Orthodox schools of ancient India. Pre-philosophy of Ancient India. Orthodox schools of ancient Indian philosophy. Orthodox and heterodox schools of ancient Indian philosophy

The European term “philosophy” in Hinduism does not have a single and unambiguous equivalent. Corresponding to it are the concepts of brahma vidya (knowledge of the absolute), darshan (intellectual, spiritual vision), anvikshika (reflective research). Many important philosophies, presented in intuitive language, are already found in ancient texts. But the main form of existence and development of theoretical thought was darshans. They are divided into orthodox (recognizing the authority of the Vedas) and unorthodox. There are usually 6 orthodox schools: Samkhya, Yoga, Nyaya, Vaisheshika, Vedanta and Mimamsa. The heterodox schools of Hinduism are Lokayata, Jainism and Buddhism. The formation of darshans and their development occurred in situations of dispute, polemics with each other, as well as with Buddhists and Jains. The darshans did not contradict each other so much as they complemented each other. Within itself, each darshan developed in the tradition of interpretation and commentary on the basic text.

Sankhya (meditation, number, calculation) was very popular in ancient times, and in the 15th century. her tradition has ceased. Its founder is considered to be the legendary sage Kapila (before the 6th century BC). The works of ancient authors are unknown. The earliest text that has reached us is the Sankhya-karika of Ishvarakkrishna. It is considered the basic text of darshana and has many commentaries.

The school developed a system of ontological dualism. As two eternal principles, a single and changeable matter was singled out - nature (prakriti), which is the basis of the world, and eternal unchanging spiritual essences (purusha), embodied in living beings. When the balance of the three forces (gunas) is disturbed, prakriti unfolds into a whole series of types of existence (tattvas), of which there are 25 in Samkhya. Purusha remains an inactive spectator of these material processes. The school remains an inactive spectator of these material processes. The school also developed ways of spiritual liberation (separation of the spirit from the products of prakriti) and methods of correct knowledge. Sankhya was the theoretical foundation of yoga.

The orthodoxy of classical Samkhya is not at all contradicted by the fact that, as many researchers believe, during the period of its inception and formation this system was close to the unorthodox currents of religious and philosophical thought of ancient India, primarily Buddhism (this did not, however, prevent the sharp polemics of the Samkhyaists with Buddhists). Such closeness was manifested primarily in the formulation of the main problem of the teachings of Samkhya - human suffering and the path to liberation from it. Strictly speaking, such a question is central to orthodox systems. The originality of Samkhya lies in the understanding of the causes of suffering and its very essence.

Eight-limb yoga.

Eight-limb yoga is one of the orthodox darshans (in general, the word yoga has up to 20 meanings in Sanskrit). As a philosophical school, yoga is based on the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali (2nd-3rd centuries BC). It summarizes the centuries-old experience of yoga development practice and gives its understanding.

Yoga Darshana has developed 8 stages leading to spiritual liberation: 1) renunciation of five types of unrighteous behavior; 2) compliance with five immutable rules; 3) correct posture for concentration; 4) breathing control; 5) distraction of the senses from their objects; 6) concentration; 7) contemplation of an object held by attention and 8) enlightenment.

The entire movement of the system is directed from the initial gap between the spiritual essence of man and the cosmic integrity of the absolute to the most concentrated embodiment of human nature. Yoga has reached great depth in the interpretation of psychological categories.

The founder of Nyaya (way, method, reasoning) is considered to be the author of the Nyaya Sutras Gotama (III-II centuries BC). A huge commentary array has been created for the basic sutras, in which the commentary of Uddyotakara (7th century) stands out with new rich content. There are two stages in the history of the school: the ancient Nyaya and the new Nyaya. The formation of the school took place in heated controversy with the Buddhists.

The school's interests are centered on the methodology of thinking, which later developed into logic. In accordance with the fundamental realistic principles is the theory of inference and the doctrine of the forms of syllogism. The syllogism in Nyaya has five parts.

In the field of ontology, Nyaya basically takes the Vaisesika point of view. In the theory of knowledge, Nyaya recognizes four types of simple acts of knowledge. False knowledge is understood as mistaking one object for another.

In the traditional education system, Nyaya is considered one of the fundamental subjects, along with grammar. Without mastering it, it is difficult to understand Indian philosophical texts.

The new Nyaya (Navya-Nyaya) was founded in the 13th century. logician Gangesha. His main work is Tattva-cintamani (The Gem of Categorical Thinking). The school deals exclusively with the methodology and technique of discursive thinking.

Vaisesika.

The oldest main text of the school is the Vaishenshika Sutra (“vishesha” - special), attributed to the sage Kanade (III-II centuries BC). However, the work of Prashastapada Padarthadharma-sangraha is considered more authoritative. (Compedium of attributes characteristic of called objects).

The main subject of consideration of the school was realistic ontology. In the doctrine of being, two layers were distinguished (cosmological and reflective). Prashastapada has 6 types of real existence, later a 7th was added - absence (non-existence). The atomic theory of matter has also been developed in detail. The school is characterized by a consistent and deep systematic approach that completely exhausts the problems raised.

The common ontological foundation and similarities in the theory of knowledge and logic led to the merger of Vaisheshika with Nyaya (syncretistic Nyaya-Vaisheshika).

Mimamsa (or Purva Mimamsa - the first or early study) studied and substantiated the ritual, which dates back to the Vedic tradition. Mimamsa developed on the crest of Brahmanism as a religion of sacrifice and constituted its self-reflection and philosophical understanding.

The school is based on the Mimamsa Sutra of Jaimini (IV-III centuries BC) and commentaries on them, among which the comments of Shhabara (III century), Kumarila Bhatta (VII-VIII centuries) and Prabhakara, his contemporary, stand out.

Mimamsa is the only darshana that was not interested in liberation from samsara. Main goal human life she saw in the birth in heaven, with which the source of permanent bliss was identified. The special role of Mimamsa in the history of Hinduism is due to the fact that its adherents were able to offer a holistic and consistent interpretation of Vedic texts and rituals in all their colossal volume. The school focused on epistemology and philosophy of language. An important section of the Mimamsa was the doctrine of the sources of reliable knowledge.

The Vedantists themselves consider the texts of the Upanishads to be fundamental for their darshana and trace their teaching directly to them. The threefold canon of Vedanta consists of, in addition to the Upanishads, the Bhagavad Gita and the Brahma Sutras of the Badaryans.

Historically, the first school of Vedanta was Advaita (non-dual) Vedanta. Its main and first classic is Shankara. Ramanuja's vishishta-advaita, Madhva's dvaita, Nimbarka's dvaitadvaita, and Vallabha's shuddhadvaita were also of great importance.

The main theme of Vedanta and its directions is the correlation between the absolute and the world, the absolute and man, the path of liberation from samsara, etc.

The directions of the school differed in their solution to the question of the relationship between atman and brahman.

History has marked the growth of ideological patronage of Vedanta. She declared all religious systems possible, but not effective in achieving truth. Over time, Vedanta established itself as a kind of supersystem and philosophical basis of Hinduism. During the period of national struggle, it was a kind of national flag, playing a leading role among other darshans. The views of Vivekananda, Aurobino Ghose, Ramakrishna, Ram Mohan Roy and others took on a Vedantic coloring.

Unorthodox Hindu Darshans.

The heterodox schools of Indian philosophy rejected (or, more often than not, were indifferent to) the basic dogma of the early Vedas. At the same time, their ideological continuity and connection with the Upanishads is obvious. For example, the ideas of the outstanding religious and philosophical tradition of ancient India - Buddhism (founded by Siddhartha Gautama, Buddha - “enlightened” in the 6th century BC) about the primacy of non-existence (non-existent) over being, about the illusory, untruth of individual human existence, about the possibility achieving a state of bliss by renouncing desires and sensory claims, etc. - all these ideas were contained in an undeveloped and unsystematized form in the Chandogya, Katha - Upanishads. Close to the Upanishads are some moral ideas of Buddhism, its restrained and critical attitude towards caste prejudices (according to Buddhism, belonging to one or another varna does not play a significant role for personal salvation, the main thing is a person’s moral merits), etc.

The term “nastika” denoted followers of teachings that denied the next world, posthumous rewards and the meaning of sacrifices. Later they began to designate people who did not recognize the authority of the Vedas. One of the unorthodox darshans popular in ancient and medieval times was lokayata (common in the world). The school's texts have been lost. The school derives all categories of reality from the material world, reaching in its reasoning to the point of nihilism, and often to dead ends. She denied the creation of the world, the existence of the soul, recognized perception as the only means of understanding the world, etc. The Lokayatikas saw the purpose of life in obtaining pleasures, primarily sensual ones. In the statements of opponents, the lokayata often looks like a target for ridicule.

Less obvious is the connection with the Upanishads of Jainism, another significant religious and philosophical school of India (founded by Mahavira in the 6th century BC). The critical aspect of Jainism in relation to the early Vedic traditions is more obvious: here there is a denial of the role of traditional gods, and a sharp condemnation of ritual (especially associated with the sacrifice of people and animals), and a more “liberal” attitude towards women (in contrast to Brahmanism, where a woman was relegated to the level of varna sudras, the Jains in religious life practically gave her rights equal to men - from access to sacred books to the opportunity to become a nun). Jainism, of course, has a connection with the ideological heritage of the Upanishads, although more indirect. In the dualistic (allowing for the simultaneous existence of material and spiritual substances) Jain teaching, the whole world is animated. A single soul (jiva) breaks up into many particles, which are clothed in various material shells and, like “atoms,” can move from body to body. Thanks to this “direct closure” of the soul with any body, no matter how small and distant, it becomes possible to directly (bypassing the feelings and mind) knowledge of the past, present and future, in fact - spiritual vision. This kind of intellectual construction largely reproduces similar thought patterns from the Kaushitaka Upanishad, where we're talking about about the directly cognizing Atman, freely moving from one body to another (the word “atman” means “running”).

For analysis, it is proposed to use the following three sayings of the Buddha:

“391, 396. I call a Brahmana one who has committed no evil in body, word, or thought—who restrains himself in three things. But I do not call a person a Brahmana just because of his birth or because of his mother... I call him a Brahmana who is free from attachments and deprived of benefits.

423. I call him a Brahmana who knows his former existence and sees heaven and hell; who, being a sage, full of perfect knowledge, achieved the annihilation of birth; who has done everything that can be done.”

Buddhism for the first time addressed a person not as a representative of any class, clan, tribe or a certain gender, but as an individual (unlike the followers of Brahmanism, the Buddha believed that women, on an equal basis with men, are capable of achieving the highest spiritual perfection). For Buddhism, only personal merit was important in a person. Thus, the word “Brahman” is used by Buddha to call any noble and wise person, regardless of his origin.

The Dhammapada is one of those works which tradition says are composed of sayings attributed to the Buddha and spoken by him on occasion. If we also take into account that the Dhammapada very fully and widely sets out the basic principles of the moral and ethical doctrine of early Buddhism, then the authority that it enjoyed and still enjoys among the followers of Buddhism, who rightly see in it a compendium of Buddhist wisdom, a work that claims to be as a textbook for life.

For our time, the significance of the Dhammapada lies, perhaps, first of all in the fact that it is one of the highest achievements of ancient Indian and world fiction. The beauty of the Dhammapada lies in the extraordinary elegance of its sutras, each of which is a complete aphorism, striking in its capacious brevity and imagery.

Each sutra of the Dhammapada is a small discussion on a given topic, in which one or another touch from the ancient Indian Everyday life or an unusually specific comparison, explaining a certain thought, transfers it to the plane of everyday commentary, a parable, pushing the didactic side into the background. Perhaps it is precisely in such cases that one should first of all see the folklore connections of the Dhammapada, which absorbed both the best traditions of ancient Indian folk art and many achievements of purely literary genres.

Indian philosophy is one of the most ancient in the history of world civilization. It is a collection of philosophical theories of all Indian thinkers, ancient and modern, Hindus and non-Hindus, theists and atheists. The originality and power of ancient Indian philosophy influenced big influence on the work of the greatest thinkers of modern and modern times, including Voltaire, Rousseau, Hegel, Schopenhauer, Nietzsche, L. Tolstoy, R. Rolland, A. Schweitzer, A. Einstein, W. Heisenberg, etc. In India itself, the centuries-old spiritual heritage is always was a source of inspiration not only for philosophers, but also for outstanding political and public figures: M. Gandhi, J. Nehru, S. Radhakrishnan and others. And the deeper and more comprehensively its distant past is studied, the clearer and more obvious the role of India in the fate of the world becomes civilization and culture.

Eastern philosophy explores the problem of man from the point of view of practice, people’s livelihoods, their way of life; it contains many private problems related to people’s self-awareness, so this topic is relevant today.

Purpose test work is to characterize the traditional schools of ancient Indian philosophy, to understand how they influenced the development modern philosophy. Indian philosophy is distinguished by an amazing breadth of horizons, which testifies to its unwavering desire to find truth.

When writing a test, I set myself the following tasks:

1 Define ancient Indian philosophy;

2 List and characterize the schools of ancient Indian philosophy;

3 Describe the main ideas of the teachings of ancient Indian schools;

1. CONDITIONS OF ARISE AND MAIN DIRECTIONS OF ANCIENT INDIAN PHILOSOPHY.

The main feature of ancient Indian epistemology (the study of cognition) is not the study of external (visible) signs of objects and phenomena (which is typical for the European type of cognition), but the study of the processes occurring in the mind when in contact with the world of objects and phenomena.

Philosophy in India arose from one of the most ancient human civilizations; its thousand-year-old traditions dating back to the 15th-10th centuries. BC e., have survived to the present day. Religious and philosophical comments on the Vedas - the Upanishads contain ideas that largely determined the entire subsequent development of Indian philosophy (about the unity of the integral spiritual substance, brahman, and the individual soul, atman; about the immortality of the soul, which passes from one birth to another, according to the law of karma, or retribution). Along with religious and idealistic teachings, the Upanishads also reflected the views of materialists and atheists, who rejected the authority of the Vedas, the existence of the soul after the death of a person, and considered one of the material principles to be the fundamental basis of the world.

Since the early Middle Ages, a tradition has developed to divide all philosophical schools into orthodox, which recognized the authority of the Vedas, and heterodox, which rejected the infallibility of the Vedas. Of the orthodox schools, six are considered major: these are Mimamsa, Samkhya, Yoga, Nyaya, Vaisheshika and Vedanta. The heterodox ones include Buddhist, Jain and numerous materialistic and atheistic schools, the most common of which was the Charvaka (Lokayata) school.

In India there are a number of schools that, although they did not arise simultaneously, exist in parallel and flourish together for a number of centuries. The reason for this is that in India philosophy was an integral part of life. As soon as a new system of thought appeared, a group of its supporters perceived it as a philosophy of life and created a school of this philosophy.

2. SCHOOLS OF INDIAN PHILOSOPHY

Although the various schools were opposed to each other, Indian thinkers still find a certain similarity between them. They believe that all men have different inclinations and that this difference must be taken into account in religious, philosophical and social matters and the consequent difference in natural rights of man (adhikara-bheda) must be taken into account.

According to the traditional principles of classification accepted by most orthodox Indian thinkers, schools and systems of Indian philosophy are divided into two broad camps - orthodox (astika) and unorthodox (nastica) The first group includes six main philosophical systems: Mimamsa, Vedanta, Samkhya, Yoga, Nyaya and Vaisheshika. They are considered orthodox not because they admit the existence of God, but because they recognize the authority of the Vedas. So, for example, although the Mimamsa and Samkhya schools deny the existence of God as the creator of the world, they are still considered orthodox, since they recognize the authority of the Vedas. In addition to them, there are also less important orthodox schools, such as grammar, medicine and others.

The unorthodox systems include mainly three main schools - materialistic (charvaka type), Buddhist and Jain. They are called heterodox because they do not accept the authority of the Vedas.

3. ORTHODOX PHILOSOPHICAL SCHOOLS

This is a realistic philosophy (the theory according to which things, objects of the external world, exist independently of all knowledge, of relation to the mind), based mainly on the laws of logic. This philosophy mainly considers the conditions of correct thinking and the means of knowing reality. It recognizes the existence of four independent sources of true knowledge: perception (pratyaksha), inference or conclusion (anumana), comparison (upamana) and evidence or evidence (shabda). The objects of knowledge, according to the Nyaya school, are: our self, body, feelings and their objects, cognitive ability, mind, activity, mental defects, rebirth, feelings of pleasure and pain, suffering and freedom from suffering. Nyayaika philosophers strive to free the soul from its attachment to the body. According to the Nyaya system, the self (atman) is an independent substance, completely different from the mind and body and acquiring the attributes of consciousness in the process of establishing a connection with any object through the senses. However, consciousness is not an inherent property of the self. This is a random, side property. It ceases to limit the self in a state of liberation.

Liberation means the absolute cessation of all torment and suffering, made possible through correct knowledge of reality. Moreover, liberation is only the relief of suffering, and not pleasure or happiness. To achieve liberation, one must acquire true knowledge of oneself and all other objects of experience. It is necessary to understand that our self is different from the body, mind, feelings, etc.

Nyaikis consider God to be the primary cause of creation, preservation and destruction of the world. He creates the world not from nothing, but from eternal atoms, space, time, ether, minds and souls. The thinkers of this school prove the existence of God. To do this they use several arguments. In particular, they say that all complex objects of the world formed by a certain combination of atoms (mountains, seas, rivers, etc.) must have a cause, because they are by their nature the effects of some action, just as the effect of an action potter's pot. Without the guidance of intelligent cause, the material causes of these things cannot achieve that order, connection, and coordination which enable them to produce certain effects. Obviously man is weak for such creation.

The second argument is based on the question of the difference in human destinies. Nyaikis say that the causes of suffering and joy are the actions of people in their present and past lives. If the world is perfected by God, not only omnipotent, but also morally perfect, then, obviously, suffering is given to a person for bad deeds, and joy for good ones. If God is both the creator and moral leader of the world, then it turns out that human beings are responsible to God for their actions. It naturally and necessarily follows from this that God rewards us for good deeds and punishes us for bad ones.

The third argument in favor of the existence of God is based on the authority of the Vedas. The significance of the Nyaya system lies in its methodology, that is, in the theory of knowledge on which this philosophy is based. Nyaya applies the method of logical criticism to solve all vital and philosophical problems. Nyaya does not provide a systematic view of the world as a whole in the light of a single absolute principle.

3.2 VAISESHIKA.

There are two principles at work in the world: prakriti (matter) and purusha (spirit). The goal of Samkhya philosophy is the abstraction of spirit from matter. Sankhyaik is the one who does the calculation.

Sankhya is rightfully considered the oldest philosophical school , as evidenced by the numerous references to this teaching in the Shvegashvatara Upanishad and the Bhagavad Gita. However, it is possible that in ancient sources the term sankhya (knowledge, wisdom) was used in a utilitarian sense. The key concepts of the system are prakriti (matter) and purusha (spiritual principle). Teaches that there is a primary material cause of the world. The transformation from an amorphous form into the world of creatures and objects was carried out under the influence of three qualitative elements - aspiration, darkness, clarity. In every thing one of these three qualitative elements predominates. Samkhya recognizes the existence of an absolute soul, which is independent of the material basis of the world. It cannot be observed or detected. When combined, twenty-five original principles arise: material and spiritual. Samkhya is a philosophy of dualistic realism, the creation of which is attributed to the sage Kapila. It recognizes the existence of two independent primary realities: purusha and prakriti. Purusha is a certain rational principle, of which consciousness (chaitanya) is not an attribute, but its very essence. Purusha is the Self, completely different from the body, senses and mind. Being outside the world of objects, it represents the eternal consciousness, which is a witness to the changes and actions taking place in the world - a consciousness that does not act and does not change. Physical things - chairs, beds, etc. - exist for others rather than for themselves. Therefore there must be a purusha or Self, distinct from prakriti or primary matter, but making use of the products of prakriti. There are many different selves associated with different bodies, as a result of which some people are happy, others are unhappy, some die, others live. Prakriti is the first cause of the world. This is an eternal, unconscious principle, which, always changing, serves exclusively to satisfy the Self. Sattva, rajas, tamas are components of prakriti, which keeps them in a state of peace and balance. These three components are called gunas. They are not qualities or attributes in any sense. They are rather the three substantial elements that make up prakrit, just as three ropes twisted together form a rope. We come to the conclusion about the existence of gunas when we experience pleasure, suffering, or are indifferent to certain things. So cause and effect are essentially identical. An effect is a manifested condition of a cause. For example, in vegetable oil, as an effect, what was already contained in the seed as a cause is found. All things in the world are effects that are endowed with qualities that cause pleasure, pain or indifference. Therefore, prakrta or pradhana, being the root cause of things, must have three elements: sattva, rajas and tamas, which have the properties of causing pleasure, suffering or indifference, respectively, as well as manifestation, activity and passivity.

As for the problem of the existence of God, Samkhya philosophy rejects any belief in the divine. According to this system, the existence of God cannot be proven in any way.

The conceptual basis of the school is built on the same theses that other Hindu teachings proclaim - understanding the reality of existence and searching for ways to liberation from suffering. Practical recommendations for spiritual growth are provided by yoga that accompanies Samkhya. 3.4 YOGA (tension, training) There is a practice of contemplation; its theoretical basis is Samkhya, but it also recognizes a personal God. An important element is training. Self-control, mastery of breathing in certain body positions, isolation of feelings from external influences, concentration of thought, meditation, state of rejection - liberation from the body. Yoga is a set of religious and philosophical disciplines leading to liberation. The founder of the teaching is considered to be Patanjali (who lived c. 200 or 400 AD), who systematized the basic techniques in his “Yoga Sutra,” the oldest written manual on yoga. Yoga sets its goal to liberate Purusha (achieve moksha), and this requires spiritual discipline from a person. The self-improvement system involves eight stages: 1. Abstinence from unrighteous life (lying, covetousness, sex life). 2. Compliance with the requirements - internal and external cleanliness. 3. Static exercises (postures-asanas). 4. Mastering harmonious breathing. 5. Directing consciousness inward in order to prepare the physical. body to spirit. experience. 6. Focusing on the object. 7. Contemplation of an object. 8. Samadhi is a state of deep meditation (achieving superconsciousness). The meditative process itself represents the practical realization of the nature of reality, as stated in Samkhya philosophy. The Personal God plays the role of a source of spiritual exaltation, for the proof of his existence is perceived as intuitive knowledge of the Highest Principle. At the same time, service to Ishvara is an integral part of the physical and mental preparation of a yogi.

3.5 MIMANSA ("explanation" of the Vedic text on sacrifices)

The main principles of the school are ritualism (orthopraxy), anti-asceticism and anti-mysticism. The central goal of the school is to clarify the nature of dharma, understood as the obligatory performance of a set of rituals performed in a certain way. The nature of dharma is not accessible to reasoning or observation, and must be based only on the authority of the Vedas, which are considered eternal and infallible. The school had a huge impact on the formation of the social system of Hindu society. A more interesting feature of the Mimamsa school is its unique epistemological theory of the inherent validity of all knowledge as such. All knowledge is believed to be true by virtue of the very fact of knowledge (Sathapramanyavada). Thus, what requires proof is not true knowledge, but is mistaken for it. The followers of Mimamsa used this theory to justify the undeniable truth of the Vedas.

Ritualism is based on the authority of the Vedas, and therefore the Mimamsa school put forward the theory that the Vedas are not the work of any person and are therefore free from human errors. According to Mimamsa, the Vedas are eternal and self-existent; written or orally disseminated Vedas are only a temporary revelation of them through special prophets. To prove the validity of the Vedas, the Mimamsa school puts forward a carefully developed theory of knowledge, which must first of all show that the reliability of all knowledge is self-evident. When sufficient conditions exist, knowledge arises. When we read a geographical book, we gain knowledge about the countries described in it on the basis of authority. In each of the above cases, the acquired knowledge claims to be true, and we accept it without any objections. The authority of the Vedas is undeniable, What the Vedas prescribe to do is correct. What they prohibit is wrong. It is the duty of every person to do what is right and abstain from what is forbidden. Duty should be performed for the sake of duty. The rituals prescribed by the Vedas should be performed not with the expectation of receiving any reward for it, but precisely because they are prescribed. Selfless performance of obligatory rites, which is possible only with knowledge and self-control, gradually destroys karmas and makes it possible to achieve liberation after death. The soul must be considered as an immortal, eternal substance, for if we assumed that the soul perishes with the death of the body, then the Vedic injunctions requiring the performance of certain rites to achieve bliss in heaven would be meaningless. The creators of the Mimamsa philosophy, as well as representatives of the school of Jainism, present a number of original arguments to prove the existence of an immortal soul, refuting the point of view of materialists who do not allow the existence of anything other than the body. However, they do not consider consciousness to be something intrinsic to the soul. Consciousness arises in the soul only when it is united with the body and when some object is before the organs of cognition (the five external senses and internal organ called (manas). The soul, liberated and having left the corporeal shell, does not have an actually existing consciousness, but only its potential. The Mimamsa theory of knowledge is based on the premise of eternity and immutability of Vedic knowledge: knowledge is self-evident and identical to self-consciousness. In other words, bare facts do not reflect true knowledge. So, there is a clear dualism of the position. Reason exists independently of the objects of study, and knowledge is not derived from understanding the results of the empirical process, but is unshakable and immutable. Since the eternal truth cannot be revealed with the help of factual evidence, it is worth accepting it as it is depicted in the Vedas. Anything that goes beyond the guidelines poses an obvious threat of aggravating karma and, accordingly, increasing suffering in the future. 3.6 VEDANTA (completion of the Vedas) Vedanta is the most important among the orthodox schools of ancient Indian philosophy. It is so firmly rooted in Indian culture that the characteristics, character and direction of development of all Indian philosophical thought are associated with it. Basic texts - Upanishads (IX - V centuries BC), Bhagavad Gita (IX - VI centuries BC) and Brahma Sutra (V - II centuries BC). The central idea of ​​Vedanta - the idea of ​​Brahman. Brahman is revealed as impersonal absolute spirit, the genetic and substantial beginning, as well as the final end of all things. From it all things come, by it they are supported and in it they dissolve. “Truly, from what these beings are born, how those born live, what they enter when they die, that is what we strive to recognize, that is Brahman,” says the Upanishads. There is nothing like it and nothing different from it. Brahman is defined positively - as one, infinite, eternally existing, and negatively: not this, not this, not this... As a transcendental (transcendental) Truth, it surpasses all our words, concepts, ideas. They lead to it, it is revealed by divine revelation and mystical intuition. Brahman is characterized by the unity of being, consciousness and undisturbed calm or bliss. The material world is the empirical manifestation of Brahman. The manifestation is untrue, only apparently real, since it has no basis in itself for its existence. This is an illusion, Maya. The whole and only reality of the existence of such a world lies in Brahman. Only for ordinary consciousness and general ignorance does the sensory world appear to really exist. “For one who has attained the state of truth and reality (i.e. Brahman), all visible world disappears,” says the Brahma Sutra. The manifestation of the creative energy inherent in Brahman is the periodic rebirth and death of the world. At a time determined by the next cycle, the world disappears into Brahman, only to be reborn from it again. By virtue of its essential identity with Brahman, Atman is universal, imperishable, supersensible. It opens in the inner experience of man, independent of external sensations, through some innermost, hidden feeling of the mind. As the empirical or manifested existence of Brahman, Atman is immanent (internal) to each individual - like his life breath. Comprehension of the substantial unity of Brahman and Atman frees a person from the shackles of the endless flow-circle of life, makes him enlightened, authentic, free. Vedanta develops the idea of ​​four main aspects of life: kama, artha, dharma and moksha. Kama is sensual attractions and passions, the desire for pleasure, the desire for pleasure, in particular love. Artha - material goods, benefit, benefit, acquisition of wealth, desire for worldly prosperity. The philosophical system of Vedanta (literally, the completion of the Vedas) is still very popular today. Key concept Brahman is considered to be the ultimate truth, incomprehensible to the mind, but acquired through the process of prayerful contemplation and in-depth meditation. The argumentation of Vedanta boils down to the following: Vedanta is a religious and philosophical system that unites many teachings, which, in turn, are distinguished by a wealth of ideas (sometimes contradictory) and views.

ANCIENT INDIAN PHILOSOPHY AND MODERNITY.

CONCLUSION

Despite the existence of many different schools, the views of which differ greatly from each other, each school tried to study the views of all the others and carefully weighed their arguments and objections before coming to a particular conclusion. This nature of Indian philosophy led to the formation special method philosophical consideration. This comprehensive nature of Indian philosophy - the tolerance of some of its philosophical schools in relation to others - had the positive significance that each philosophical system took on a well-founded and complete form. If we open the extensive works of the Vedantins, we will find there a careful and thoughtful consideration of the points of view of all other systems: Carvaka, Buddhist, Jain, Samkhya, Yoga, Mimamsa, Nyaya and Vaisesika; Likewise, the works of Buddhist or Jain philosophers discuss the views of other philosophical systems. Therefore, every system is stan! The error in the formula seems encyclopedic in its approach to certain ideas. It is not surprising that many problems of modern Western philosophy have already been considered in Indian philosophy. Moreover, local scholars, familiar only with Indian philosophy, are able to assimilate with amazing ease the most complex problems of Western philosophy.

Indian philosophy is truly “living fruit” that continues to nourish the world’s human thought with its juices. Indian philosophy has maintained complete continuity. And no philosophy has had such a strong impact on the West as Indian. The main value of ancient Indian philosophy lies in its appeal to the inner world of man; it opens up a world of possibilities for a moral personality, and this is probably where the secret of its attractiveness and vitality lies.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

4. Shokhin V.K. Schools of Indian philosophy. Formation period of the 4th century. BC e. - II century n. e. - M., 2004.

Various schools of philosophy were born on the basis of different points of view on the eternal questions of existence. Each founder of his teaching, trying to prove the correctness of his worldview, surrounded himself with students and followers who supported and developed the philosophy of this particular school. Sometimes the teachings of different schools literally contradicted each other, but, based on the laws of the same philosophy and logic, each point of view had the right to exist.

The Origin of Philosophy in Ancient India

The most ancient studies studied to date are the philosophical studies of Ancient India. Their origin dates back to the 2nd millennium BC. These teachings were based on the study of the surrounding world, human relationships, everything that is connected with the nature of the existence of the human body and its soul. But the research did not have a solid scientific basis; rather, they related to logical conclusions from what was seen and felt. These were the first steps towards scientific teachings and explanations of various phenomena in human life.

What are the Vedas?

We can say that all world philosophy has its roots going back centuries and is based on the research of Ancient India. Let us consider the important features of the philosophy of Ancient India in more detail.

The preserved treasures of Indian philosophy, written in Sanskrit, have survived to this day. This work has a common title "Veda", i.e. knowledge, vision. The collection includes various spells, rituals, invocations, prayers, etc., addressed to the forces of nature, and is also an attempt to interpret the human world around us from a philosophical point of view. The teaching explains people’s first ideas about their moral and moral essence in life.

The Vedas are divided into four parts, which are worth talking about in more detail:

1. First part - Samhitas, which means hymns, she the oldest from all parts.
2. Second part - Brahmins- ritual texts, on which religion is based or philosophy of Brahmanism, which had the main power and authority before the emergence of Buddhism.
3. The third part - Aranyaki (forest books)- this part gives recommendations and sets the rules of life for people who choose hermit lifestyle.
4. Fourth part - Upanishads- which means sitting at the feet of a teacher and receiving intimate, secret knowledge - philosophical part of the Vedas. In it, a new character Purusha appears, who appears to be omniscient and omnipotent, the soul of the world, the cosmic mind, that is, in our understanding, an omnipotent god. Next he will receive the name Atman, from whom the human student receives knowledge.

All schools of philosophy of Ancient India are based on the Vedas, hence the division of society into four varnas, or, as they are also called, castes - brahmans, kshatriyas, vaishyas and sudras. Varna is the status of a certain group of people in society; to be more precise, it is a shell, color, color, cover. The right to belong to a particular caste is determined by birth. Each caste is engaged a certain type activities.

• Brahmins (color white)- This is the highest caste, it deals only with mental work.
• Kshatriyas (color red)- their destiny is military affairs.
• Vaishya (color yellow)- engaged only in handicrafts and agriculture.
• Shudras (color black)- this is the lowest varna, doing “menial” work.

Only men of the first three castes had access to knowledge; the fourth caste, as well as all women, were excluded from knowledge. Their dignity was valued on a par with animals.

Main schools of philosophy of Ancient India

As can be seen from the development of history, the division of society is also based on a unique philosophy that comes from the ancient Vedas. With the development of society and its division into castes, currents appear that have shaped Orthodox and unorthodox schools of Indian philosophy. Schools of these directions appear, which adhere to the support or refutation of the Vedas. The division into these schools of philosophical knowledge occurs in the 6th century. BC. — this was led to by the development of society, the formation of new economic relations, moral improvement human, the emergence of new knowledge.

Let us briefly consider how the two schools of different philosophical beliefs differ.

Orthodox schools(astika - frantic) remained true to the philosophy of the Vedas. These included Vedanta, Sanhya, Nyaya, Mimamsa, Yoga and Vaisheshika. Adherents of these movements are those who believe in the continuation of life after leaving for another world. It is interesting to consider each direction of Orthodox schools in more detail.

1. Vedanta or the completion of the Vedas, the school is divided into two directions “advanta” and “visishta-advanta”. The philosophical meaning of the first direction is that there is nothing but God, everything else is just an illusion. The second direction - Vishishta-Advaita, preaches three realities of which the world consists - God, soul and matter.
2. Sankhya— this school teaches recognition of the material and spiritual principles. Material values ​​are in constant development, the spiritual principle is eternal. The material goes away with the death of a person, but the spiritual principle continues life.
3. Nyaya- a school whose highest spiritual mentor is the god Ishvara . The teaching of the school is a conclusion from sensation, analogy and the testimony of others.
4. Mimamsa- the school is based on the principles of logic, reasonable explanation, it recognizes spiritual and material existence.
5. Vaisesika- this school bases its principles on the knowledge that everyone around a person, like himself, consists of indivisible particles that have eternal existence and are controlled by the world soul, i.e. God.
6. Yoga- This is the most famous direction of all schools. It is based on the principles of dispassion, contemplation and detachment from the material. Meditation leads to achieving harmonious liberation from suffering and reunification with God. Yoga is loyal to all existing schools and their teachings.

Unorthodox schools(nastika - atheist), who do not take the ancient Vedas as the basis of their philosophy. These include Buddhism, Charvaka Lokayata, Ved Jainism. Adherents of this school are considered atheists, but the Jaya and Buddhist schools still profess astika, as they believe in the continuation of life after death.

1. Buddhism— the philosophy of this school is proclaimed the official religion. The founder is Siddhartha, who was nicknamed Buddha, i.e. enlightened. The philosophy of the school is based on the path of enlightenment, the achievement of nirvana. This is a state of complete peace and equanimity, liberation from the causes of suffering and pain, from the external world and thoughts associated with it.
2. Charvaka (Lokayata)— the school is based on the wisdom of the teachings that everything that exists consists of air, water, fire and earth, i.e. four elements, in various combinations. After death, when these elements disintegrate, they join their counterparts in nature. The school denies the existence of any other world except the material one.
3. Jainism— the school received its name from the nickname of its founder, Jin, who lived in the 4th century BC. The main thesis is the belief in Tattva. This is the essence, the material for creating the entire structure of the world - the soul (jiva) and everything that is not it (ajiva) - the material surrounding a person. The soul is eternal and has no creator, it has always existed and it is omnipotent. The purpose of the teaching is the way of life of a person who has renounced base passions - complete asceticism and obedience to a teacher who has conquered his own passions and is able to teach this to others.

Brahmanism

Changes taking place in India with the advent of nomadic tribes who called themselves arias, destroyed the usual ways of life of society. With time the texts of the sacred “Vedas” have become incomprehensible to the majority from people. There remained a small group of initiates who could interpret them - brahmins. These changes date back to the middle of the 2nd millennium BC.

Arias brought into Indian culture new world philosophical doctrines and ideas. They had their own gods who demanded sacrifices.

Over the centuries, Vedic philosophy acquired new knowledge and became more complex with new rituals. Brahmins continued to support and develop new forms of religious philosophy. They proclaimed the main god Prajapati - the Master of creatures and the Lord of creations. Rituals with sacrifices became an everyday reality. Philosophy divided the world into two - the world of gods and ordinary people. Brahmin priests placed themselves on a par with the ancient gods and their teachings. But the Vedas were still considered the fundamental basis of the new philosophy.

In progress social development There was a rethinking of philosophical movements, the foundations of which were laid in the mists of time. Next they became the basis for the emergence of new religions, such as Hinduism(a continuation of Brahmanism mixed with Vedic philosophy and local religions) and Buddhism.

As we now know, Buddhism from the philosophical school grew to such heights that he became one of the three world religions and spread to the countries of the East and Southeast and Central Asia.

Man's desire for knowledge, which subsequently leads to the development and progress of society, was taken from ancient philosophical treatises. Today people are also searching for answers to the eternal questions of humanity, not suspecting that they are repeating the path of many generations who have tried to understand the meaning of life.

India - ancient country, approximately 8 thousand years old. An amazing people lived on its territory - the Indians. They were divided into several social classes. Where priests played an important role. Although historians do not know who ruled such an amazing state. The Indians had their own language and writing. Their writings cannot be deciphered by scientists to this day. The ancient Indians gave humanity such agricultural crops as cotton and sugar cane. They tamed the largest animal in the world - the elephant. They revered and believed in different gods.

Orthodox schools of ancient Indian philosophy:

1.Vedanta- one of the six orthodox schools (darshan) in Hindu philosophy. In essence, Vedanta is the general name for a number of philosophical and religious traditions in Hinduism, united by theme, subject, and partly - foundational texts and the comments written to them, and shared by the proposed solutions. In addition to the Vedas and Upanishads, the Vedanta Sutras of Vyasa are considered authoritative texts in all directions of Vedanta, and in the theistic schools the Bhagavad Gita and Bhagavata Purana. Vedanta is mainly devoted to the philosophical interpretation of the teachings of the Aranyakas and Upanishads.

Vedanta, like the Vedic scriptures on which it is based, primarily focuses on self-consciousness - the individual's understanding of his original nature and the nature of absolute truth - in its personal aspect as Bhagavan or in its impersonal aspect as Brahman. Vedanta, which means "ultimate knowledge" or "the end of all knowledge", is not limited to any particular text or texts and there is no single source for Vedantic philosophy. Vedanta is based on unchanging, absolute, spiritual laws that are common to most religions and spiritual traditions of the world. Vedanta, as the ultimate knowledge, leads to a state of self-awareness or cosmic consciousness. Both historically and in the modern context, Vedanta is understood as an entirely transcendental and spiritual state, and not as a concept that can be comprehended simply through the material mind.

2.Mimamsa- one of the orthodox schools of Hindu philosophy. Another name is purva-mimamsa (the exact translation is “first mimamsa” or “first study”, as opposed to Vedanta called uttara-mimamsa or “last study”). Basic principles of the school- ritualism (orthopraxy), anti-asceticism and anti-mysticism. Central purpose of the school- an explanation of the nature of dharma, understood as the obligatory performance of a set of rituals performed in a certain way. The nature of dharma is not subject to reasoning or observation, and must be based only on the authority of the Vedas, which are considered eternal and infallible. Purva Mimamsa denies the achievement of moksha (“liberation”) as the goal of life, and also denies the existence of God, the creator and ruler of the Universe. The school had a huge impact on the formation of the social system of Hindu society.

3.Samkhya- philosophy of Indian dualism founded by Kapila. There are two principles at work in the world: prakriti (matter) and purusha (spirit). The goal of Samkhya philosophy is the abstraction of spirit from matter.

4.Yoga- in a broad sense meaning a set of various spiritual, mental and physical practices developed in different directions of Hinduism and Buddhism and aimed at managing mental and physiological functions organism in order to achieve an elevated spiritual and mental state by the individual. In a narrower sense, yoga is one of the six orthodox schools (darshans) of Hindu philosophy. The Original Purpose of Yoga- change in the ontological status of man in the world. Main directions of yoga- these are raja yoga, karma yoga, jnana yoga, bhakti yoga and hatha yoga. In the context of Hindu philosophy, yoga refers to the system of Raja Yoga, set out in the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali and closely related to the fundamental principles of Samkhya. Yoga is discussed in various scriptures of Hinduism such as the Vedas, Upanishads, Bhagavad Gita, Hatha Yoga Pradipika, Shiva Samhita and Tantras. The ultimate goal of yoga can be completely different: from improving physical health to achieving moksha. Outside of India, the term “yoga” is often associated only with hatha yoga and its asanas - physical exercises, which does not reflect the spiritual and spiritual aspects of yoga. One who studies and practices yoga is called a yogi or yogi.

5.Vaisesheka- one of the six main theistic schools of Indian philosophy (Mimansa, Vedanta, Yoga, Sankhya, Nyaya, Vaisheshika). It was founded by the sage Kanada (III - II centuries BC), his real name is Uluka. Vaisheshika gets its name from the word vishesha, which means peculiarity. The nickname Canada means atom eater. The impulse of the Vaisesika system is its hostility to Buddhist phenomenalism. While recognizing the Buddhist point of view on the sources of knowledge: perception and logical inference, Vaisesika at the same time believes that souls and substances are immutable facts. She does not associate herself with problems of theology.

3. Unorthodox schools of ancient Indian philosophy (Buddhism, Lokayata).
Buddhism- religious and philosophical teaching (dharma) about spiritual awakening (bodhi), which arose around the 6th century BC. e. in Ancient India. The founder of the teaching is considered to be Siddhartha Gautama, who later received the name Buddha Shakyamuni. The followers of this teaching themselves called it “Dharma” (Law, Teaching) or “Buddhadharma” (Teaching of the Buddha). The term "Buddhism" was created by Europeans in the 19th century.

It is believed to be one of the world's oldest religions, recognized by a wide variety of peoples with completely different traditions. “Without understanding Buddhism, it is impossible to understand the great cultures of the East - Indian, Chinese, not to mention the cultures of Tibet and Mongolia, permeated with the spirit of Buddhism to their last foundations.” After several years of observing his consciousness, Buddha Shakyamuni came to the conclusion that the cause of people’s suffering is their own actions and that one can stop suffering and achieve nirvana through the practice of self-restraint and meditation. Buddha argued that his teaching was not a divine revelation, but was received through meditative contemplation of his own spirit and all things. The teaching is not a dogma, and the results depend on the person himself.

Over two and a half thousand years in the process of spreading, Buddhism has absorbed many different beliefs and ritual practices. Some followers of Buddhism emphasize self-knowledge through meditation, others - on good deeds, and others - on the worship of Buddha. Differences in ideas and rules in different Buddhist schools force "to recognize as 'Buddhism' any teaching that has been considered Buddhist by the tradition itself." But they are all based on the following doctrines:

Four Noble Truths;

The doctrine of causal origin and karma;

Doctrine of Anatmavada (principle of essencelessness, “no-soul”;

Doctrine of Kshanikavada (doctrine of instantaneity);

Buddhist cosmology.

All Buddhists believe that these principles were proclaimed by the Buddha himself, but their interpretations can vary greatly.
Lokayata.
Lokayata is the materialistic teaching of Ancient India. The Lokayata school is considered atheistic. This is one of the most controversial areas of Indian philosophical thought.

In the early period of Indian philosophy, Lokayatikas were professional debaters, many of whom were interlocutors of Gautama Buddha. The art of lokayata was one of the disciplines taught in the Brahmin schools of the 5th century. BC e. and later. The Lokayats began to prove that everything exists and nothing exists, that everything is one and everything is multiple, that the crow is white because its bones are white, and the crane is red because its bones are red. In the classical period of Indian philosophy, Lokayata began to be identified with Charvaka. The second name of the school is associated either with the words caru and vaka, the combination of which literally means “beautiful speech,” or with the name of the philosopher Charvaka, who is believed to have been a skeptic and materialist, the author of the Brihaspati Sutras (c. 600 BC . e.). Others consider the founder of the teaching to be a semi-legendary sage named Brihaspati. There is another etymological version, according to which materialists have long been called the word “charvaka” because they preached the doctrine of “eat, drink, be merry” (“charv” - eat, chew). Lokayata belongs to the category of nastika, that is, a teaching that denies the authority of the Vedas.

Orthodox schools

In contrast to non-orthodox schools (Charvakas, Jainism, Buddhism), in the history of ancient Indian philosophy there were orthodox schools that did not deny the authority of the Vedas, but, on the contrary, relied on them. Let's consider the main philosophical ideas of these schools

Vedanta(the completion of the Vedas) is the most influential system, the most important philosophical basis of Hinduism. She recognizes Brahman as the absolute spiritual essence of the world. Individual souls (atmans) through knowledge or love of God achieve salvation by uniting with God. The way out of the cycle of birth (samsara) lies in considering everything that exists from the point of view of the highest truth; in knowing the truth that external world surrounding a person is the illusory world, and the true unchanging reality is brahman, with which atman is identified. The main way to achieve this true knowledge is morality and meditation, which means intense meditation on the problems of the Vedas.

Mimamsa(reflection, study of the Vedic text on sacrifices). This system concerns the explanation of the ritual of the Vedas. The teaching of the Vedas here is closely associated with dharma - the idea of ​​duty, the fulfillment of which involves, first of all, sacrifice. This fulfillment of one's duty leads to gradual redemption from karma and to liberation as the cessation of rebirth and suffering.

Samkhya(number, enumeration) - it is based not directly on the text of the Vedas, but on independent experience and reflection. In this regard, Samkhya differs from Vedanta and Mimamsa. The teaching of this school expresses the point of view according to which the first cause of the world is matter, nature (prakrita). Along with nature, the existence of absolute soul (purusha). It is thanks to its presence in all things that the things themselves exist. When prakriti and purusha unite, the initial principles of the world arise, both material (water, air, earth, etc.) and spiritual (intelligence, self-awareness, etc.).

Thus Samkhya is dualistic direction in the philosophy of Hinduism.

Yoga(tension, deep thought, contemplation). The philosophy of this school is aimed at practical psychological training. Her theoretical basis- Samkhya, although yoga also recognizes a personal god. A large place in this system is occupied by an explanation of the rules of mental training, the successive steps of which are: self-observation ( pit), mastery of breathing in certain positions (postures) of the body ( asana), isolation of feelings from external influences ( pratyahara), concentration of thought ( dharana), meditation ( dhyana), state of rejection ( samadhi). At the last stage, the liberation of the soul from the bodily shell is achieved, the shackles of samsara and karma are broken. The ethical standards of yoga are associated with the formation of a highly moral personality.

Vaisesika. At an early stage of development, this system contains pronounced materialistic aspects. According to it, all things are constantly changing, but they also contain stable elements - spherical atoms. Atoms are eternal, not created by anyone and have many qualities (17 qualities of atoms). From them various animate and inanimate objects arise. Although the world consists of atoms, the driving force behind its development is God, who acts in accordance with the law of karma.

Nyaya(rule, logic) - the study of forms of thinking. In this system the main thing is to study metaphysical problems with the help logic. Nyaya starts from liberation as the ultimate goal of human life. According to representatives of this school, the conditions and methods of true knowledge as a means of achieving liberation can be determined with the help of logic and its laws. Liberation itself is understood as the cessation of the influence of negative factors of suffering.

Unorthodox schools . Among the many adherents of new views who rebelled against the authority of the Vedas, we should name, first of all, representatives of such systems as: carvaka(materialists), Jainism, Buddhism. All of them belong to unorthodox schools of Indian philosophy.

Charvaka denies the concept of brahman, atman, samsara and karma. The basis of all things here is matter in the form of four primary elements: earth, water, fire and air. The theory of knowledge also corresponds to the ontological essence of this teaching. Its basis is sensory perception peace. Only that which is known through direct perception is true. Therefore, there is no reason for the existence of another world, not perceived by the senses. No other world simply can exist. Therefore, religion is a stupid delusion.

Jainism. Its founder is considered to be Mahavira Vardhamana (VI century BC). He also received the name Gina, which means Winner (meaning victory over the cycle of rebirth). A characteristic feature of the philosophical and ethical concept of Jainism is its development of rules and norms of human behavior and the requirement of their strict observance. Ethical education of the individual is a decisive factor in the transition of the individual’s existence from an imperfect state to a perfect one. And although karma is everything, our present life, which is in our own control, can change the impact of the past. And with the help of excessive efforts we can avoid the effects of karma. Therefore, in the teachings of the Jains there is no absolute fatalism, as it may seem at first glance.

It should be noted that the philosophy of Jainism retains its influence in India today.

Buddhism just like Jainism, it arose in the 6th century. BC e. Its founder is an Indian prince Siddhartha Gautama, who later received the name Buddha(awakened, enlightened), because after many years of hermitage and asceticism he achieved awakening, that is, he came to understand the correct life path, rejecting extremes. A characteristic feature of this teaching is its ethical and practical orientation, and the central question that interests him is existence of personality.

Liberation from suffering as the ultimate goal of a person’s existence is, first of all, the destruction of desires, or more precisely, the extinguishing of their passion. Connected with this is the most important concept of Buddhism in the moral sphere - the concept tolerance (tolerance) and relativity.

Its concept is organically connected with the ethics of Buddhism knowledge. Cognition here is a necessary way and means of achieving the ultimate goal of a person’s existence.

In Buddhism, the distinction between the sensory and rational forms of knowledge is eliminated and the practice of meditation

The main philosophical schools of ancient China: Confucianism, Taoism, Legalism.

Confucianism. This is one of the most important areas of development of Chinese philosophy, covering the periods of ancient and medieval Chinese society. The founder of this direction was Confucius(551 - 479 BC). In literature he is often called Kunzi, which means teacher Kun. And this is no coincidence; already at the age of just over 20 he became famous as the most famous teacher in China. The main source of his teachings is the book “ Lun Yu» (« Conversations and judgments") - statements and conversations with students recorded by his followers.

At the center of his teaching is Human, his mental and moral development and behavior. Concerned about the decomposition of his contemporary society and the decline of morals, Confucius paid main attention to issues of education ideal, noble person(jun-tzu), which should be carried out in a spirit of respect for surrounding people and society.

You should also pay attention to the concept “ golden mean» Confucius. “The path of the golden mean” is one of the main elements of his ideology and the most important principle of virtue, because “ golden mean, as a virtuous principle, is the highest principle."

Taoism

At the center of Taoist teaching is the category Tao(literally - path, road). Tao is the invisible universal natural law of nature, human society, behavior and thinking of an individual. Tao is inseparable from the material world and governs it. It is no coincidence that Tao is sometimes compared to logos. ancient Greek philosopher Heraclitus.

In Taoism, everyone needs to abide by the principle of following the Tao as the universal law of the spontaneous arising and disappearing of the entire universe. One of the main categories of Taoism is connected with this - inaction, or inaction. While observing the law of Tao, a person can remain inactive. Lao Tzu therefore denies any effort by both the individual and society in relation to nature, for any tension leads to disharmony and increasing contradictions between man and the world. And those who seek to manipulate the world are doomed to failure and death. The main principle of personal behavior is maintaining the “measure of things.” Therefore, non-action ( wu wei) and is one of the main and central ideas of Taoism, it is this that leads to happiness, prosperity and complete freedom.

Legalism.

The formation of legalism took place in a sharp struggle with early Confucianism. Although both schools sought to create a powerful, well-governed state, they substantiated the principles and methods of its construction in different ways. Confucianism, as is known, proceeded from the moral qualities of people and emphasized the role and significance of ritual, moral norms in establishing order in the country and principles of governance. The legalists, on the contrary, proceeded from laws, arguing that politics is incompatible with morality. In their opinion, the ruler should exercise his main influence on the masses through rewards and punishments. In this case, punishment plays the main role. Management of the state and its development should be carried out not on the basis of good wishes, but by developing agriculture, strengthening the army and at the same time fooling the people.

The concept of the state created by the legalists was the theory of the despotic state. Everyone must be equal before the law, except the ruler himself, who is the only creator of laws. It was legalism that played a decisive role in the formation of the imperial-bureaucratic system of government in China, which lasted until the beginning of the 20th century. Instead of the traditional principle of inheritance of positions, they proposed a systematic renewal of the state apparatus by appointing officials to positions, equal opportunities for promotion to administrative posts, unification of the thinking of officials, and their personal responsibility.

7Cosmocentrism of ancient philosophical thinking and the problem of first principles (pre-Socratic philosophy).

The origin of Greek philosophy was mythology.

From myths, the first Greek philosophers borrowed the idea of ​​the primary chaos of the world, the motif of the separation of heaven and earth, personifying the male and female principles of the universe, the idea of ​​the evolution of the world towards greater order, the motif of the periodic death and rebirth of the cosmos. The philosophical views of the Greeks, in contrast to mythological ones, are characterized by the belief that the cosmos is a harmonious whole that emerged from chaos thanks to logos (mind, natural order, the principle of the structure of the world), that the world is cognizable by reason, and reason should be the main “authority” in the decision human problems. Mythological story(legend) about the creation of the world through the copulation of male and female elements, philosophy replaces it with reasoned reasoning about the causes of things.

The early Greek philosophers are usually called "physicists", "physiologists" or natural philosophers. The most important question for them was the question of “arch” (the origins of the world).

Milesian school

The first philosophical school of Ancient Greece is considered Milesian school(Miletus, 6th century BC). Its founder Thales(about 625 - about 547 BC) - one of the semi-legendary “seven wise men”. Thales' cosmological concept boiled down to three propositions: 1) everything came from water, 2) the earth floats on water, like a piece of wood, 3) everything in the world is animate, or “full of gods.”

Anaximander(about 610 - after 547 BC) - the second prominent representative of the Milesian school. He outlined his teachings in a book that is considered the first scientific work written in prose in the history of Greek thought. Anaximander considered the source of all things to be a certain eternal and boundless principle, which he called “divine,” arguing that it “rules everything.” Anaximander called the most important property of this principle by the word apeiron, that is, "infinite."

The last major representative of the Milesian school Anaximenes(VI century BC) believed that all things come from air either by rarefaction associated with heating, or by cooling and condensation.

Pythagorean school.

Pythagoras (580 - 500 BC). The philosophical basis of Pythagoreanism is the doctrine of number. The Pythagoreans understood numbers as principles of structure world and things. Unlike natural philosophers, the Pythagoreans paid attention not to materiality, but to its mathematical structure.

Philosophy of Heraclitus (544 – 483 BC)

Philosophized apart from schools Heraclitus(end of the 6th - beginning of the 5th century BC). In his teaching the most important concept is "logos". The Logos “exists forever,” and “everything happens according to this Logos.” Logos - natural order, law, invisibly ruling the entire universe. At the same time logo also “fire”, living energy that sets everything in motion and change. Logos also word, setting the order of thought.

The most important idea of ​​Heraclitus - the idea of ​​struggle and unity of opposites. Everything in the world consists of opposites. Their struggle determines the essence of any thing and process.

The second most important idea of ​​Heraclitus, associated with his doctrine of logos-fire, is the idea of ​​becoming the non-stop variability of things, their fluidity. Heraclitus entered the consciousness of subsequent generations primarily as a philosopher who taught that “everything flows.” “On those entering the same river streams, more and more new waters flow.

Fire-logos - the fundamental principle space, that is, an orderly, organized world (in this sense, the term “cosmos” was first found in Heraclitus).