy.

Oil is a dark, oily liquid found in the earth's crust (Figure 29.1). It is a homogeneous mixture of several hundred substances - mostly saturated hydrocarbons with the number of carbon atoms in the molecule from 1 to 40.

Both physical and chemical methods are used to process this mixture. First, oil is separated into simple mixtures - fractions - by distillation (distillation or rectification), based on the fact that various substances in the composition of oil boil at different temperatures (Table 12). Distillation takes place in a distillation column with significant heating (Fig. 29.2). The fractions with the highest boiling points, which decompose at high temperatures, are distilled under reduced pressure.

Table 12. Oil distillation fractions

Ukraine is quite rich in oil reserves. The main deposits are concentrated in three oil and gas regions: eastern (Sumy, Poltava, Chernihiv and Kharkiv regions), western (Lviv and Ivano-Frankivsk regions) and southern (Black Sea region, shelves of the Azov and Black Seas). Oil reserves in Ukraine are estimated at about 2 billion tons, but a significant part of them is concentrated at great depths (5-7 km). The annual oil production in Ukraine is about 2 million tons, while the demand is 16 million tons, so, unfortunately, Ukraine is still forced to import significant volumes of oil.

Chemical processing of petroleum products

Some refined petroleum products can be used immediately without further processing, is gasoline and kerosene, but they make up only 20-30% of oil. In addition, after distillation, gasoline is of poor quality (with a low octane number, that is, when compressed in the engine, it explodes and does not burn out). An engine running on such fuel makes a characteristic knock and quickly fails. To improve the quality of gasoline and increase its yield, oil is subjected to chemical processing.

One of the most important methods of chemical oil refining is cracking (from the English to crack - split, break, since cracking occurs when carbon chains are broken) (Fig. 29.3). When heated to 500 ° C without access to air in the presence of special catalysts, long alkane molecules are split into smaller ones. During cracking, saturated hydrocarbons form a mixture of light saturated and unsaturated hydrocarbons, for example:

This process increases the yield of gasoline and kerosene. Such gasoline is sometimes referred to as cracked gasoline.

One of the characteristics that determine the quality of gasoline is the octane number, which indicates the possibility of detonation (explosion) of the air-fuel mixture in the engine. The higher the octane number, the lower the likelihood of detonation, and therefore the higher the quality of gasoline. Heptane is unsuitable as a motor fuel, it is more likely to detonate, while isooctane (2,2,4-trimethylpentane) has the opposite properties - it almost does not detonate in an engine. These two substances became the basis of a scale for determining the quality of gasoline - the octane number scale. On this scale, heptane is 0 and isooctane is 100. According to this scale, 95 octane gasoline has the same detonation properties as a mixture of 95% isooctane and 5% heptane.

Oil refining takes place at special enterprises - oil refineries. Both the rectification of crude oil and the chemical processing of the resulting oil products are carried out there. There are six oil refineries in Ukraine: in Odessa, Kremenchug, Kherson, Lisichansk, Nadvornyansk and Drohobych. The total capacity of all Ukrainian oil refineries exceeds 52 million tons per year.

Natural gas

The second most important source of hydrocarbon raw materials is natural gas, the main component of which is methane (93-99%). Natural gas is used primarily as an efficient fuel. When it is burned, neither ash nor poisonous carbon monoxide is formed, so natural gas is considered an environmentally friendly fuel.

A large amount of natural gas is used by the chemical industry. Processing of natural gas is reduced mainly to the production of unsaturated hydrocarbons and synthesis gas. Ethylene and acetylene are formed by the elimination of hydrogen from lower alkanes:

Synthesis gas - a mixture of carbon(II) oxide and hydrogen - is obtained by heating methane with steam:

From this mixture, using various catalysts, oxygen-containing compounds are synthesized - methyl alcohol, acetic acid, etc.

When passed over a cobalt catalyst, synthesis gas is converted into a mixture of alkanes, which is synthetic gasoline:

Coal

Another source of hydrocarbons is coal. In the chemical industry, it is processed by coking - heating to 1000 ° C without air access (Fig. 29.5, p. 170). In this case, coke and coal tar are formed, the mass of which is only a few percent of the mass of coal. Coke is used as a reducing agent in metallurgy (for example, to obtain iron from its oxides).

Coal tar contains several hundred organic compounds, mainly aromatic hydrocarbons, which are obtained from it by distillation.

Hard coal is also used as a fuel, but this creates large ecological problems. Firstly, coal contains non-combustible impurities, which turn into slags during the combustion of fuel; secondly, coal contains small amounts of Sulfur and Nitrogen compounds, the combustion of which produces oxides that pollute the atmosphere. In terms of coal reserves, Ukraine occupies one of the first places in the world. On the territory equal to 0.4% of the world, about 5% of the world's reserves of energy raw materials are concentrated in Ukraine, 95% of which are hard coal (about 54 billion tons). In 2015, coal production amounted to 40 million tons, which is almost half as much as in 2011. Today there are 300 hard coal mines in Ukraine, and 40% of them produce coking coal (which can be processed into coke). Production is concentrated mainly in the Donetsk, Lugansk, Dnepropetrovsk and Volyn regions.

Linguistic task

In Greek, pyro means "fire" and lysis means "decomposition." Why do you think the terms "cracking" and "pyrolysis" are often used interchangeably?

Key idea

The main sources of hydrocarbons for industry are oil, coal and natural gas. For more effective use, these natural resources must be processed to isolate individual substances or mixtures.

Control questions

334. Name the main natural sources of hydrocarbons.

335. What is the basis of the physical method of separating oil into fractions?

336. Into what fractions is oil separated during distillation? Describe their application. What is the most valuable product of oil refining for modern society?

337. What is the difference between the most important oil products in terms of chemical composition?

338. Using the information in this and previous paragraphs, describe the use of natural gas in the chemical industry.

339. What main products are extracted by coking coal?

340. Why is coal heated without air access during processing?

341. Why is natural gas better than coal as a fuel?

342. What substances and materials are obtained by processing coal and natural gas?

Tasks for mastering the material

343. During the cracking of hydrocarbon C 20 H 42, two products are formed with the same number of carbon atoms in the molecules. Write an equation for the reaction.

344. What is the fundamental difference between oil cracking and rectification?

345. Why do you think it is not possible to convert oil into gasoline by more than 20% during direct distillation of oil?

346. Analyze fig. 29.2 and describe how oil is distilled.

347. Make equations for the reactions of obtaining ethylene and acetylene from natural gas components.

348. One of the components of gasoline is the hydrocarbon C 8 H 18 . Write an equation for the reaction of its production from carbon(II) oxide and hydrogen.

349. When gasoline is completely burned, carbon dioxide and water are formed in the engine. Write an equation for the combustion reaction of gasoline, assuming that it consists of hydrocarbons of the composition C 8 H 18 .

350. Car exhaust gases contain toxic substances: carbon(II) oxide and nitrogen(N) oxide. Explain what chemical reactions they were formed as a result of.

351. How many times will the volume of the fuel-air mixture, consisting of 40 ml of octane vapor and 3 liters of air, increase upon ignition? When calculating, assume that the air contains 20% oxygen (by volume).

352. Gasoline sold in warm climates contains higher molecular weight hydrocarbons than gasoline sold in cold climates. Suggest why refiners do this.

353*. Oil contains so many valuable organic substances that D. I. Mendeleev said: “Burning oil in a furnace is almost the same as burning banknotes.” How do you understand this statement? Suggest ways of rational use of natural sources of hydrocarbons.

354*. In additional sources, find information about materials and substances that are raw materials for oil, natural gas or coal. Can they be made without using natural sources of hydrocarbons? Can humanity refuse to use these materials? Justify the answer.

355*. Using the knowledge gained in geography lessons in grades 8 and 9, describe the current and prospective basins and areas of coal, oil, natural gas production in Ukraine. Whether the location of the enterprises for the processing of these sources of hydrocarbons is coordinated with their deposits.

This is textbook material.

Chapter 1. OIL GEOCHEMISTRY AND EXPLORATION OF FUEL RESOURCES.

§ 1. Origin of fossil fuels. 3

§ 2. Gas-oil rocks. 4

Chapter 2. NATURAL SOURCES.. 5

Chapter 3. INDUSTRIAL PRODUCTION OF HYDROCARBONS .. 8

Chapter 4. OIL REFINING .. 9

§ 1. Fractional distillation.. 9

§ 2. Cracking. 12

§ 3. Reforming. 13

§ 4. Sulfur removal.. 14

Chapter 5. APPLICATIONS OF HYDROCARBONS .. 14

§ 1. Alkanes .. 15

§ 2. Alkenes.. 16

§ 3. Alkynes.. 18

§ 4. Arenas.. 19

Chapter 6 State Analysis oil industry. 20

Chapter 7. Features and main trends in the oil industry. 27

List of references... 33

The first theories, which considered the principles that determine the occurrence of oil deposits, were usually limited mainly to the question of where it accumulates. However, over the past 20 years it has become clear that in order to answer this question, it is necessary to understand why, when and in what quantities oil was formed in a particular basin, as well as to understand and establish the processes as a result of which it originated, migrated and accumulated. This information is essential to improve the efficiency of oil exploration.

The formation of hydrocarbon resources, according to modern views, occurred as a result of a complex sequence of geochemical processes (see Fig. 1) inside the original gas and oil rocks. In these processes, the constituent parts of various biological systems (substances of natural origin) were converted into hydrocarbons and into lesser degree into polar compounds with different thermodynamic stability - as a result of precipitation of substances of natural origin and their subsequent overlapping by sedimentary rocks, under the influence of elevated temperature and high blood pressure in the surface layers earth's crust. The primary migration of liquid and gaseous products from the original gas-oil layer and their subsequent secondary migration (through bearing horizons, shifts, etc.) into porous oil-saturated rocks leads to the formation of deposits of hydrocarbon materials, the further migration of which is prevented by locking deposits between non-porous rock layers .

In extracts of organic matter from sedimentary rocks of biogenic origin, compounds with the same chemical structure as compounds extracted from oil have. For geochemistry, some of these compounds are of particular importance and are considered "biological markers" ("chemical fossils"). Such hydrocarbons have much in common with the compounds found in biological systems (eg, lipids, pigments, and metabolites) from which oil is derived. These compounds not only demonstrate the biogenic origin of natural hydrocarbons, but also provide very important information about gas and oil bearing rocks, as well as the nature of maturation and origin, migration and biodegradation that led to the formation of specific gas and oil deposits.

Figure 1 Geochemical processes leading to the formation of fossil hydrocarbons.

A gas-oil rock is considered to be a finely dispersed sedimentary rock that, during natural settling, has led or could have led to the formation and release of significant amounts of oil and (or) gas. The classification of such rocks is based on the content and type of organic matter, the state of its metamorphic evolution (chemical transformations occurring at temperatures of approximately 50-180 ° C), as well as the nature and amount of hydrocarbons that can be obtained from it. Organic matter kerogen in sedimentary rocks of biogenic origin can be found in the most various forms, but it can be divided into four main types.

1) Liptinites– have a very high hydrogen content, but a low oxygen content; their composition is due to the presence of aliphatic carbon chains. It is assumed that liptinites were formed mainly from algae (usually subjected to bacterial decomposition). They have a high ability to turn into oil.

2) Extits– have a high hydrogen content (however, lower than that of liptinites), are rich in aliphatic chains and saturated naphthenes (alicyclic hydrocarbons), as well as aromatic cycles and oxygen-containing functional groups. This organic matter is formed from plant materials such as spores, pollen, cuticles, and other structural parts of plants. Exinites have a good ability to turn into oil and gas condensate, and at higher stages of metamorphic evolution into gas.

3) Vitrshity- have a low hydrogen content, a high oxygen content and consist mainly of aromatic structures with short aliphatic chains linked by oxygen-containing functional groups. They are formed from structured woody (lignocellulosic) materials and have limited ability to turn into oil, but good ability to turn into gas.

4) Inertinitis are black, opaque clastic rocks (high in carbon and low in hydrogen) that formed from highly altered woody precursors. They do not have the ability to turn into oil and gas.

The main factors by which gas-oil rock is recognized are its content of kerogen, the type of organic matter in kerogen, and the stage of metamorphic evolution of this organic matter. Good oil and gas rocks are those that contain 2-4% organic matter of the type from which the corresponding hydrocarbons can be formed and released. Under favorable geochemical conditions, the formation of oil can occur from sedimentary rocks containing organic matter such as liptinite and exinite. The formation of gas deposits usually occurs in rocks rich in vitrinite or as a result of thermal cracking of the originally formed oil.

As a result of the subsequent burial of sediments of organic matter under upper layers sedimentary rocks, this substance is exposed to ever higher temperatures, which leads to the thermal decomposition of kerogen and the formation of oil and gas. The formation of oil in quantities of interest for the industrial development of the field occurs under certain conditions in time and temperature (depth of occurrence), and the time of formation is the longer, the lower the temperature (this is easy to understand if we assume that the reaction proceeds according to the first order equation and has an Arrhenius dependence on temperature). For example, the same amount of oil that was formed at 100°C in about 20 million years should be formed at 90°C in 40 million years, and at 80°C in 80 million years. The rate of formation of hydrocarbons from kerogen approximately doubles for every 10°C rise in temperature. However, the chemical composition of kerogen. can be extremely diverse, and therefore the indicated relationship between the maturation time of oil and the temperature of this process can only be considered as the basis for approximate estimates.

Modern geochemical studies show that in the North Sea continental shelf, every 100 m increase in depth is accompanied by an increase in temperature of approximately 3°C, which means that sedimentary rocks rich in organic matter formed liquid hydrocarbons at a depth of 2500-4000 m for 50-80 million years. Light oils and condensates appear to have formed at depths of 4000-5000 m, and methane (dry gas) at depths greater than 5000 m.

Natural sources of hydrocarbons are fossil fuels - oil and gas, coal and peat. Crude oil and gas deposits originated 100-200 million years ago from microscopic marine plants and animals that became embedded in sedimentary rocks that formed on the seabed, in contrast, coal and peat began to form 340 million years ago from plants growing on land .

Natural gas and crude oil are usually found along with water in oil-bearing layers located between rock layers (Fig. 2). The term "natural gas" is also applicable to gases that are formed in natural conditions from the decomposition of coal. Natural gas and crude oil are being developed on every continent except Antarctica. The largest producers of natural gas in the world are Russia, Algeria, Iran and the United States. The largest producers of crude oil are Venezuela, Saudi Arabia, Kuwait and Iran.

Natural gas consists mainly of methane (Table 1).

Crude oil is an oily liquid that can vary in color from dark brown or green to almost colorless. It contains a large number of alkanes. Among them are unbranched alkanes, branched alkanes and cycloalkanes with the number of carbon atoms from five to 40. The industrial name of these cycloalkanes is well known. Crude oil also contains approximately 10% aromatic hydrocarbons, as well as small amounts of other compounds containing sulfur, oxygen and nitrogen.

Figure 2 Natural gas and crude oil are found trapped between rock layers.

Table 1 Composition of natural gas

Coal is the oldest source of energy with which mankind is familiar. It is a mineral (Fig. 3), which was formed from plant matter in the process metamorphism. Metamorphic rocks are called rocks, the composition of which has undergone changes under conditions of high pressures, as well as high temperatures. The product of the first stage in the formation of coal is peat, which is decomposed organic matter. Coal is formed from peat after it is covered with sedimentary rocks. These sedimentary rocks are called overloaded. Overloaded precipitation reduces the moisture content of peat.

Three criteria are used in the classification of coals: purity(determined by the relative carbon content in percent); type(determined by the composition of the original plant matter); grade(depending on the degree of metamorphism).

The lowest grade fossil coals are brown coal And lignite(Table 2). They are closest to peat and are characterized by a relatively low carbon content and a high moisture content. Coal characterized by a lower moisture content and is widely used in industry. The driest and hardest grade of coal is anthracite. It is used for home heating and cooking.

Recently, thanks to technological advances, it has become more and more economical. coal gasification. Coal gasification products include carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, hydrogen, methane and nitrogen. They are used as a gaseous fuel or as a raw material for the production of various chemical products and fertilizers.

Coal, as discussed below, is an important source of raw materials for the production of aromatic compounds.

Figure 3 Variant of the molecular model of low-grade coal. Coal is a complex mixture of chemicals, which include carbon, hydrogen and oxygen, as well as small amounts of nitrogen, sulfur and impurities of other elements. In addition, the composition of coal, depending on its grade, includes a different amount of moisture and various minerals.

Figure 4 Hydrocarbons found in biological systems.

Hydrocarbons occur naturally not only in fossil fuels, but also in certain materials. biological origin. Natural rubber is an example of a natural hydrocarbon polymer. The rubber molecule consists of thousands of structural units, which are methylbuta-1,3-diene (isoprene); its structure is shown schematically in Fig. 4. Methylbuta-1,3-diene has the following structure:

natural rubber. Approximately 90% of the natural rubber that is currently mined worldwide comes from the Brazilian rubber tree Hevea brasiliensis, cultivated mainly in the equatorial countries of Asia. The sap of this tree, which is a latex (colloidal water solution polymer), collected from incisions made with a knife on the bark. Latex contains approximately 30% rubber. Its tiny particles are suspended in water. The juice is poured into aluminum containers, where acid is added, which causes the rubber to coagulate.

Many other natural compounds also contain isoprene structural fragments. For example, limonene contains two isoprene moieties. Limonene is the main integral part oils extracted from the peel of citrus fruits such as lemons and oranges. This compound belongs to a class of compounds called terpenes. Terpenes contain 10 carbon atoms in their molecules (C 10 compounds) and include two isoprene fragments connected to each other in series (“head to tail”). Compounds with four isoprene fragments (C 20 -compounds) are called diterpenes, and with six isoprene fragments - triterpenes (C 30 -compounds). Squalene, found in shark liver oil, is a triterpene. Tetraterpenes (C 40 compounds) contain eight isoprene fragments. Tetraterpenes are found in the pigments of vegetable and animal fats. Their color is due to the presence of a long conjugated system of double bonds. For example, β-carotene is responsible for the characteristic orange color of carrots.

Alkanes, alkenes, alkynes and arenes are obtained by refining petroleum (see below). Coal is also an important source of raw materials for the production of hydrocarbons. For this purpose, coal is heated without air access in a retort furnace. The result is coke, coal tar, ammonia, hydrogen sulfide and coal gas. This process is called destructive distillation of coal. By further fractional distillation of coal tar, various arenes are obtained (Table 3). When coke interacts with steam, water gas is obtained:

Table 3 Some aromatic compounds obtained by fractional distillation of coal tar (tar)

Alkanes and alkenes can be obtained from water gas using the Fischer-Tropsch process. To do this, water gas is mixed with hydrogen and passed over the surface of an iron, cobalt or nickel catalyst at an elevated temperature and under a pressure of 200-300 atm.

The Fischer-Tropsch process also makes it possible to obtain methanol and other organic compounds containing oxygen from water gas:

This reaction is carried out in the presence of a chromium(III) oxide catalyst at a temperature of 300°C and under a pressure of 300 atm.

In industrialized countries, hydrocarbons such as methane and ethylene are increasingly produced from biomass. Biogas consists mainly of methane. Ethylene can be obtained by dehydration of ethanol, which is formed in fermentation processes.

Calcium dicarbide is also obtained from coke by heating its mixture with calcium oxide at temperatures above 2000 ° C in an electric furnace:

When calcium dicarbide reacts with water, acetylene is formed. Such a process opens up another possibility for the synthesis of unsaturated hydrocarbons from coke.

Crude oil is a complex mixture of hydrocarbons and other compounds. In this form, it is little used. First, it is processed into other products that have practical use. Therefore, crude oil is transported by tankers or via pipelines to refineries.

Oil refining includes a number of physical and chemical processes: fractional distillation, cracking, reforming and desulfurization.

Crude oil is separated into many components, subjecting it to simple, fractional and vacuum distillation. The nature of these processes, as well as the number and composition of the resulting oil fractions, depend on the composition of crude oil and on the requirements for its various fractions.

From crude oil, first of all, gas impurities dissolved in it are removed by subjecting it to simple distillation. The oil is then subjected to primary distillation, as a result of which it is divided into gas, light and medium fractions and fuel oil. Further fractional distillation of light and medium fractions, as well as vacuum distillation of fuel oil, leads to the formation of a large number of fractions. In table. 4 shows the boiling point ranges and the composition of various oil fractions, and in fig. 5 shows a diagram of the device of the primary distillation (rectification) column for oil distillation. Let us now turn to the description of the properties of individual oil fractions.

Table 4 Typical oil distillation fractions

Figure 5 Primary distillation of crude oil.

gas fraction. Gases obtained during oil refining are the simplest unbranched alkanes: ethane, propane and butanes. This fraction has the industrial name refinery (petroleum) gas. It is removed from crude oil before it is subjected to primary distillation, or it is separated from the gasoline fraction after primary distillation. Refinery gas is used as a gaseous fuel or is subjected to liquefaction under pressure to obtain liquefied petroleum gas. The latter goes on sale as a liquid fuel or is used as a feedstock for the production of ethylene in cracking plants.

gasoline fraction. This fraction is used to obtain various grades of motor fuel. It is a mixture of various hydrocarbons, including straight and branched alkanes. The combustion characteristics of unbranched alkanes are not ideally suited to internal combustion engines. Therefore, the gasoline fraction is often thermally reformed to convert unbranched molecules into branched ones. Before use, this fraction is usually mixed with branched alkanes, cycloalkanes and aromatic compounds obtained from other fractions by catalytic cracking or reforming.

The quality of gasoline as a motor fuel is determined by its octane number. It indicates the percentage by volume of 2,2,4-trimethylpentane (isooctane) in a mixture of 2,2,4-trimethylpentane and heptane (straight chain alkane) that has the same detonation combustion characteristics as the test gasoline.

A poor motor fuel has an octane rating of zero, while a good fuel has an octane rating of 100. The octane rating of the gasoline fraction obtained from crude oil is usually less than 60. The combustion characteristics of gasoline are improved by the addition of an anti-knock additive, which is used as tetraethyl lead (IV) , Рb (С 2 Н 5) 4 . Tetraethyl lead is a colorless liquid obtained by heating chloroethane with an alloy of sodium and lead:

During the combustion of gasoline containing this additive, particles of lead and lead(II) oxide are formed. They slow down certain stages of combustion of gasoline fuel and thus prevent its detonation. Together with tetraethyl lead, 1,2-dibromoethane is added to gasoline. It reacts with lead and lead(II) to form lead(II) bromide. Since lead(II) bromide is a volatile compound, it is removed from the car engine with exhaust gases.

Naphtha (naphtha). This fraction of oil distillation is obtained in the interval between gasoline and kerosene fractions. It consists mainly of alkanes (Table 5).

Naphtha is also obtained by fractional distillation of a light oil fraction obtained from coal tar (Table 3). Coal tar naphtha has a high content of aromatic hydrocarbons.

Most of the naphtha produced by refining crude oil is reformed into gasoline. However, a significant part of it is used as a raw material for the production of other chemicals.

Table 5 Hydrocarbon composition of the naphtha fraction of a typical Middle East oil

Kerosene. The kerosene fraction of oil distillation consists of aliphatic alkanes, naphthalenes and aromatic hydrocarbons. Part of it is refined for use as a source of saturated paraffin hydrocarbons, and the other part is cracked to be converted into gasoline. However, the bulk of kerosene is used as fuel for jet aircraft.

gasoil. This fraction of oil refining is known as diesel fuel. Some of it is cracked to produce refinery gas and gasoline. However, gas oil is mainly used as fuel for diesel engines. In a diesel engine, fuel is ignited by increasing pressure. Therefore, they do without spark plugs. Gas oil is also used as a fuel for industrial furnaces.

fuel oil. This fraction remains after the removal of all other fractions from the oil. Most of it is used as liquid fuel for heating boilers and generating steam for industrial enterprises, power plants and ship engines. However, some of the fuel oil is subjected to vacuum distillation to obtain lubricating oils and paraffin wax. Lubricating oils are further refined by solvent extraction. The dark viscous material that remains after the vacuum distillation of fuel oil is called "bitumen", or "asphalt". It is used for the manufacture of road surfaces.

We have discussed how fractional and vacuum distillation, along with solvent extraction, can separate crude oil into various fractions of practical importance. All these processes are physical. But chemical processes are also used to refine oil. These processes can be divided into two types: cracking and reforming.

In this process, the large molecules of the high-boiling fractions of crude oil are broken down into smaller molecules that make up the low-boiling fractions. Cracking is necessary because the demand for low-boiling oil fractions - especially gasoline - often outstrips the ability to obtain them from the fractional distillation of crude oil.

As a result of cracking, in addition to gasoline, alkenes are also obtained, which are necessary as raw materials for the chemical industry. Cracking, in turn, is divided into three major types: hydrocracking, catalytic cracking and thermal cracking.

Hydrocracking. This type of cracking makes it possible to convert high-boiling oil fractions (waxes and heavy oils) into low-boiling fractions. The hydrocracking process consists in the fact that the fraction to be cracked is heated under very high pressure in a hydrogen atmosphere. This leads to the rupture of large molecules and the addition of hydrogen to their fragments. As a result, saturated molecules of small sizes are formed. Hydrocracking is used to produce gas oils and gasolines from heavier fractions.

catalytic cracking. This method results in a mixture of saturated and unsaturated products. Catalytic cracking is carried out at relatively low temperatures, and a mixture of silica and alumina is used as a catalyst. In this way, high-quality gasoline and unsaturated hydrocarbons are obtained from heavy oil fractions.

Thermal cracking. Large molecules of hydrocarbons contained in heavy oil fractions can be broken down into smaller molecules by heating these fractions to temperatures above their boiling point. As in catalytic cracking, in this case a mixture of saturated and unsaturated products is obtained. For example,

Thermal cracking is especially important for the production of unsaturated hydrocarbons such as ethylene and propene. Steam crackers are used for thermal cracking. In these units, the hydrocarbon feedstock is first heated in a furnace to 800°C and then diluted with steam. This increases the yield of alkenes. After the large molecules of the original hydrocarbons are split into smaller molecules, the hot gases are cooled to approximately 400 °C with water, which is converted into compressed steam. Then the cooled gases enter the distillation (fractional) column, where they are cooled to 40°C. Condensation of larger molecules leads to the formation of gasoline and gas oil. The uncondensed gases are compressed in a compressor which is driven by the compressed steam obtained from the gas cooling step. The final separation of the products is carried out in fractional distillation columns.

Table 6 Yield of steam cracking products from various hydrocarbon feedstocks (wt %)

IN European countries Naphtha is the main feedstock for the production of unsaturated hydrocarbons by catalytic cracking. In the United States, ethane is the main feedstock for this purpose. It is readily obtained in refineries as a component of liquefied petroleum gas or natural gas, and also from oil wells as a component of natural associated gases. Propane, butane and gas oil are also used as feedstock for steam cracking. Cracking products of ethane and naphtha are listed in table. 6.

Cracking reactions proceed by a radical mechanism.

Unlike cracking processes, which consist in the splitting of larger molecules into smaller ones, reforming processes lead to a change in the structure of molecules or to their association into larger molecules. Reforming is used in crude oil refining to convert low quality gasoline cuts into high quality cuts. In addition, it is used to obtain raw materials for the petrochemical industry. Reforming processes can be classified into three types: isomerization, alkylation, and cyclization and aromatization.

Isomerization. In this process, the molecules of one isomer undergo a rearrangement to form another isomer. The isomerization process is very important for improving the quality of the gasoline fraction obtained after the primary distillation of crude oil. We have already pointed out that this fraction contains too many unbranched alkanes. They can be converted into branched alkanes by heating this fraction to 500-600°C under a pressure of 20-50 atm. This process is called thermal reforming.

For the isomerization of straight chain alkanes, it can also be used catalytic reforming. For example, butane can be isomerized to 2-methylpropane using an aluminum chloride catalyst at 100°C or higher:

This reaction has an ionic mechanism, which is carried out with the participation of carbocations.

Alkylation. In this process, alkanes and alkenes that are formed from cracking are recombined to form high-grade gasolines. Such alkanes and alkenes typically have two to four carbon atoms. The process is carried out at low temperature using a strong acid catalyst such as sulfuric acid:

This reaction proceeds according to the ionic mechanism with the participation of the carbocation (CH 3) 3 C +.

Cyclization and aromatization. When gasoline and naphtha fractions obtained as a result of the primary distillation of crude oil are passed over the surface of such catalysts as platinum or molybdenum(VI) oxide, on an aluminum oxide substrate, at a temperature of 500°C and under a pressure of 10–20 atm, cyclization occurs with subsequent aromatization of hexane and other alkanes with longer straight chains:

The elimination of hydrogen from hexane and then from cyclohexane is called dehydrogenation. This type of reforming is essentially one of the cracking processes. It is called platforming, catalytic reforming, or simply reforming. In some cases, hydrogen is introduced into the reaction system to prevent complete decomposition of the alkane to carbon and maintain the activity of the catalyst. In this case, the process is called hydroforming.

Crude oil contains hydrogen sulfide and other compounds containing sulfur. The sulfur content of oil depends on the field. Oil, which is obtained from the North Sea continental shelf, has a low sulfur content. During the distillation of crude oil, organic compounds containing sulfur are broken down, and as a result, additional hydrogen sulfide is formed. Hydrogen sulfide enters the refinery gas or LPG fraction. Since hydrogen sulfide has the properties of a weak acid, it can be removed by treating petroleum products with some kind of weak base. Sulfur can be recovered from the hydrogen sulfide thus obtained by burning hydrogen sulfide in air and passing the combustion products over the surface of an alumina catalyst at a temperature of 400°C. The overall reaction of this process is described by the equation

Approximately 75% of all elemental sulfur currently used by the industry of non-socialist countries is extracted from crude oil and natural gas.

Approximately 90% of all oil produced is used as fuel. Even though the fraction of oil used to produce petrochemicals is small, these products are very important. Many thousands of organic compounds are obtained from oil distillation products (Table 7). They, in turn, are used to produce thousands of products that satisfy not only the urgent needs of modern society, but also the needs for comfort (Fig. 6).

Table 7 Hydrocarbon raw materials for the chemical industry

Although the various groups of chemical products indicated in Fig. 6 are broadly referred to as petrochemicals because they are derived from petroleum, it should be noted that many organic products, especially aromatics, are industrially derived from coal tar and other feedstock sources. And yet, approximately 90% of all raw materials for the organic industry are obtained from oil.

Some typical examples showing the use of hydrocarbons as raw materials for the chemical industry will be considered below.

Figure 6 Applications of petrochemical products.

Methane is not only one of the most important fuels, but also has many other uses. It is used to obtain the so-called synthesis gas, or syngas. Like water gas, which is made from coke and steam, synthesis gas is a mixture of carbon monoxide and hydrogen. Synthesis gas is produced by heating methane or naphtha to approximately 750°C at a pressure of about 30 atm in the presence of a nickel catalyst:

Synthesis gas is used to produce hydrogen in the Haber process (ammonia synthesis).

Synthesis gas is also used to produce methanol and other organic compounds. In the process of obtaining methanol, synthesis gas is passed over the surface of a zinc oxide and copper catalyst at a temperature of 250°C and a pressure of 50–100 atm, which leads to the reaction

The synthesis gas used for this process must be thoroughly purified from impurities.

Methanol is easily subjected to catalytic decomposition, in which synthesis gas is again obtained from it. It is very convenient to use for syngas transportation. Methanol is one of the most important raw materials for the petrochemical industry. It is used, for example, to get acetic acid:

The catalyst for this process is a soluble anionic rhodium complex. This method is used for industrial production of acetic acid, the demand for which exceeds the scale of its production as a result of the fermentation process.

Soluble rhodium compounds may be used in the future as homogeneous catalysts for the production of ethane-1,2-diol from synthesis gas:

This reaction proceeds at a temperature of 300°C and a pressure of about 500-1000 atm. Currently, this process is not economically viable. The product of this reaction (its trivial name is ethylene glycol) is used as an antifreeze and for the production of various polyesters, such as terylene.

Methane is also used to produce chloromethanes, such as trichloromethane (chloroform). Chloromethanes have a variety of uses. For example, chloromethane is used in the production of silicones.

Finally, methane is increasingly being used to produce acetylene.

This reaction proceeds at approximately 1500°C. To heat methane to this temperature, it is burned under conditions of limited air access.

Ethane also has a number of important uses. It is used in the process of obtaining chloroethane (ethyl chloride). As mentioned above, ethyl chloride is used to produce tetraethyl lead(IV). In the United States, ethane is an important feedstock for the production of ethylene (Table 6).

Propane plays an important role in the industrial production of aldehydes such as methanal (formaldehyde) and ethanal (acetic aldehyde). These substances are especially important in the plastics industry. Butane is used to produce buta-1,3-diene, which, as will be described below, is used to produce synthetic rubber.

Ethylene. One of the most important alkenes and, in general, one of the most important products of the petrochemical industry is ethylene. It is a raw material for many plastics. Let's list them.

Polyethylene. Polyethylene is a polymerization product of ethylene:

Polychloroethylene. This polymer is also called polyvinyl chloride (PVC). It is obtained from chloroethylene (vinyl chloride), which in turn is obtained from ethylene. Total reaction:

1,2-Dichloroethane is obtained in the form of a liquid or a gas, using zinc chloride or iron(III) chloride as a catalyst.

When 1,2-dichloroethane is heated to a temperature of 500°C under a pressure of 3 atm in the presence of pumice, chloroethylene (vinyl chloride) is formed

Another method for producing chloroethylene is based on heating a mixture of ethylene, hydrogen chloride and oxygen to 250°C in the presence of copper(II) chloride (catalyst):

polyester fibre. An example of such a fiber is terylene. It is obtained from ethane-1,2-diol, which in turn is synthesized from epoxyethane (ethylene oxide) as follows:

Ethane-1,2-diol (ethylene glycol) is also used as an antifreeze and for the production of synthetic detergents.

Ethanol is obtained by hydration of ethylene using phosphoric acid on a silica support as a catalyst:

Ethanol is used to produce ethanal (acetaldehyde). In addition, it is used as a solvent for varnishes and varnishes, as well as in the cosmetics industry.

Finally, ethylene is also used to produce chloroethane, which, as mentioned above, is used to make tetraethyllead(IV), an antiknock additive for gasoline.

propene. Propene (propylene), like ethylene, is used for the synthesis of various chemical products. Many of them are used in the production of plastics and rubbers.

Polypropene. Polypropene is a polymerization product of propene:

Propanone and propenal. Propanone (acetone) is widely used as a solvent, and is also used in the manufacture of a plastic known as plexiglass (polymethyl methacrylate). Propanone is obtained from (1-methylethyl) benzene or from propan-2-ol. The latter is obtained from propene as follows:

Oxidation of propene in the presence of a copper(II) oxide catalyst at a temperature of 350°C leads to the production of propenal (acrylic aldehyde):

Propane-1,2,3-triol. Propan-2-ol, hydrogen peroxide and propenal obtained in the process described above can be used to obtain propan-1,2,3-triol (glycerol):

Glycerin is used in the production of cellophane film.

propennitrile (acrylonitrile). This compound is used to produce synthetic fibers, rubbers and plastics. It is obtained by passing a mixture of propene, ammonia and air over the surface of a molybdate catalyst at a temperature of 450°C:

Methylbuta-1,3-diene (isoprene). Synthetic rubbers are obtained by its polymerization. Isoprene is produced using the following multi-step process:

Epoxy propane used to produce polyurethane foams, polyesters and synthetic detergents. It is synthesized as follows:

But-1-ene, but-2-ene and buta-1,2-diene used to produce synthetic rubbers. If butenes are used as raw materials for this process, they are first converted into buta-1,3-diene by dehydrogenation in the presence of a catalyst - a mixture of chromium (III) oxide with aluminum oxide:

The most important representative of a number of alkynes is ethyne (acetylene). Acetylene has numerous uses, such as:

- as a fuel in oxy-acetylene torches for cutting and welding metals. When acetylene burns in pure oxygen, temperatures up to 3000°C develop in its flame;

- to obtain chloroethylene (vinyl chloride), although ethylene is currently becoming the most important raw material for the synthesis of chloroethylene (see above).

- to obtain a solvent of 1,1,2,2-tetrachloroethane.

Benzene and methylbenzene (toluene) are produced in large quantities in the refining of crude oil. Since methylbenzene is obtained in this case even in larger quantities than necessary, part of it is converted into benzene. For this purpose, a mixture of methylbenzene with hydrogen is passed over the surface of a platinum catalyst supported by aluminum oxide at a temperature of 600°C under pressure:

This process is called hydroalkylation .

Benzene is used as a feedstock for a number of plastics.

(1-Methylethyl)benzene(cumene or 2-phenylpropane). It is used to produce phenol and propanone (acetone). Phenol is used in the synthesis of various rubbers and plastics. The three steps in the phenol production process are listed below.

Poly(phenylethylene)(polystyrene). The monomer of this polymer is phenyl-ethylene (styrene). It is obtained from benzene:

The share of Russia in the world production of mineral raw materials remains high and amounts to 11.6% for oil, 28.1% for gas and 12-14% for coal. In terms of explored mineral reserves, Russia occupies a leading position in the world. With an occupied territory of 10%, 12-13% of the world's oil reserves, 35% of gas, and 12% of coal are concentrated in the bowels of Russia. In the structure of the mineral resource base of the country, more than 70% of the reserves fall on the resources of the fuel and energy complex (oil, gas, coal). The total value of explored and estimated mineral resources is 28.5 trillion dollars, which is an order of magnitude higher than the cost of all privatized real estate in Russia.

Table 8 Fuel and energy complex Russian Federation

The fuel and energy complex is the backbone of the domestic economy: the share fuel and energy complex in total exports in 1996 will amount to almost 40% (25 billion dollars). About 35% of all federal budget revenues for 1996 (121 out of 347 trillion rubles) are planned to be received from the activities of the enterprises of the complex. The share of the fuel and energy complex in the total volume is tangible marketable products, which Russian enterprises plan to release in 1996. Of the 968 trillion rubles. marketable products (in current prices), the share of fuel and energy enterprises will amount to almost 270 trillion rubles, or more than 27% (Table 8). The fuel and energy complex remains the largest industrial complex, making capital investments (more than 71 trillion rubles in 1995) and attracting investments ($1.2 billion from the World Bank alone over the past two years) in enterprises of all their industries.

The oil industry of the Russian Federation has been developing for a long period exten seriously. This was achieved through the discovery and commissioning in the 50-70s of large highly productive deposits in Ural-Volga region and Western Siberia, as well as the construction of new and expansion of existing oil refineries. The high productivity of the fields made it possible to increase oil production by 20-25 million tons per year with minimal specific capital investments and relatively low costs of material and technical resources. However, at the same time, the development of deposits was carried out at an unacceptably high rate (from 6 to 12% of the withdrawal from the initial reserves), and all these years infrastructure and housing construction have seriously lagged behind in the oil-producing regions. In 1988, the maximum amount of oil and gas condensate was produced in Russia - 568.3 million tons, or 91% of the all-Union oil production. The bowels of the territory of Russia and the adjacent water areas of the seas contain about 90% of the proven oil reserves of all the republics that were previously part of the USSR. All over the world, the mineral resource base is developing according to the scheme of expanding reproduction. That is, annually it is necessary to transfer 10-15% more to the fishermen of new deposits than they produce. This is necessary to maintain a balanced structure of production so that the industry does not experience a shortage of raw materials During the years of reforms, the issue of investment in geological exploration became acute. The development of one million tons of oil requires investments in the amount of two to five million US dollars. Moreover, these funds will give a return only after 3-5 years. Meanwhile, to make up for the fall in production, it is necessary to develop 250-300 million tons of oil annually. Over the past five years, 324 oil and gas fields have been explored, 70-80 fields have been put into operation. Only 0.35% of GDP was spent on geology in 1995 (in the former USSR, these costs were three times higher). There is a pent-up demand for the products of geologists - explored deposits. However, in 1995, the Geological Survey still managed to stop the decline in production in its industry. The volume of deep exploration drilling in 1995 increased by 9% compared to 1994. Out of 5.6 trillion rubles of financing 1.5 trillion rubles geologists received centrally. 1996 budget Roskomnedra is 14 trillion rubles, of which 3 trillion are centralized investments. This is only a quarter of the investments of the former USSR in the geology of Russia.

The raw material base of Russia, subject to the formation of appropriate economic conditions for development exploration work can provide for a relatively long period of production levels necessary to meet the country's needs for oil. It should be taken into account that in the Russian Federation after the seventies not a single large highly productive field was discovered, and the newly incremented reserves are deteriorating sharply in terms of their conditions. So, for example, due to geological conditions, the average flow rate of one new well in the Tyumen region fell from 138 tons in 1975 to 10-12 tons in 1994, i.e., more than 10 times. Significantly increased the cost of financial and material and technical resources for the creation of 1 ton of new capacity. The state of development of large highly productive fields is characterized by the development of reserves in the amount of 60-90% of the initial recoverable reserves, which predetermined the natural decline in oil production.

The transition to market relations dictates the need to change approaches to establishing economic conditions for the functioning of enterprises, attributing those who are to the mining industries. IN oil industry, characterized by non-renewable resources of valuable mineral raw materials - oil, existing economic approaches exclude a significant part of the reserves from development due to the inefficiency of their development according to current economic criteria. Estimates show that, for economic reasons, individual oil companies cannot engage in economic turnover from 160 to 1057 million tons of oil reserves.

The oil industry, with a significant security balance reserves, in recent years worsening no my job. On average, the decline in oil production per year by dey the existing fund is estimated at 20%. For this reason, in order to maintain the achieved level of oil production in Russia, it is necessary to introduce new capacities of 115-120 million tons per year, which requires drilling 62 million meters of production wells, and in fact in 1991 27.5 million meters were drilled, and in 1995 - 9.9 million m.

The lack of funds led to a sharp reduction in the volume of industrial and civil construction, especially in Western Siberia. As a result, there was a decrease in work on the development of oil fields, the construction and reconstruction of oil collection and transportation systems, the construction of housing, schools, hospitals and other facilities, which was one of the reasons for the tense social situation in the oil-producing regions. The program for the construction of associated gas utilization facilities was disrupted. As a result, more than 10 billion m3 of petroleum gas are flared annually. Due to the impossibility of reconstruction oil pipelines systems in the fields, there are constantly numerous ruptures of pipelines. In 1991 alone, more than 1 million tons of oil were lost for this reason and great damage was done to the environment. The reduction in construction orders led to the disintegration of powerful construction organizations in Western Siberia.

One of the main reasons for the crisis in the oil industry is also the lack of the necessary field equipment and pipes. On average, the deficit in providing the industry with material and technical resources exceeds 30%. In recent years, not a single new large production unit for the production of oilfield equipment has been created, moreover, many plants of this profile have reduced production, and the allocated funds for foreign currency purchases have not been enough.

Due to poor logistics, the number of idle production wells exceeded 25,000. units, including those idle above the norm - 12 thousand units. About 100,000 tons of oil are lost every day in wells idle above the norm.

An acute problem for the further development of the oil industry remains its poor supply of high-performance machinery and equipment for oil and gas production. By 1990, half of the technical equipment in the industry had wear and tear of more than 50%, only 14% of machinery and equipment corresponded to the world level, the demand for the main types of products was satisfied on average by 40-80%. This situation with the provision of the industry with equipment was a consequence of the poor development of the country's oil engineering industry. Import supplies in the total volume of equipment reached 20%, and for certain types they reach up to 40%. Purchase of pipes reaches 40 - 50%.

With the collapse of the Union, the situation with the supply of oilfield equipment from the CIS republics: Azerbaijan, Ukraine, Georgia and Kazakhstan worsened. Being monopoly producers of many types of products, the factories of these republics inflated prices and reduced the supply of equipment. Only the share of Azerbaijan in 1991 accounted for about 37% of the products produced for the oil industry.

As a result of the destruction of the logistics system, the reduction of budget financing and the impossibility of self-financing of drilling operations by oil producing associations due to the low price of oil and the uncontrollably growing prices for material and technical resources, a reduction in the volume of drilling began. From year to year, the creation of new oil production capacities is reduced and there is a sharp drop in oil production.

A significant reserve for reducing the volume of drilling operations is an increase in the flow rate of new wells by improving the opening of oil reservoirs. For these purposes, it is necessary to multiply the drilling of horizontal wells, giving an increase in production rate against standard wells up to 10 times or more. Solving the issues of high-quality opening of reservoirs will increase the initial production rate of wells by 15-25%.

Due to the systematic undersupply in recent years oil and gas producing enterprises of material and technical resources to maintain the fund in working condition, its use has deteriorated sharply. An indirect reason for the growth of non-operating well stock is also the low quality of equipment supplied by domestic plants and, which leads to an unjustified increase in the volume of repair work.

Thus, by 1992 the Russian oil industry had already entered a crisis state, despite the fact that it had sufficient commercial oil reserves and large potential resources. However, during the period from 1988 to 1995. the level of oil production decreased by 46.3%. Oil refining in the Russian Federation is mainly focused on 28 refineries (refinery): at 14 enterprises, the volume of oil refining exceeded 10 million tons per year and they processed 74.5% of the total volume of incoming oil, at 6 enterprises the volume of refining ranged from 6 to 10 million tv year and at the remaining 8 plants - less than 6 million tons per year (the minimum processing volume is 3.6 million tons per year, the maximum is about 25 million tons per year)

The capacities of individual refineries in the Russian Federation in terms of the volume of processed raw materials, the structure of their production assets differ significantly from foreign oil refineries. Thus, the main share of oil in the United States is processed at refineries with a capacity of 4-12 million tons per year, in Western Europe - 3-7 million tons per year. Figure 9 shows the indicators of the production of basic petroleum products in the Russian Federation and developed capitalist countries.

Table 9 Indicators of the production of basic oil products in the Russian Federation and developed capitalist countries.

In the structure of production and consumption of the Russian Federation, a much larger share is occupied by heavy residual oil products. The yield of light products is close to their potential content in oil (48-49%), which indicates the low use of secondary processes of deep oil refining in the structure of domestic oil refining. The average depth of oil refining (the ratio of light oil products to the volume of oil refining) is about 62-63%. For comparison, the depth of processing at refinery of industrialized countries is 75-80% (in the USA - about 90%). the minimum in 1994 (61.3%) was caused by a decrease in the consumption of motor fuel in the context of a deepening decline in industrial production in Russia as a whole. At domestic plants, the processes of distillate hydrotreatment are not sufficiently developed, there is no hydrotreatment of oil residues. Refineries are major sources of environmental pollution: total emissions of harmful substances (sulfur dioxide, carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides, hydrogen sulfide, etc.) in 1990 amounted to 4.5 kg per ton of processed oil.

Comparing the capacities of deepening and refining processes at enterprises of the Russian Federation with similar data for foreign countries, it can be noted that the share of catalytic cracking capacities is 3 times less than in Germany, 6 times less than in England, and 8 times lower in terms of compared to the USA. Until now, one of the progressive processes - hydrocracking of vacuum gas oil - is practically not used. Such a structure is less and less consistent with the needs of the national market, since, as already noted, it leads to excess production of fuel oil with a shortage of high-quality motor fuels.

The decline in the productivity of the primary and secondary processes mentioned above is only partly the result of a decrease in oil supplies to oil refineries and the effective demand of consumers, as well as the high wear and tear of process equipment. Out of more than 600 main technological units of domestic refineries, only 5.2% (in 1991 - 8.9%) have a service life of less than 10 years. The vast majority (67.8%) was put into operation more than 25 years ago and needs to be replaced. The condition of primary distillation plants in the Russian Federation is generally the most unsatisfactory.

A direct consequence of the unsatisfactory condition of the fixed assets of the oil refining industry is the high cost and low quality of commercial petroleum products. Yes, not subject to hydrodesulfurization fuel oil has a low demand on the world market and is used only as a raw material for the production of light oil products.

Tightening in the 80s in most industrialized countries of government control over the state of the environment led to significant change technical and technological structure of foreign refineries. New quality standards for motor fuels (the so-called "reformulated" motor fuels) include:

For gasoline - a significant reduction in the content of aromatic (benzene up to 1%) and olefinic hydrocarbons, sulfur compounds, volatility index, obligatory addition of oxygen-containing compounds (up to 20%);

For diesel fuels - reducing the content of aromatic hydrocarbons to 20-10% and sulfur compounds to 0.1-0.02%.

In 1992, the share of unleaded gasoline in the total production of gasoline in the United States exceeded 90%, in Germany - 70%. Japan produced only unleaded gasoline.

Domestic refineries continue to produce leaded gasoline. The share of unleaded gasoline in the total volume of motor gasoline production in 1991 was 27.8%. The share of their production has practically not increased in recent years and is currently about 45%. The main reason is the lack of financial resources for the modernization and construction of plants producing high octane components, as well as for the production of catalysts. Russian enterprises mainly produced A-76 gasoline, which does not meet modern development requirements engine building. The state of diesel fuel production as an exportable product is somewhat better. The share of low-sulfur fuel with sulfur content up to 0.2% in 1991 was 63.8%; - up to 76%

In 1990-1994 the production and assortment of lubricating oils were rapidly declining. If in 1991 the total production of oils amounted to 4684.7 thousand tons, then in 1994 it was 2127.6 thousand tons. Biggest reduction oil production took place at Grozny (currently production is closed), Yaroslavl, Novokuybyshevsky, Orsk, Perm and Omsk refineries.

A special role in the development of the oil and gas complex belongs to the system oil products supply. The significance of pipeline transport for the functioning of the oil complex was determined by the Decree of the President of the Russian Federation of October 7, 1992, in accordance with which the state retained control over the joint-stock company Transneft. On the territory of the Russian Federation, 49.6 thousand km of main oil pipelines are operated, 13264 thousand cubic meters m of reservoir tanks, 404 oil pumping stations. Currently, an acute problem is to maintain the existing system of main oil pipelines in working order.

Another problem is the transportation of sour crude oil. In the former USSR, this oil was processed mainly into Kremenchug refinery.

The development of the oil market is hindered by the absence to date of a unified system of mutual settlements for changes in the quality of oil during transportation. This is due to the fact that the main oil pipelines had large diameters and were designed to transport significant volumes of oil over long distances, which obviously predetermined the pumping of oils in a mixture. According to some estimates, annual, only JSC "LUKOIL", losses from the deterioration of the consumer properties of oil and the non-equivalent redistribution of the cost of oil between producers reach at least 60-80 billion rubles.

The management of the oil and gas industry in the USSR was carried out through a system of a group of ministries - the Ministry of Geology of the USSR, the Ministry of the Oil Industry, the Ministry of the Gas Industry, the Ministry of the Oil Refining and Petrochemical Industry of the USSR, as well as the Main Directorate for Transport, Storage and Distribution of Oil and Oil Products

The Russian oil industry is currently a contradictory combination of huge production capacities created and low levels of oil withdrawals that do not correspond to them. In terms of the total volume of production of certain types of fuel, the country occupies the first or leading place in the world. However, the reality of the work of industries fuel and energy complex Russia is to reduce the production of fuel and energy resources (TER) This trend has been observed since 1988. In 1995, the rate of decline in production decreased somewhat, which may be the beginning of a subsequent stabilization stage.

The production potential of the oil industry in the early 1980s was significantly undermined by the intention to accelerate the development of oil fields and increase export deliveries. At that time, oil exports largely predetermined the possibility of attracting foreign economic sources to maintain investment activity, increase trade turnover and finance government spending. It has become one of the main means of smoothing out the consequences of structural imbalances in the national economy.

However, investments in oil production were directed mainly to the extensive development of the industry, so the increase in investments was combined with relatively low reservoir recovery and large losses of associated gas. As a result, the oil industry experienced a series of major production downturns (1985, 1989, 1990), the last of which continues to this day.

A feature of the oil industry is its focus on the priorities of Russia's energy strategy. The Energy Strategy of Russia is a forecast of possible solutions to energy problems in the country in the short-term (2-3 years), medium-term (until 2000) and long-term (until 2010) plan, as well as in the field of energy production, energy consumption, energy supply and relations with the global energy economy At present, the highest priority of Russia's energy strategy is to increase efficient energy consumption and energy saving. The energy intensity of marketable products in Russia is 2 times higher than in the US and three times higher than in Europe. The decline in production in 1992-1995. Not „ led to a decrease in energy intensity, and even increased it.

Energy conservation will prevent this undesirable trend, as well as reduce harmful emissions into the atmosphere by the year 2000. Saved energy resources can become the main source of export stabilization TER.

The current state of the oil complex is assessed as a crisis, primarily in terms of falling oil production. The level of oil production in Russia in 1995 corresponds to the indicators of the mid-seventies. Oil production in 1995 decreased by 3.4% compared to 1994. The reasons for the decline are the deterioration of the raw material base, the depreciation of fixed assets, the break in the common economic space, the government's tough financial policy, the decline in the purchasing power of the population, and the investment crisis. The decommissioning of production capacities is 3 times higher than the commissioning of new ones. The number of idle wells is growing; by the end of 1994, an average of 30% of the operating well stock was idle. Only 10% of oil is produced by advanced technologies.

At Russian refineries, depreciation of fixed assets exceeds 80%, and capacity utilization is refinery is less than 60%. At the same time, foreign exchange earnings from oil exports are growing, which is achieved by outstripping growth in the physical volumes of exports.

Despite the measures taken by the Russian government aimed at supporting the oil refining sector - the development of the federal target program "Fuel and Energy", the resolution on measures to finance the reconstruction and modernization of the oil refining industry in Russia", the current state of affairs at all oil refineries is complex. However, the pessimism of the transition optimism about the beginning of the economic recovery in the near future After the expected end of the recession in 1997, growth should be expected to pick up steadily over the next few years, followed by more moderate growth after 2000.

The main goal of the program for the modernization of the domestic oil refining complex is to adapt products to market requirements, reduce environmental pollution, reduce energy consumption, reduce fuel oil production, release oil for export and increase the export of high-quality petroleum products.

Financial resources for investing in modernization projects are limited, so the most important task is to identify priority projects from among the proposed ones. When selecting projects, assessments of possible regional sales markets, potential regional production, and the balance of supply and demand at the regional level are taken into account. The most promising regions are the Central region, Western Siberia, Far East and Kaliningrad. The North-West is classified as medium promising, Volga-Vyatka district, Central Black Earth region, North Caucasus And Eastern Siberia. The least promising are the northern regions, the Volga and the Urals.

Projects for the modernization of oil refineries in the regional context are analyzed taking into account certain risks. The risks are associated with the volumes of processed raw materials and products for sale - the presence of sales markets. Commercial and transactional risks are determined by the presence of the plant Vehicle for the supply of raw materials and shipment of processed products, including storage facilities. Economic risks were calculated based on the impact of the project on increasing the economic margin. financial The main risks are generally related to the amount of funds required for the implementation of the project.

For each of the modernization projects, detailed feasibility studies are required before the selection of the final configuration. Modernization refinery will contribute to meeting the growing demand for diesel fuel, the implementation of projects will almost completely satisfy the demand for high-octane motor gasolines, as well as halve the surplus of fuel oil in a low-demand scenario export of fuel oil to the countries of Western Europe as a raw material for processing and export to regions not supported by natural gas for energy generation.

Negative impact on the decline in oil production in 1994-1995. was caused by the overstocking of refineries with finished products, which, due to high prices for petroleum products, are no longer able to be paid by the mass consumer. Reduce the volume of processed raw materials. State regulation in the form of linking oil producing associations to certain PZ in this case, it becomes not a positive, but a negative factor, does not correspond to the current situation in the oil industry and does not solve the accumulated problems. Leads to overloads in backbone systems pipeline oil transport, which, in the absence of sufficient storage capacity in oil production, force the shutdown of existing wells. So, filed by the Central Dispatch Office Rosneft, in 994 because of this oil and gas producing associations, 11 thousand wells were shut down with a total capacity of 69.8 thousand tons per day.

Overcoming the decline in oil production is the most difficult task for the oil complex. With a focus only on existing domestic technologies and production base, the decline in oil production will continue until 1997, even if the stock of idle wells is reduced to standard values ​​and the volume of development drilling is increased annually. It is necessary to attract large investments, both foreign and domestic, to introduce advanced technologies (horizontal and radial drilling, hydraulic fracturing, etc.) and equipment, especially for the development of small and marginal deposits. In this case, the decline in oil production can be overcome in 1997-1998.

In development - from increasing production to its quotas, agreeing with subsoil limits,

In production - from gross to rational consumption of raw materials based on resource saving.

Transition to rational use of subsoil and re-saving throughout the entire technological chain from the search for minerals to their processing, and then to secondary utilization, is fully in line with the state interests of Russia. The above tasks can be solved in the conditions of competition among the subjects of the regulated energy market.

In recent years, in our country in the field of oil exports, there has been a gradual departure from state monopoly and approaching the practice of private-state oligopoly adopted in industrialized countries, the subjects of which act according to the civilized rules developed and adopted by them, taking into account national traditions and characteristics. Since during the reform of the economy since 1992 there was a breakdown of the state machine of management, the formation of the oil oligopoly did not always take place in a civilized way.

More than 120 organizations of private companies and joint ventures have received the right to sell oil and oil products abroad. Competition has intensified between Russian oil sellers. The number of dumping and uncontrolled transactions has been constantly increasing. The price of Russian oil fell by almost 20%, and exports remained at a record low of 65 million tons in 1992.

The practice of exemption from export duties for both professional trading companies and many regional administrations, government agencies, and various public organizations has become widespread. On the whole, in 1992, according to the data of the Main Directorate for Economic Crimes of the Ministry of Internal Affairs of Russia, 67% of exported oil was exempted from export duties, which deprived the budget of revenues in the amount of about $ 2 billion.

In 1993, the institution of special exporters began to work in the country, which involves the selection of the most experienced trading companies (traders) and granting them the exclusive right to conduct foreign trade operations with oil and oil products. This made it possible to increase the volume of oil exports to 80 million tons in 993, to slightly raise its price (which continued to remain 10–13% below the world level), and to work out a mechanism for controlling the flow of foreign exchange funds into the country. However, the number of special exporters continued to be excessive (50 subjects). They continued to compete not so much with foreign companies, but also among themselves. The mechanism for granting benefits on export duties has also been preserved, but the amount of funds shortfall from the budget has decreased to $1.3 billion.

In 1994, the number of special exporters was reduced to 14 organizations. Oil exports increase to 91 million tons, the price of Russian oil amounted to 99% of the world price. The process of privatization and restructuring of the oil industry contributed to the improvement in this area: a number of companies were formed as fully vertically integrated, capable of carrying out the entire cycle of operations from exploration and production of oil to the sale of petroleum products directly to consumers. At the end of 1994, the main Russian manufacturers and exporters, with active participation Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Russian Federation established an industry association Soyuz oil exporters (SONEK), access to which is open to all subjects of the oil sector.

Thus, Russian companies were able to compete in world markets with the leading monopolies of industrialized countries. Conditions were created for the abolition of the institute of special exporters, which was done by a government decision in early 1995. SONEK implemented the worldwide practice of streamlining the export of strategic goods. For example, there are more than 100 export cartels in Japan, about 30 in Germany, and about 20 in the USA.

The presence of vertically integrated oil companies in the domestic Russian market creates the prerequisites for the development of effective competition between them, which has positive consequences for consumers. However, to date, these prerequisites have not been implemented at the regional level, since so far there has actually been a division Russian market oil products on the zones of influence of newly formed oil companies. Of the 22 surveyed SCAP In Russia in 1994, only in the markets of the Astrakhan and Pskov regions, Krasnodar and Stavropol regions, the supply of petroleum products (gasoline, fuel oil, diesel fuel) is carried out by two oil companies, in other cases, the presence of one oil company, as a rule, exceeds the 80th milestone.

Deliveries through direct links, as well as those of a fragmentary nature, are also carried out by other companies, but their share in the volume of deliveries to regional markets is too small to compete with monopolists. For example, in the Oryol region, with the absolute dominance of the company "KZhOS" in the regional market (97%) company "LUKOIL" also supplies petroleum products Agrosnab. However, the agreement between them is of a one-time nature and was concluded on a barter basis.

Establishment in early 1993 of three vertically integrated oil companies (VINK) had a significant impact on the oil product markets. Oil production by each of the vertically integrated companies increased as a percentage in relation to the rest of the oil producing enterprises and amounted to a total of 56.4% in January 1994, while in the first half of 1993 these three companies produced 36% of the total oil production by Russia. In general, with the decline in the production of the main types of oil products, VIOCs stabilized and even increased the output of certain types of products.

Along with this, the growth in oil prices for VIOCs is on average lower than for oil-producing enterprises that are not formed in the company. In addition, oil companies periodically announce a freeze on their prices for petroleum products. This allows oil companies to develop not only the oil product markets of the regions where their subsidiaries are located oil products supply, but also actively go to other most attractive regions (border, central, southern). The suspension in 1994 of the creation of new oil companies provided significant benefits to the three functioning NK in capturing sales markets and strengthening their positions in them.

The economic consequences of the activity of oil monopolies in the regional markets today, in the conditions of a total decline in the purchasing power of consumers of petroleum products, are not of a pronounced negative nature. Moreover, the provision by oil companies of supplies for state needs practically on the terms of gratuitous lending (the agro-industrial sector is among the bad debtors) solves the operational problems of non-payments in the regions. However, there are no guarantees that with the activation of demand, due to the growing solvency of consumers, the potential for price dictates and other abuses of a dominant position will not be realized. This must be taken into account when creating a competitive environment and developing antimonopoly requirements. At the same time, specific industry features should be taken into account, the most important of which are the following:

Increased requirements for the continuity of technological processes and the reliability of providing consumers with electrical and thermal energy, raw materials and fuel;

Technological unity of simultaneously occurring processes of production, transportation and consumption of electrical and thermal energy, oil and gas;

The need for centralized dispatch control of the created unified systems energy oil and gas supply, which ensures an increase in the efficiency of the use of fuel and energy resources and more reliable supplies to their consumers;

Natural energy monopoly oil and gas transmission systems in relation to suppliers and consumers and the need for state regulation of the activities of these systems;

The dependence of the economic results of oil and gas producing enterprises from changes in mining and geological conditions for fuel extraction;

Rigid technological interdependence of enterprises and divisions of the main and service industries that ensure the release of final products.

At present, the foundations are being laid for the formation of a competitive environment, taking into account the specific features of industries fuel and energy complex which provides:

Formation of a list of natural and permitted monopolies in the fuel and energy sector;

Ensuring the implementation of antimonopoly measures during the privatization of enterprises and organizations of the fuel and energy complex;

Identification of enterprises and organizations of the fuel and energy complex that are competitive or have the opportunity to become competitive in the world market, and creating conditions for their effective functioning in the world market;

Implementation of control by government bodies over the prevention of unfair competition of enterprises and organizations of the fuel and energy complex;

Formation of financial and industrial groups in the fuel and energy sector;

Development of an action plan for the implementation in the fuel and energy sector of a set of priority measures for the development of small and medium-sized businesses;

Development of proposals for the delimitation of management functions

1. Fremantle M. Chemistry in action. In 2 hours. Part 1 .: Per. from English. - M.: Mir, 1991. - 528 p., ill.

2. Fremantle M. Chemistry in action. In 2 hours. Part 2 .: Per. from English. - M.: Mir, 1991. - 622 p., ill.

3. V.Yu. Alekperov Vertically integrated oil companies of Russia. – M.: 1996.

Kerogen (from the Greek keros, which means “wax”, and gene, which means “forming”) is an organic substance scattered in rocks, insoluble in organic solvents, non-oxidizing mineral acids and bases.

Condensate - a hydrocarbon mixture that is gaseous in the field, but condenses to a liquid when extracted to the surface.