25.10.2019
There is less and less phytoplankton in the World Ocean. Total biomass and production of the ocean population Total biomass and production of the ocean population
Biomass – ______________________________________________________________________________________________ (total 2420 billion tons)
Distribution of living matter on the planet
The data presented in the table indicate that the bulk of the living matter of the biosphere (over 98.7%) is concentrated on ______________. The contribution of _______________ to the total biomass is only 0.13%.
On land, ____________ predominates (99.2%), in the ocean - ____________ (93.7%). However, comparing their absolute values (2400 billion tons of plants and 3 billion tons of animals, respectively), we can say that the living matter of the planet is mainly represented by _________________________________. The biomass of organisms incapable of photosynthesis is less than 1%.
1. Land biomass _______________ from the poles to the equator. The greatest biomass of living matter on land is concentrated in _____________________ due to their high productivity.
2. Biomass of the World Ocean - __________________________________________________ (2/3 of the Earth's surface). Despite the fact that the biomass of terrestrial plants exceeds the biomass of oceanic living organisms by 1000 times, the total volume of primary annual production of the World Ocean is comparable to the volume of production of land plants, because ______________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________.
3. Soil biomass – ________________________________________________________________________________
In the soil there are:
* M_________________,
* P______________,
* Ch_____________,
* R_______________________________________;
Soil microorganisms – __________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________.
* play an important role in the cycle of substances in nature, soil formation and the formation of soil fertility
* can develop not only directly in the soil, but also in decomposing plant debris
* there are some pathogenic microbes, aquatic microorganisms, etc., which accidentally enter the soil (during the decomposition of corpses, from the gastrointestinal tract of animals and humans, with irrigation water or other ways) and, as a rule, quickly die in it
* some of them persist in the soil for a long time (for example, anthrax bacilli, tetanus pathogens) and can serve as a source of infection for humans, animals, and plants
* by total mass they make up the majority of microorganisms on our planet: 1 g of chernozem contains up to 10 billion (sometimes more) or up to 10 t/ha of living microorganisms
*represented by both prokaryotes (bacteria, actinomycetes, blue-green algae) and eukaryotes (fungi, microscopic algae, protozoa)
* the upper layers of the soil are richer in soil microorganisms compared to the underlying ones; special abundance is characteristic of the root zone of plants - the rhizosphere.
* capable of destroying all natural organic compounds, as well as a number of unnatural organic compounds.
The thickness of the soil is penetrated by plant roots and fungi. It is a habitat for many animals: ciliates, insects, mammals, etc.
The biosphere is the area of distribution of living organisms on planet Earth. The vital activity of organisms is accompanied by the involvement of various chemical elements into the composition of their body, which they need to build their own organic molecules. As a result, a powerful flow of chemical elements is formed between all living matter on the planet and its habitat. After the death of organisms and the decomposition of their bodies until mineral elements the substance returns to the external environment. This is how the continuous circulation of substances occurs - necessary condition to maintain continuity of life. The largest mass of living organisms is concentrated at the boundary of contact between the lithosphere, atmosphere and hydrosphere. In terms of biomass, consumers predominate in the ocean, while producers dominate on land. On our planet there is no more active and geochemically powerful substance than living matter.
Homework: §§ 45, pp. 188-189.
Lesson 19. Repetition and generalization of the material studied
Goal: systematize and generalize knowledge in the biology course.
Main questions:
1. General properties of living organisms:
1) unity of chemical composition,
3) metabolism and energy,
4) self-regulation,
5) mobility,
6) irritability,
7) reproduction,
8) growth and development,
9) heredity and variability,
10) adaptation to living conditions.
1) Inorganic substances.
a) Water and its role in the life of living organisms.
b) Functions of water in the body.
2) Organic substances.
* Amino acids are monomers of proteins. Essential and non-essential amino acids.
* Variety of proteins.
* Functions of proteins: structural, enzymatic, transport, contractile, regulatory, signaling, protective, toxic, energy.
b) Carbohydrates. Functions of carbohydrates: energy, structural, metabolic, storage.
c) Lipids. Functions of lipids: energy, construction, protective, thermal insulation, regulatory.
d) Nucleic acids. Functions of DNA. Functions of RNA.
d) ATP. ATP function.
3. Cell theory: basic principles.
4. General plan of the cell structure.
1) Cytoplasmic membrane.
2) Hyaloplasm.
3) Cytoskeleton
4) Cellular center.
5) Ribosomes. .
6) Endoplasmic reticulum (rough and smooth),
7) Golgi complex .
8) Lysosomes.
9) Vacuoles.
10) Mitochondria.
11) Plastids.
5. The concept of karyotype, haploid and diploid sets of chromosomes.
6. Cell division: biological significance of division.
7. The concept of the life cycle of a cell.
8. General characteristics of metabolism and energy conversion.
1) Concept
a) metabolism,
b) assimilation and dissimilation,
c) anabolism and catabolism,
d) plastic and energy metabolism.
9. Structural organization of living organisms.
a) Unicellular organisms.
b) Siphon organization.
c) Colonial organisms.
d) Multicellular organisms.
e) Tissues, organs and organ systems of plants and animals.
10. A multicellular organism is an integral integrated system. regulation of the vital functions of organisms.
1) The concept of self-regulation.
2) Regulation of metabolic processes.
3). Nervous and humoral regulation.
4) The concept of the body's immune defense.
a) Humoral immunity.
b) Cellular immunity.
11. Reproduction of organisms:
a) The concept of reproduction.
b) Types of reproduction of organisms.
c) Asexual reproduction and its forms (division, sporulation, budding, fragmentation, vegetative reproduction).
d) Sexual reproduction: the concept of the sexual process.
12. The concept of heredity and variability.
13. Study of heredity by G. Mendel.
14. Solving problems for monohybrid crossing.
15. Variability of organisms
Forms of variability:
a) Non-hereditary variability
b) Hereditary variability
c) Combinative variability.
d) Modification variability.
e) The concept of mutation
16. Construction of a variation series and a curve; finding the average value of a feature using the formula:
17. Methods for studying human heredity and variability (genealogical, twin, cytogenetic, dermatoglyphic, population statistical, biochemical, molecular genetic).
18. Congenital and hereditary human diseases.
a) Genetic diseases (phenylketonuria, hemophilia).
b) Chromosomal diseases (X-chromosome polysomy syndrome, Shereshevsky-Turner syndrome, Klinefelter syndrome, Down syndrome).
c) Prevention of hereditary diseases. Medical genetic counseling.
19. Levels of organization of living systems.
1. Ecology as a science.
2. Environmental factors.
a) The concept of environmental factors (ecological factors).
b) Classification of environmental factors.
20. Species - biological system.
a) The concept of species.
c) Type criteria.
21. Population is a structural unit of a species.
22. Characteristics of the population.
A) Properties populations: number, density, birth rate, death rate.
b) Structure populations: spatial, sexual, age, ethological (behavioral).
23. Ecosystem. Biogeocenosis.
1) Connections of organisms in biocenoses: trophic, topical, phoric, factory.
2) Ecosystem structure. Producers, consumers, decomposers.
3) Circuits and power networks. Pasture and detrital chains.
4) Trophic levels.
5) Ecological pyramids (numbers, biomass, food energy).
6) Biotic connections of organisms in ecosystems.
a) competition,
b) predation,
c) symbiosis.
24. Hypotheses of the origin of life. Basic hypotheses of the origin of life.
25. Biological evolution.
1. General characteristics of Charles Darwin’s theory of evolution.
2. Results of evolution.
3. Adaptations are the main result of evolution.
4. Speciation.
26.Macroevolution and its evidence. Paleontological, embryological, comparative anatomical and molecular genetic evidence of evolution.
27. Main directions of evolution.
1) Progress and regression in evolution.
2) Ways to achieve biological progress: arogenesis, allogenesis, catagenesis.
3) Methods of implementation evolutionary process(divergence, convergence).
28. The diversity of modern organic world as a result of evolution.
29. Classification of organisms.
1) Principles of taxonomy.
2) Modern biological system.
30. Structure of the biosphere.
a) The concept of the biosphere.
b) Boundaries of the biosphere.
c) Components of the biosphere: living, biogenic, bioinert and inert matter.
d) Biomass of the land surface, the World Ocean, and soil.
Homework: repeat from the notes.
· The area of the World Ocean (Earth's hydrosphere) occupies 72.2% of the entire Earth's surface
· Water has special properties, important for the life of organisms - high heat capacity and thermal conductivity, relatively uniform temperature, significant density, viscosity and mobility, the ability to dissolve chemicals (about 60 elements) and gases (O 2, CO 2), transparency, surface tension, salinity, pH of the environment and etc. (the chemical composition and physical properties of ocean waters are relatively constant and create favorable conditions for the development of different forms of life)
· Animals predominate in the biomass of organisms in the World Ocean (94%); plants respectively – 6%; the biomass of the World Ocean is 1000 times less than on land (aquatic autotrophs have a large P\B value, since they have a huge rate of generation - reproduction - producers)
· Ocean plants account for up to 25% of the primary production of photosynthesis on the entire planet (light penetrates to a depth of 100–200 m; the surface of the ocean in this thickness is completely filled with microscopic algae - green, diatoms, brown, red, blue-green - the main producers of the ocean ) ; many algae are enormous in size: green ones - up to 50 - 100 m; brown (fucus, kelp) – up to 100–150 m; red (porphyry, corraline) – up to 200 m; brown alga macrocystis – up to 300 m
Biomass and species diversity The ocean naturally decreases with depth, which is associated with the deterioration of the physical conditions of existence, primarily for plants (decreasing the amount of light, decreasing temperature, the amount of O 2 and CO 2)
· There is a vertical zonality in the distribution of living organisms
q Three ecological areas are distinguished: coastal zone – littoral, water column – pelagic and the bottom - benthal; the coastal part of the ocean to a depth of 200 - 500 m is continental shelf (shelf); it is here that living conditions are optimal for marine organisms, therefore the maximum species diversity of fauna and flora is observed here, 80% of all biological production of the ocean is concentrated here
· Along with vertical zonality, there are also regular horizontal changes in the species diversity of marine organisms, for example, the diversity of algae species increases from the poles to the equator
· Concentrations of organisms are observed in the ocean: planktonic, coastal, bottom, colonies of corals forming reefs
· Suspended in water unicellular algae and the smallest animals form plankton(autotrophic phytoplankton and heterotrophic zooplankton), attached and sessile inhabitants of the bottom are called benthos(corals, algae, sponges, bryozoans, ascidians, ringed polychaetes, crustaceans, mollusks, echinoderms; flounder and stingrays swim at the bottom)
· In the water mass, organisms can move either actively – nekton(fish, cetaceans, seals, sea turtles, sea snakes, shellfish, squid, octopus, jellyfish) , or passively - plankton, which is of primary importance in the nutrition of ocean animals)
v Plaiston – a collection of organisms floating on the surface of water (some jellyfish)
v Neuston – organisms attached to the surface film of water above and below (unicellular animals)
v Hyponeuston – organisms living directly under the surface of the water (larvae of mullet, anchovy, copepods, sargassum mantle, etc.)
· The maximum ocean biomass is observed at continental shelf, near the coasts, islands on coral reefs, in areas of rising deep cold waters rich in accumulated nutrients
· Benthal is characterized by complete darkness, enormous pressure, low temperature, lack of food resources, low O 2 content; this causes peculiar adaptations of deep-sea organisms (glow, lack of vision, development of adipose tissue in the swim bladder, etc.)
· Bacteria that mineralize organic residues (detritus) are widespread throughout the entire water column and especially at the bottom; organic detritus contains a huge supply of food that is consumed by bottom inhabitants: worms, mollusks, sponges, bacteria, protists
· Dead organisms settle to the ocean floor, forming sedimentary rocks (many of them are covered with flint or calcareous shells, from which limestones and chalk are subsequently formed)
End of work -
This topic belongs to the section:
Essence of Life
Living matter qualitatively differs from non-living matter in its enormous complexity and high structural and functional order.. Living and non-living matter are similar at the elementary chemical level, i.e.. Chemical compounds of cell matter..
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Mutation process and reserve of hereditary variability
· A continuous mutation process occurs in the gene pool of populations under the influence of mutagenic factors · Recessive alleles mutate more often (encode a phase less resistant to the action of mutagenic
Allele and genotype frequency (genetic structure of the population)
Genetic structure of a population - the ratio of allele frequencies (A and a) and genotypes (AA, Aa, aa) in the gene pool of the population Allele frequency
Cytoplasmic inheritance
· There are data that are incomprehensible from the point of view of the chromosomal theory of heredity of A. Weissman and T. Morgan (i.e., exclusively nuclear localization of genes) · Cytoplasm is involved in the regeneration
Plasmogens of mitochondria
· One myotochondrion contains 4 - 5 circular DNA molecules about 15,000 nucleotide pairs long · Contains genes for: - synthesis of tRNA, rRNA and ribosomal proteins, some aero enzymes
Plasmids
· Plasmids are very short, autonomously replicating circular fragments of bacterial DNA molecules that provide non-chromosomal transmission of hereditary information
Variability
Variability - general property All organisms acquire structural and functional differences from their ancestors.
Mutational variability
Mutations are qualitative or quantitative DNA of the body's cells, leading to changes in their genetic apparatus (genotype) Mutation theory of creation
Causes of mutations
Mutagenic factors (mutagens) - substances and influences that can induce a mutation effect (any external and internal environment, which m
Mutation frequency
· The frequency of mutation of individual genes varies widely and depends on the state of the organism and the stage of ontogenesis (usually increases with age). On average, each gene mutates once every 40 thousand years
Gene mutations (point, true)
The reason is a change in the chemical structure of the gene (violation of the nucleotide sequence in DNA: * gene insertions of a pair or several nucleotides
Chromosomal mutations (chromosomal rearrangements, aberrations)
Reasons - caused significant changes in the structure of chromosomes (redistribution of the hereditary material of chromosomes) In all cases, they arise as a result of
Polyploidy
Polyploidy is a multiple increase in the number of chromosomes in a cell (the haploid set of chromosomes -n is repeated not 2 times, but many times - up to 10 -1
The meaning of polyploidy
1. Polyploidy in plants is characterized by an increase in the size of cells, vegetative and generative organs - leaves, stems, flowers, fruits, roots, etc. , y
Aneuploidy (heteroploidy)
Aneuploidy (heteroploidy) - a change in the number of individual chromosomes that is not a multiple of the haploid set (in this case, one or more chromosomes from a homologous pair is normal
Somatic mutations
Somatic mutations - mutations that occur in the somatic cells of the body · There are gene, chromosomal and genomic somatic mutations
The law of homological series in hereditary variability
· Discovered by N.I. Vavilov based on the study of wild and cultivated flora of five continents 5. The mutation process in genetically close species and genera proceeds in parallel, in
Combinative variability
Combinative variability - variability that arises as a result of the natural recombination of alleles in the genotypes of descendants due to sexual reproduction
Phenotypic variability (modifying or non-hereditary)
Modification variability - evolutionarily fixed adaptive reactions of the organism to changes in the external environment without changing the genotype
The value of modification variability
1. most modifications have adaptive significance and contribute to the body’s adaptation to changes in the external environment 2. can cause negative changes - morphoses
Statistical patterns of modification variability
Modifications of an individual characteristic or property, measured quantitatively, form a continuous series ( variation series) ; it cannot be built according to an unmeasurable attribute or attribute that is
Variation distribution curve of modifications in the variation series
V - variants of the trait P - frequency of occurrence of variants of the trait Mo - mode, or most
Differences in the manifestation of mutations and modifications
Mutational (genotypic) variability Modification (phenotypic) variability 1. Associated with changes in genotype and karyotype
Features of humans as objects of genetic research
1. Targeted selection of parental pairs and experimental marriages are impossible (impossibility of experimental crossing) 2. Slow generation change, occurring on average every
Methods for studying human genetics
Genealogical method · The method is based on the compilation and analysis of pedigrees (introduced into science at the end of the 19th century by F. Galton); the essence of the method is to trace us
twin method
· The method consists of studying the patterns of inheritance of traits in monozygotic and fraternal twins (the birth rate of twins is one case per 84 newborns)
Cytogenetic method
· Consists of visual examination of mitotic metaphase chromosomes under a microscope · Based on the method of differential staining of chromosomes (T. Kasperson,
Dermatoglyphics method
· Based on the study of the skin relief on the fingers, palms and plantar surfaces of the feet (there are epidermal projections - ridges that form complex patterns), this feature is inherited
Population - statistical method
· Based on statistical (mathematical) processing of data on inheritance in large groups population (populations - groups differing in nationality, religion, race, profession
Somatic cell hybridization method
· Based on the reproduction of somatic cells of organs and tissues outside the body in sterile nutrient media (cells are most often obtained from skin, bone marrow, blood, embryos, tumors) and
Simulation method
· The theoretical basis for biological modeling in genetics is provided by the law of homological series of hereditary variability N.I. Vavilova · For modeling certain
Genetics and medicine (medical genetics)
· Study the causes, diagnostic signs, possibilities of rehabilitation and prevention of hereditary human diseases (monitoring of genetic abnormalities)
Chromosomal diseases
· The reason is a change in the number (genomic mutations) or structure of chromosomes (chromosomal mutations) of the karyotype of the germ cells of the parents (anomalies can occur at different
Polysomy on sex chromosomes
Trisomy - X (Triplo X syndrome); Karyotype (47, XXX) · Known in women; frequency of syndrome 1: 700 (0.1%) N
Hereditary diseases of gene mutations
· Cause - gene (point) mutations (changes in the nucleotide composition of a gene - insertions, substitutions, deletions, transfers of one or more nucleotides; exact amount unknown genes in humans
Diseases controlled by genes located on the X or Y chromosome
Hemophilia - blood incoagulability Hypophosphatemia - loss of phosphorus and calcium deficiency in the body, softening of bones Muscular dystrophy - structural disorders
Genotypic level of prevention
1. Search and use of antimutagenic protective substances Antimutagens (protectors) - compounds that neutralize a mutagen before its reaction with a DNA molecule or remove it
Treatment of hereditary diseases
1. Symptomatic and pathogenetic - impact on the symptoms of the disease (the genetic defect is preserved and passed on to offspring) n dietitian
Gene interaction
Heredity is a set of genetic mechanisms that ensure the preservation and transmission of the structural and functional organization of a species in a series of generations from ancestors
Interaction of allelic genes (one allelic pair)
· There are five types of allelic interactions: 1. Complete dominance 2. Incomplete dominance 3. Overdominance 4. Codominance
Complementarity
Complementarity is the phenomenon of interaction of several non-allelic dominant genes, leading to the emergence of a new trait that is absent in both parents
Polymerism
Polymerism is the interaction of non-allelic genes, in which the development of one trait occurs only under the influence of several non-allelic dominant genes (polygene
Pleiotropy (multiple gene action)
Pleiotropy is the phenomenon of the influence of one gene on the development of several traits. The reason for the pleiotropic influence of a gene is in the action of the primary product of this
Breeding Basics
Selection (lat. selektio - selection) - science and branch of agriculture. production, developing the theory and methods of creating new and improving existing plant varieties, animal breeds
Domestication as the first stage of selection
· Cultivated plants and domestic animals descended from wild ancestors; this process is called domestication or domestication The driving force of domestication is the
Centers of origin and diversity of cultivated plants (according to N. I. Vavilov)
Name of the center Geographical location Homeland of cultivated plants
Artificial selection (selection of parental pairs)
· Two types of artificial selection are known: mass and individual. Mass selection is the selection, preservation and use for reproduction of organisms that have
Hybridization (crossing)
· Allows you to combine certain hereditary characteristics in one organism, as well as get rid of undesirable properties · Used in breeding various systems crossing &n
Inbreeding (inbreeding)
Inbreeding is the crossing of individuals that have a close degree of relationship: brother - sister, parents - offspring (in plants, the closest form of inbreeding occurs when
Unrelated crossing (outbreeding)
· When crossing unrelated individuals, harmful recessive mutations that are in a homozygous state become heterozygous and do not have a negative effect on the viability of the organism
Heterosis
Heterosis (hybrid vigor) is the phenomenon of a sharp increase in the viability and productivity of first-generation hybrids during unrelated crossing (interbreeding).
Induced (artificial) mutagenesis
· The frequency of mutations increases sharply when exposed to mutagens (ionizing radiation, chemicals, extreme environmental conditions, etc.) · Application
Interline hybridization in plants
· Consists of crossing pure (inbred) lines obtained as a result of long-term forced self-pollination of cross-pollinating plants in order to obtain maxima
Vegetative propagation of somatic mutations in plants
· The method is based on the isolation and selection of useful somatic mutations for economic traits in the best old varieties (possible only in plant breeding)
Methods of selection and genetic work I. V. Michurina
1. Systematically distant hybridization a) interspecific: Vladimir cherry x Winkler cherry = Beauty of the North cherry (winter hardiness) b) intergeneric
Polyploidy
Polyploidy is a phenomenon of a multiple of the basic number (n) increase in the number of chromosomes in the somatic cells of the body (the mechanism of formation of polyploids and
Cell engineering
· Cultivation of individual cells or tissues on artificial sterile nutrient media containing amino acids, hormones, mineral salts and other nutritional components (
Chromosome engineering
· The method is based on the possibility of replacing or adding new individual chromosomes in plants · It is possible to decrease or increase the number of chromosomes in any homologous pair - aneuploidy
Animal breeding
· It has a number of features compared to plant selection that objectively make it difficult to carry out: 1. Typically only sexual reproduction is typical (absence of vegetative
Domestication
· Began about 10 - 5 thousand ago in the Neolithic era (weakened the effect of stabilizing natural selection, which led to an increase in hereditary variability and increased selection efficiency
Crossing (hybridization)
· There are two methods of crossing: related (inbreeding) and unrelated (outbreeding) · When selecting a pair, the pedigrees of each manufacturer are taken into account (stud books, teaching
Unrelated crossing (outbreeding)
· Can be intrabreed and interbreed, interspecific or intergeneric (systematically distant hybridization) · Accompanied by the effect of heterosis of F1 hybrids
Checking the breeding qualities of sires by offspring
· Exist economic characteristics that appear only in females (egg production, milk production) Males participate in the formation of these characteristics in daughters (it is necessary to check males for c
Selection of microorganisms
· Microorganisms (prokaryotes - bacteria, blue-green algae; eukaryotes - unicellular algae, fungi, protozoa) - widely used in industry, agriculture, medicine
Stages of microorganism selection
I. Search for natural strains capable of synthesizing products necessary for humans II. Isolation of a pure natural strain (occurs in the process of repeated subculture
Objectives of biotechnology
1. Obtaining feed and food protein from cheap natural raw materials and industrial waste (the basis for solving the food problem) 2. Obtaining a sufficient amount
Products of microbiological synthesis
q Feed and food protein q Enzymes (widely used in food, alcohol, brewing, wine, meat, fish, leather, textile, etc.
Stages of the technological process of microbiological synthesis
Stage I – obtaining a pure culture of microorganisms containing only organisms of one species or strain Each species is stored in a separate tube and is sent to production and
Genetic (genetic) engineering
Genetic engineering is a field of molecular biology and biotechnology that deals with the creation and cloning of new genetic structures(recombinant DNA) and organisms with specified n
Stages of obtaining recombinant (hybrid) DNA molecules
1. Obtaining the initial genetic material - a gene encoding the protein (trait) of interest · The required gene can be obtained in two ways: artificial synthesis or extraction
Achievements of genetic engineering
· The introduction of eukaryotic genes into bacteria is used for the microbiological synthesis of biologically active substances, which in nature are synthesized only by the cells of higher organisms · Synthesis
Problems and prospects of genetic engineering
· Studying the molecular basis of hereditary diseases and developing new methods for their treatment, finding methods for correcting damage to individual genes · Increasing the body's resistance
Chromosome engineering in plants
· It consists in the possibility of biotechnological replacement of individual chromosomes in plant gametes or the addition of new ones · In the cells of each diploid organism there are pairs of homologous chromosomes
Cell and tissue culture method
· The method involves growing individual cells, pieces of tissue or organs outside the body under artificial conditions on strictly sterile nutrient media with constant physico-chemical
Clonal micropropagation of plants
· Cultivation of plant cells is relatively simple, the media is simple and cheap, and cell culture is unpretentious · The method of plant cell culture is that an individual cell or
Hybridization of somatic cells (somatic hybridization) in plants
· Protoplasts of plant cells without rigid cell walls can merge with each other, forming a hybrid cell that has characteristics of both parents · Makes it possible to obtain
Cell engineering in animals
Method of hormonal superovulation and embryo transfer Isolation of dozens of eggs per year from the best cows using the method of hormonal inductive polyovulation (called
Hybridization of somatic cells in animals
· Somatic cells contain the entire volume of genetic information · Somatic cells for cultivation and subsequent hybridization in humans are obtained from the skin, which
Preparation of monoclonal antibodies
· In response to the introduction of an antigen (bacteria, viruses, red blood cells, etc.), the body produces specific antibodies with the help of B lymphocytes, which are proteins called imm
Environmental biotechnology
· Water purification by creating treatment facilities using biological methods q Oxidation of wastewater using biological filters q Recycling of organic and
Bioenergy
Bioenergy is a branch of biotechnology associated with obtaining energy from biomass using microorganisms One of the effective methods for obtaining energy from biomes
Bioconversion
Bioconversion is the transformation of substances formed as a result of metabolism into structurally related compounds under the influence of microorganisms. The purpose of bioconversion is
Engineering enzymology
Engineering enzymology is a field of biotechnology that uses enzymes in the production of specified substances · The central method of engineering enzymology is immobilization
Biogeotechnology
Biogeotechnology - the use of geochemical activity of microorganisms in the mining industry (ore, oil, coal) · With the help of micro-organisms
Boundaries of the biosphere
Determined by a complex of factors; The general conditions for the existence of living organisms include: 1. the presence of liquid water 2. the presence of a number of biogenic elements (macro- and microelements
Properties of living matter
1. Contain a huge supply of energy capable of producing work 2. Flow rate chemical reactions in living matter millions of times faster than usual due to the participation of enzymes
Functions of living matter
· Performed by living matter in the process of vital activity and biochemical transformations of substances in metabolic reactions 1. Energy – transformation and assimilation by living things
Land biomass
· The continental part of the biosphere - land occupies 29% (148 million km2) · The heterogeneity of land is expressed by the presence latitudinal zonality and altitudinal zonation
Soil biomass
· Soil is a mixture of decomposed organic and weathered mineral matter; mineral composition soil includes silica (up to 50%), alumina (up to 25%), iron oxide, magnesium, potassium, phosphorus
Biological (biotic, biogenic, biogeochemical cycle) cycle of substances
Biotic cycle of substances is a continuous, planetary, relatively cyclical, uneven in time and space, regular distribution of substances
Biogeochemical cycles of individual chemical elements
· Biogenic elements circulate in the biosphere, i.e. they perform closed biogeochemical cycles that function under the influence of biological (life activity) and geological
Nitrogen cycle
· Source of N2 – molecular, gaseous, atmospheric nitrogen (not absorbed by most living organisms, because it is chemically inert; plants can only absorb nitrogen bound
Carbon cycle
· The main source of carbon is carbon dioxide in the atmosphere and water · The carbon cycle is carried out through the processes of photosynthesis and cellular respiration · The cycle begins with
The water cycle
· Carried out using solar energy · Regulated by living organisms: 1. absorption and evaporation by plants 2. photolysis in the process of photosynthesis (decomposition
Sulfur cycle
· Sulfur is a biogenic element of living matter; found in proteins as amino acids (up to 2.5%), part of vitamins, glycosides, coenzymes, found in vegetable essential oils
Flow of energy in the biosphere
· The source of energy in the biosphere is continuous electromagnetic radiation from the sun and radioactive energy q 42% of solar energy is reflected from clouds, the atmosphere of dust and the surface of the Earth in
The emergence and evolution of the biosphere
· Living matter, and with it the biosphere, appeared on Earth as a result of the emergence of life in the process of chemical evolution about 3.5 billion years ago, which led to the formation of organic substances
Noosphere
Noosphere (literally, sphere of mind) is the highest stage of development of the biosphere, associated with the emergence and formation of civilized humanity in it, when its mind
Signs of the modern noosphere
1. An increasing amount of extracted lithosphere materials - an increase in the development of mineral deposits (now it exceeds 100 billion tons per year) 2. Massive consumption
Human influence on the biosphere
· Current state The noosphere is characterized by an ever-increasing prospect of an ecological crisis, many aspects of which are already fully manifested, creating a real threat to existence.
Energy production
q Construction of hydroelectric power stations and creation of reservoirs causes flooding large territories and displacement of people, rising groundwater levels, soil erosion and waterlogging, landslides, loss of arable land
Food production. Soil depletion and pollution, reduction in fertile soil area
q Arable lands occupy 10% of the Earth’s surface (1.2 billion hectares) q The reason is overexploitation, imperfect agricultural production: water and wind erosion and the formation of ravines,
Declining natural biodiversity
q Human economic activity in nature is accompanied by changes in the number of animal and plant species, the extinction of entire taxa, and a decrease in the diversity of living things. q Currently
Acid precipitation
q Increased acidity of rain, snow, fog due to the release of sulfur and nitrogen oxides into the atmosphere from fuel combustion q Acid precipitation reduces crop yields and destroys natural vegetation
Ways to solve environmental problems
· Man will continue to exploit the resources of the biosphere on an ever-increasing scale, since this exploitation is an indispensable and main condition for the very existence of h
Sustainable consumption and management of natural resources
q Maximum complete and comprehensive extraction of all minerals from deposits (due to imperfect extraction technology, only 30-50% of reserves are extracted from oil deposits q Rec
Ecological strategy for agricultural development
q Strategic direction - increasing productivity to provide food for a growing population without increasing the area under cultivation q Increasing the yield of agricultural crops without negative impacts
Properties of living matter
1. Unity of elemental chemical composition (98% is carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen) 2. Unity of biochemical composition - all living organs
Hypotheses about the origin of life on Earth
· There are two alternative concepts about the possibility of the origin of life on Earth: q abiogenesis – the emergence of living organisms from inorganic substances
Stages of development of the Earth (chemical prerequisites for the emergence of life)
1. Stellar stage of the history of the Earth q The geological history of the Earth began more than 6 times ago. years ago, when the Earth was a hot place over 1000
The emergence of the process of self-reproduction of molecules (biogenic matrix synthesis of biopolymers)
1. Occurred as a result of the interaction of coacervates with nucleic acids 2. All necessary components of the process of biogenic matrix synthesis: - enzymes - proteins - etc.
Prerequisites for the emergence of the evolutionary theory of Charles Darwin
Socio-economic prerequisites 1. In the first half of the 19th century. England has become one of the most economically developed countries in the world with a high level of
· Set forth in Charles Darwin’s book “On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection, or the Preservation of Favored Breeds in the Struggle for Life,” which was published
Variability
Justification of the variability of species · To substantiate the position on the variability of living beings, Charles Darwin used common
Correlative variability
· A change in the structure or function of one part of the body causes a coordinated change in another or others, since the body is an integral system, the individual parts of which are closely interconnected
The main provisions of the evolutionary teachings of Charles Darwin
1. All species of living beings inhabiting the Earth were never created by anyone, but arose naturally 2. Having arisen naturally, species slowly and gradually
Development of ideas about the species
· Aristotle - used the concept of species when describing animals, which had no scientific content and was used as a logical concept · D. Ray
Species criteria (signs of species identification)
· The importance of species criteria in science and practice - determination of the species identity of individuals (species identification) I. Morphological - similarity of morphological inheritances
Population types
1. Panmictic - consist of individuals that reproduce sexually and cross-fertilize. 2. Clonial - from individuals that breed only without
Mutation process
Spontaneous changes in the hereditary material of germ cells in the form of gene, chromosomal and genomic mutations occur constantly throughout the entire period of life under the influence of mutations
Insulation
Isolation - stopping the flow of genes from population to population (restriction of exchange genetic information between populations) Isolation value as fa
Primary insulation
· Not directly related to the action of natural selection, is a consequence of external factors · Leads to a sharp decrease or cessation of migration of individuals from other populations
Environmental insulation
· Arises on the basis of ecological differences in the existence of different populations (different populations occupy different ecological niches) v For example, trout of Lake Sevan p
Secondary isolation (biological, reproductive)
· Is crucial in the formation of reproductive isolation · Arises as a result of intraspecific differences in organisms · Arose as a result of evolution · Has two iso
Migrations
Migration is the movement of individuals (seeds, pollen, spores) and their characteristic alleles between populations, leading to changes in the frequencies of alleles and genotypes in their gene pools Common with
Population waves
Population waves (“waves of life”) - periodic and non-periodic sharp fluctuations in the number of individuals in a population under the influence of natural causes (S.S.
The meaning of population waves
1. Leads to an undirected and sharp change in the frequencies of alleles and genotypes in the gene pool of populations (random survival of individuals during the wintering period can increase the concentration of this mutation by 1000 r
Genetic drift (genetic-automatic processes)
Genetic drift (genetic-automatic processes) is a random, non-directional change in the frequencies of alleles and genotypes, not caused by the action of natural selection.
Result of genetic drift (for small populations)
1. Causes the loss (p = 0) or fixation (p = 1) of alleles in a homozygous state in all members of the population, regardless of their adaptive value - homozygotization of individuals
Natural selection is the guiding factor of evolution
Natural selection is the process of preferential (selective, selective) survival and reproduction of the fittest individuals and non-survival or non-reproduction
The struggle for existence Forms of natural selection
Driving selection (Described by Charles Darwin, modern teaching developed by D. Simpson, English) Driving selection - selection in
Stabilizing selection
· The theory of stabilizing selection was developed by Russian academician. I. I. Shmagauzen (1946) Stabilizing selection - selection operating in stable
Other forms of natural selection
Individual selection - selective survival and reproduction of individual individuals that have an advantage in the struggle for existence and the elimination of others
Main features of natural and artificial selection
Natural selection Artificial selection 1. Arose with the emergence of life on Earth (about 3 billion years ago) 1. Arose in non-
Common features of natural and artificial selection
1. Initial (elementary) material - individual characteristics of the organism (hereditary changes - mutations) 2. Are carried out according to the phenotype 3. Elementary structure - populations
The struggle for existence is the most important factor in evolution
The struggle for existence is a complex of relationships between an organism and abiotic (physical living conditions) and biotic (relationships with other living organisms) factors
Reproduction intensity
v One individual roundworm produces 200 thousand eggs per day; the gray rat gives birth to 5 litters per year of 8 pups, which become sexually mature at three months of age; the offspring of one daphnia reaches
Interspecies struggle for existence
· Occurs between individuals of populations of different species · Less acute than intraspecific, but its tension increases if different species occupy similar ecological niches and have
Combating unfavorable abiotic environmental factors
· Observed in all cases when individuals of a population find themselves in extreme physical conditions (excessive heat, drought, severe winter, excess humidity, infertile soils, harsh
Major discoveries in the field of biology after the creation of STE
1. Discovery of the hierarchical structures of DNA and protein, including the secondary structure of DNA - the double helix and its nucleoprotein nature 2. Deciphering the genetic code (its triplet structure
Signs of the endocrine system organs
1. They are relatively small in size (lobes or several grams) 2. Anatomically unrelated to each other 3. They synthesize hormones 4. They have an abundant network of blood vessels
Characteristics (signs) of hormones
1. Formed in the endocrine glands (neurohormones can be synthesized in neurosecretory cells) 2. High biological activity - the ability to quickly and strongly change the int
Chemical nature of hormones
1. Peptides and simple proteins (insulin, somatotropin, tropic hormones of the adenohypophysis, calcitonin, glucagon, vasopressin, oxytocin, hypothalamic hormones) 2. Complex proteins - thyrotropin, lute
Hormones of the middle (intermediate) lobe
Melanotropic hormone (melanotropin) - exchange of pigments (melanin) in the integumentary tissues Hormones of the posterior lobe (neurohypophysis) - oxytrcin, vasopressin
Thyroid hormones (thyroxine, triiodothyronine)
The composition of thyroid hormones certainly includes iodine and the amino acid tyrosine (0.3 mg of iodine is released daily as part of the hormones, therefore a person should receive daily with food and water
Hypothyroidism (hypothyroidism)
The cause of hypotherosis is a chronic deficiency of iodine in food and water. The lack of hormone secretion is compensated by the proliferation of gland tissue and a significant increase in its volume
Cortical hormones (mineralkorticoids, glucocorticoids, sex hormones)
The cortical layer is formed from epithelial tissue and consists of three zones: glomerular, fascicular and reticular, having different morphologies and functions. Hormones related to steroids - corticosteroids
Adrenal medulla hormones (epinephrine, norepinephrine)
- The medulla consists of special chromaffin cells, stained yellow (these same cells are located in the aorta, the branch of the carotid artery and in the sympathetic nodes; they all make up
Pancreatic hormones (insulin, glucagon, somatostatin)
Insulin (secreted by beta cells (insulocytes), is the simplest protein) Functions: 1. Regulation of carbohydrate metabolism (the only sugar reduction
Testosterone
Functions: 1. Development of secondary sexual characteristics (body proportions, muscles, beard growth, body hair, mental characteristics of a man, etc.) 2. Growth and development of reproductive organs
Ovaries
1. Paired organs (size about 4 cm, weight 6-8 g), located in the pelvis, on both sides of the uterus 2. Consist of a large number (300-400 thousand) so-called. follicles - structure
Estradiol
Functions: 1. Development of female genital organs: oviducts, uterus, vagina, mammary glands 2. Formation of secondary sexual characteristics of the female sex (physique, figure, fat deposition, etc.)
Endocrine glands (endocrine system) and their hormones
Endocrine glands Hormones Functions Pituitary gland: - anterior lobe: adenohypophysis - middle lobe - posterior
Reflex. Reflex arc
Reflex is the body’s response to irritation (change) of the external and internal environment, carried out with the participation of the nervous system (the main form of activity
Feedback Mechanism
· The reflex arc does not end with the body’s response to stimulation (the work of the effector). All tissues and organs have their own receptors and afferent nerve pathways that connect to the senses.
Spinal cord
1. The most ancient part of the central nervous system of vertebrates (it first appears in cephalochordates - the lancelet) 2. During embryogenesis, it develops from the neural tube 3. It is located in the bone
Skeletal motor reflexes
1. Patellar reflex (the center is localized in the lumbar segment); rudimentary reflex from animal ancestors 2. Achilles reflex (in the lumbar segment) 3. Plantar reflex (with
Conductor function
· The spinal cord has a two-way connection with the brain (stem and cerebral cortex); through the spinal cord, the brain is connected to the receptors and executive organs of the body
Brain
The brain and spinal cord develop in the embryo from the outer germ layer - ectoderm It is located in the cavity of the brain skull It is covered (like the spinal cord) by three shells
Medulla
2. During embryogenesis, it develops from the fifth medullary vesicle of the neural tube of the embryo 3. It is a continuation of the spinal cord (the lower boundary between them is the place where the root emerges
Reflex function
1. Protective reflexes: coughing, sneezing, blinking, vomiting, lacrimation 2. Food reflexes: sucking, swallowing, secretion of juice from the digestive glands, motility and peristalsis
Midbrain
1. In the process of embryogenesis from the third medullary vesicle of the neural tube of the embryo 2. Covered with white matter, gray matter inside in the form of nuclei 3. Has the following structural components
Functions of the midbrain (reflex and conduction)
I. Reflex function (all reflexes are innate, unconditioned) 1. Regulation of muscle tone when moving, walking, standing 2. Orienting reflex
Thalamus (visual thalamus)
· Represents paired clusters of gray matter (40 pairs of nuclei), covered with a layer of white matter, inside – the third ventricle and reticular formation · All nuclei of the thalamus are afferent, sensory
Functions of the hypothalamus
1. Higher center of nervous regulation of the cardiovascular system, permeability of blood vessels 2. Center of thermoregulation 3. Regulation of water-salt balance organ
Functions of the cerebellum
The cerebellum is connected to all parts of the central nervous system; skin receptors, proprioceptors of the vestibular and motor apparatus, subcortex and cerebral cortex · The functions of the cerebellum investigate the path
Telencephalon (large brain, large hemispheres of the forebrain)
1. During embryogenesis, it develops from the first brain vesicle of the neural tube of the embryo 2. Consists of two hemispheres (right and left), separated by a deep longitudinal fissure and connected
Cerebral cortex (cloak)
1. In mammals and humans, the surface of the cortex is folded, covered with convolutions and grooves, providing an increase in surface area (in humans it is about 2200 cm2
Functions of the cerebral cortex
Study methods: 1. Electrical stimulation of individual areas (method of “implanting” electrodes into areas of the brain) 3. 2. Removal (extirpation) of individual areas
Sensory zones (regions) of the cerebral cortex
· They represent the central (cortical) sections of the analyzers; sensitive (afferent) impulses from the corresponding receptors approach them · Occupy a small part of the cortex
Functions of association zones
1. Communication between different areas of the cortex (sensory and motor) 2. Combination (integration) of all sensitive information entering the cortex with memory and emotions 3. Decisive
Features of the autonomic nervous system
1. Divided into two sections: sympathetic and parasympathetic (each of them has a central and peripheral part) 2. Does not have its own afferent (
Features of the parts of the autonomic nervous system
Sympathetic division Parasympathetic division 1. The central ganglia are located in the lateral horns of the thoracic and lumbar segments of the spinal column
Functions of the autonomic nervous system
· Most organs of the body are innervated by both the sympathetic and parasympathetic systems (dual innervation) · Both departments exert three types of actions on the organs - vasomotor,
The influence of the sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions of the autonomic nervous system
Sympathetic department Parasympathetic department 1. Speeds up the rhythm, increases the strength of heart contractions 2. Dilates the coronary vessels
Higher nervous activity of man
Mental mechanisms of reflection: Mental mechanisms of designing the future - sensibly
Features (signs) of unconditioned and conditioned reflexes
Unconditioned reflexes Conditioned reflexes 1. Innate specific reactions of the body (passed on by inheritance) - genetically determined
Methodology for developing (forming) conditioned reflexes
· Developed by I.P. Pavlov on dogs when studying salivation under the influence of light or sound stimuli, odors, touches, etc. (the duct of the salivary gland was brought out through a slit
Conditions for the development of conditioned reflexes
1. The indifferent stimulus must precede the unconditioned one (anticipatory action) 2. The average strength of the indifferent stimulus (with low and high strength the reflex may not form
The meaning of conditioned reflexes
1. They form the basis of learning, obtaining physical and mental skills 2. Subtle adaptation of vegetative, somatic and mental reactions to conditions with
Induction (external) braking
o Develops under the influence of an extraneous, unexpected, strong irritant from the external or internal environment v Severe hunger, overcrowding bladder, pain or sexual arousal
Extinction conditioned inhibition
· Develops when the conditioned stimulus is systematically not reinforced by the unconditioned v If the conditioned stimulus is repeated at short intervals without reinforcement
The relationship between excitation and inhibition in the cerebral cortex
Irradiation is the spread of excitation or inhibition processes from the source of their occurrence to other areas of the cortex. An example of irradiation of the excitation process is
Causes of sleep
· There are several hypotheses and theories of the causes of sleep: Chemical hypothesis - the cause of sleep is poisoning of brain cells with toxic waste products, image
REM (paradoxical) sleep
· Occurs after a period of slow-wave sleep and lasts 10-15 minutes; then again gives way to slow-wave sleep; repeats 4-5 times during the night Characterized by rapid
Features of human higher nervous activity
(differences from the GNI of animals) · Channels for obtaining information about factors of the external and internal environment are called signaling systems · The first and second signaling systems are distinguished
Features of higher nervous activity of humans and animals
Animal Human 1. Obtaining information about environmental factors only using the first signal system (analyzers) 2. Specific
Memory as a component of higher nervous activity
Memory is a set of mental processes that ensure the preservation, consolidation and reproduction of previous individual experience v Basic memory processes
Analyzers
· A person receives all the information about the external and internal environment of the body necessary for interaction with it with the help of the senses (sensory systems, analyzers) v The concept of analysis
Structure and functions of analyzers
· Each analyzer consists of three anatomically and functionally related sections: peripheral, conductive and central · Damage to one of the parts of the analyzer
The meaning of analyzers
1. Information to the body about the state and changes in the external and internal environment 2. The emergence of sensations and the formation on their basis of concepts and ideas about the surrounding world, t. e.
Choroid (middle)
· Located under the sclera, rich in blood vessels, consists of three parts: the anterior one - the iris, the middle one - the ciliary body and the posterior one - the vascular tissue itself
Features of photoreceptor cells of the retina
Rods Cones 1. Number 130 million 2. Visual pigment – rhodopsin (visual purple) 3. Maximum amount on n
Lens
· Located behind the pupil, it has the shape of a biconvex lens with a diameter of about 9 mm, is absolutely transparent and elastic. Covered with a transparent capsule to which the ligaments of the ciliary body are attached
Functioning of the eye
· Visual reception begins with photochemical reactions that begin in the rods and cones of the retina and consist in the disintegration of visual pigments under the influence of light quanta. Exactly this
Vision hygiene
1. Prevention of injuries (safety glasses in production with traumatic objects - dust, chemicals, shavings, splinters, etc.) 2. Eye protection from too bright light - sun, electrical
Outer ear
· Representation of the auricle and external auditory canal · Auricle - freely protruding on the surface of the head
Middle ear (tympanic cavity)
· Lies inside the pyramid of the temporal bone · Filled with air and communicates with the nasopharynx through a tube 3.5 cm long and 2 mm in diameter - the Eustachian tube Function of the Eustachians
Inner ear
· Located in the pyramid of the temporal bone · Includes a bony labyrinth, which is a complex canal structure · Inside the bones
Perception of sound vibrations
· The auricle picks up sounds and directs them to the external auditory canal. Sound waves cause vibrations of the eardrum, which are transmitted from it through the system of levers of the auditory ossicles (
Hearing hygiene
1. Prevention of injuries to the hearing organs 2. Protection of the hearing organs from excessive strength or duration of sound stimulation - the so-called. "noise pollution", especially in noisy industrial environments
biospheric
1. Represented by cellular organelles 2. Biological mesosystems 3. Possible mutations 4. Histological method of research 5. Beginning of metabolism 6. About
“Structure of a eukaryotic cell” 9. Cell organelle containing DNA 10. Has pores 11. Performs a compartmental function in the cell 12. Function
Cell center
Test thematic digital dictation on the topic “Cell Metabolism” 1. Carried out in the cytoplasm of the cell 2. Requires specific enzymes
Thematic digital programmed dictation
on the topic “Energy metabolism” 1. Hydrolysis reactions are carried out 2. The final products are CO2 and H2 O 3. The final product is PVC 4. NAD is reduced
Oxygen stage
Thematic digital programmed dictation on the topic “Photosynthesis” 1. Photolysis of water occurs 2. Reduction occurs
“Cell metabolism: Energy metabolism. Photosynthesis. Protein biosynthesis" 1. Carried out in autotrophs 52. Transcription is carried out 2. Associated with the functioning
The main characteristics of the eukaryotic kingdoms
Plant Kingdom Animal Kingdom 1. They have three subkingdoms: – lower plants (true algae) – red algae
Features of types of artificial selection in breeding
Mass selection Individual selection 1. Many individuals with the most pronounced characteristics are allowed to reproduce
General characteristics of mass and individual selection
1. Carried out by man through artificial selection 2. Only individuals with the most pronounced desired trait are allowed for further reproduction 3. Can be repeated
The world's oceans occupy more than 2/3 of the planet's surface. The physical properties and chemical composition of ocean waters provide a favorable environment for life. Just as on land, in the ocean the density of life in the equatorial zone is highest and decreases with distance from it.
Compound
IN top layer, at a depth of up to 100 m, unicellular algae that make up plankton live. The total primary productivity of phytoplankton in the World Ocean is 50 billion tons per year (about 1/3 of the total primary productivity of the biosphere).
Almost all food chains in the ocean begin with phytoplankton, which feed on zooplankton animals (such as crustaceans). Crustaceans serve as food for many species of fish and baleen whales. Birds eat fish. Large algae grow mainly in the coastal areas of oceans and seas. The highest concentration of life is in coral reefs.
The ocean is much poorer in life, than land: the biomass of the world's oceans is 1000 times less. Most of the resulting biomass is unicellular algae and other ocean inhabitants - die off , fall to the bottom and their organic matter is destroyed decomposers . Only about 0.01% of the primary productivity of the world's oceans reaches through a long chain of trophic levels to humans in the form of food and chemical energy.
At the bottom of the ocean, as a result of the vital activity of organisms, sedimentary rocks are formed: chalk, limestone, diatomite and others.
Chemical functions of living matter
Vernadsky noted that there is no chemical force on the earth's surface that is more constantly active, and therefore more powerful in its final consequences, than living organisms taken as a whole. Living matter performs the following chemical functions: gas, concentration, redox and biochemical.
Redox
This function is expressed in the oxidation of substances during the life of organisms. Salts and oxides are formed in the soil and hydrosphere. The formation of limestone, iron, manganese and copper ores etc.
Gas function
It is carried out by green plants during the process of photosynthesis, which replenish the atmosphere with oxygen, as well as by all plants and animals that emit carbon dioxide during respiration. The nitrogen cycle is associated with the activity of bacteria.
Concentration
Associated with the accumulation of chemical elements in living matter (carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, calcium, potassium, silicon, phosphorus, magnesium, sulfur, chlorine, sodium, aluminum, iron).
Certain species are specific concentrators of certain elements: a number of seaweeds - iodine, buttercups - lithium, duckweed - radium, diatoms and cereals - silicon, mollusks and crustaceans - copper, vertebrates - iron, bacteria - manganese.
Biochemical function
This function is carried out in the process of metabolism in living organisms (nutrition, respiration, excretion), as well as destruction, destruction of dead organisms and their metabolic products. These processes lead to the circulation of substances in nature and the biogenic migration of atoms.
The total biomass of the World Ocean is 35–40 billion tons. The biomass of the World Ocean is significantly less than the biomass of land. It is also characterized by a different ratio of phytomass (plant organisms) and zoomass (animal organisms). On land, phytomass exceeds zoomass by about 2000 times, and in the World Ocean, the biomass of animals exceeds the biomass of plants by more than 18 times. The World Ocean is home to about 180 thousand species of animals, including 16 thousand different species of fish, 7.5 thousand species of crustaceans, about 50 thousand species gastropods, there are 10 thousand species of plants.
Classes of living organisms Plankton - phytoplankton and zooplankton. Plankton is distributed predominantly in the surface layers of the ocean (down to a depth of 100–150 m), and phytoplankton – mainly tiny unicellular algae – serves as food for many species of zooplankton, which ranks first in the World Ocean in terms of biomass (20–25 billion tons). place. Depending on their size, planktonic organisms are divided into: - megaloplankton (aquatic organisms larger than 1 m in length); macroplankton (1 -100 cm); - mesoplankton (1 -10 mm); - microplankton (0.05 -1 mm); - nannoplankton (less than 0.05 mm). Depending on the degree of attachment to different layers of the aquatic environment, holoplankton (the entire life cycle, or almost the entire one, except for the early stages of development) and meroplankton (these are, for example, pelagic larvae of bottom animals or algae, periodically leading either a planktonic or benthic lifestyle) are distinguished. . Cryoplankton is a population of water melting under the rays of the Sun in ice cracks and snow voids. Marine plankton contains about 2000 species of hydrobionts, of which about 1200 are crustaceans, 400 are coelenterates. Among crustaceans, the most widely represented are copepods (750 species), amphipods (more than 300 species) and euphausia (krill) - more than 80 species.
Nekton - includes all animals capable of moving independently in the water column of the seas and oceans. These are fish, whales, dolphins, walruses, seals, squid, shrimp, octopuses, turtles and some other species. The approximate estimate of the total biomass of nekton is 1 billion tons, half of which is fish. Benthos - various types of bivalves (mussels, oysters, etc.), crustaceans (crabs, lobsters, lobsters), echinoderms (sea urchins) and other bottom animals. Phytobenthos is represented primarily by a variety of algae. In terms of biomass size, zoobenthos (10 billion tons) is second only to zooplankton. Benthos is divided into epibenthos (benthic organisms living on the bottom surface) and endobenthos (organisms living in the soil). Based on the degree of mobility, benthic organisms are divided into vagal (or vagrant) - these are, for example, crabs, starfish, etc.; sedentary (not making large movements), for example, many mollusks, sea urchins; and sessile (attached), for example, corals, sponges, etc. By size, benthic organisms are divided into macrobenthos (body length more than 2 mm), mesobenthos (0.1-2 mm) and microbenthos (less than 0.1 mm). In total, about 185 thousand species of animals (except fish) live at the bottom. Of these, about 180 thousand species live on the shelf, 2 thousand - at depths of more than 2000 m, 200 -250 species - at depths of more than 4000 m. Thus, more than 98% of all species of marine benthos live in the shallow zone of the ocean.
Phytoplankton The total production of phytoplankton in the World Ocean is estimated at about 1200 billion tons per year. Phytoplankton is distributed unevenly throughout the ocean: most of all in the northern and southern parts of the ocean, north of the 40th parallel northern latitude and south of the 45th parallel of south latitude, as well as in a narrow equatorial strip. Most phytoplankton are found in the coastal neritic zone. In the Pacific and Atlantic oceans, the areas richest in phytoplankton are concentrated in their eastern part, on the periphery of large-scale water cycles, as well as in zones of coastal upwelling (rising of deep waters). The vast central parts of large-scale oceanic water gyres, where they descend, are poor in phytoplankton. Vertically, phytoplankton in the ocean is distributed as follows: it can be found only in a well-lit layer from the surface to a depth of 200 m, and the greatest biomass of phytoplankton is from the surface to a depth of 50 -60 m. In the waters of the Arctic and Antarctic, it is found only near the surface of the water.
Zooplankton The annual production of zooplankton in the World Ocean is about 53 billion tons, biomass is 21.5 billion tons. 90% of planktonic animal species are concentrated in tropical, subtropical and temperate ocean waters, 10% in Arctic and Antarctic waters. The distribution of zooplankton in the World Ocean and its seas corresponds to the distribution of phytoplankton: there is a lot of it in subarctic, subantarctic and temperate waters (5-20 times more than in the tropics), as well as above shelves off the coast, in mixing zones of water masses of different origins and in narrow equatorial zone. The intensity of grazing of phytoplankton by zooplankton is extremely high. For example, in the Black Sea, zooplankton consumes 80% of the daily phytoplankton production and 90% of bacterial production every day; This is a typical case of high balance of these links in the trophic chain. In the layer of water from the ocean surface to a depth of 500 m, 65% of the total biomass of zooplankton is concentrated, the remaining 35% is in the layer of 500-4000 m. At depths of 4000-8000 m, the zooplankton biomass is hundreds of times less than in the layer from the surface to 500 m.
Benthos Phytobenthos encircles the entire coastline ocean. The number of species included in it exceeds 80 thousand, the biomass is 1.5 - 1.8 billion tons. Phytobenthos is widespread mainly to a depth of 20 m (much less often up to 100 m). Zoobenthos are attached, burrowing or sedentary animals. These are mollusks, crustaceans, echinoderms, worms, sponges, etc. The distribution of benthos in the ocean depends mainly on several main factors: bottom depth, type of soil, water temperature, and the presence of nutrients. The zoobenthos (without fish) includes about 185 thousand species of marine animals, of which 180 thousand are typical shelf animals, 2 thousand species live at depths of more than 2000 m, 200-250 species live deeper than 4000 m. Thus, 98% zoobenthos species are shallow-water. Total biomass benthos in the World Ocean is estimated at 10-12 billion tons, of which about 58% is concentrated on the shelves, 32% in the layer of 200-3000 m and only 10% deeper than 3000 m. The annual production of zoobenthos is 5-6 billion. t. Benthos biomass in the World Ocean is highest in temperate latitudes, significantly lower in tropical waters. In the most productive areas (Barents, North, Okhotsk, Bering Seas, Great Newfoundland Bank, Gulf of Alaska, etc.) benthos biomass reaches 500 g/m2. About 2 billion tons of benthos are used annually as food by fish.
Nekton, in general terms, includes all fish, large pelagic invertebrates, including squid and krill, sea turtles, pinnipeds and cetacean mammals. It is nekton that is the basis for the commercial use of hydrobionts of the World Ocean and seas. The total biomass of nekton in the World Ocean is estimated at 4-4.5 billion tons, including 2.2 billion tons of fish (of which 1 billion tons are small mesopelagic), 1.5 billion tons of Antarctic krill, more than 300 million .t squid.
Fish Of the 22 thousand species of fish that live on Earth, about 20 thousand live in the seas and oceans. Based on their attachment to certain breeding and feeding areas, marine and oceanic fish are divided into several environmental groups: 1. Shelf fish are species of fish that breed and constantly live in shelf waters; 2. Shelf-oceanic fish breed within the shelf or in adjacent continental or island freshwater bodies, but most life cycle spent in the ocean far from the shores; 3. Actually, oceanic fish reproduce and constantly live in open areas of the seas and oceans, mainly above abyssal depths. Fish biomass reaches its maximum in shelf bioproductive zones, that is, in the same places where there is an abundance of phyto-, zooplankton and benthos. It is on the shelves that 90-95% of the world's fish catch is annually caught. The shelves of our Far Eastern seas, the northern part of the Atlantic Ocean, the Atlantic shelf of the African continent, the southeastern part of the Pacific Ocean, and the Patagonian shelf are especially rich in fish. The greatest biomass of small mesopelagic fish is in the waters of the so-called Southern Ocean, which surrounds Antarctica, the North Atlantic and in the narrow equatorial zone, as well as on the periphery of water cycles.
Antarctic krill (euphausian family) Euphausea superba (Antarctic krill) lives in the waters of the Southern Ocean, forming accumulations in the layer of water from the surface to a depth of 500 meters, the most dense - from the surface to 100 m. The northern border of the most mass concentrations of krill runs along approximately 60 th parallel of southern latitude and approximately coincides with the boundary of the distribution of drifting ice. Krill production in these areas averages 24 -47 g/m2 and plays an important role in the diet of whales, seals, birds, fish, squid and other aquatic animals. The biomass of krill in the waters of the Southern Ocean is estimated on average at 1.5 billion tons. Krill is the object of fishing, the main countries that produce it are Russia, in lesser degree- Japan. The main krill fishing areas are concentrated in the Atlantic sector of the Southern Ocean. The analogue of Antarctic krill in the northern hemisphere is the so-called “northern krill” - kapshak, or black-eye.
Squid Several common species of squid are widespread in tropical, subtropical and boreal regions of the pelagic and neritic zones of the World Ocean. The biomass of pelagic squid is estimated at more than 300 million tons. Squids mainly belong to the shelf-oceanic group of aquatic organisms (for example, the Argentinean and North American shortfin squid-illex and loligo). The group of oceanic squids proper includes dosidicus squids, which are associated with bioproductive zones of upwelling, water mass fronts, and water cycles. The most important fisheries at present are arrow squid and shelf-oceanic shortfin squid, in particular Argentine squid and loligo squid. More than 530 thousand tons of Japanese arrow squid, more than 210 thousand tons of loligo squid and about 220 thousand tons of shortfin squid are caught annually.
Cetaceans and pinnipeds Currently, only about 500 thousand baleen whales and sperm whales live in the World Ocean; their fishing is still prohibited due to the slow rate of recovery of stocks. In addition to whales, the World Ocean is currently home to about 250 million tons of pinnipeds and common seals, as well as several million dolphins. Pinnipeds typically feed on zooplankton (particularly krill), as well as fish and squid.
Some characteristics of the main population groups of the World Ocean Population group Biomass, billion tons Products, billion tons 1. Producers (total) Including: phytoplankton phytobenthos microflora (bacteria and protozoa) 11, 5 -13, 8 1240 -1250 10 -12 1.5 -1.8 - more than 1200 0.7 -0.9 40 -50 21 -24 5 -6 10 -12 6 70 -80 60 -70 5 -6 4 2.2 0.28 1.0 1 , 5 0, 9 0, 8 -0, 9 1, 2 0, 6 2. Consumers (total) Zooplankton Zoobenthos Nekton Including: Krill Squid Mesopelagic fish Other fish
Fishing areas in the Pacific Northwest Pacific (47% of total catch in the Pacific Ocean); southeast Pacific (27%); Western Central Pacific (15%); Northeast Pacific (6%).
Productive areas of the Pacific Ocean 1. Area of the northwestern part (Bering, Okhotsk and Japan seas). These are the 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. richest, mostly shelf, seas of the Pacific Ocean. Kuril-Kamchatka region with an average annual primary productivity of more than 250 mg C/m 2 per day and with a summer biomass of food mesoplankton in the 0-100 m layer of 200-500 mg/m 3 or more. The Peruvian-Chilean region with primary production reaching several grams of C/m 2 per day in upwelling zones and a mesoplankton biomass of 100-200 mg/m 3 or more, and in upwelling zones up to 500 mg/m 3 or more. The Aleutian region, adjacent to the Aleutian Islands in the south, with a primary productivity of more than 150 mg C/m 2 per day and with a biomass of food zooplankton of 100 -500 mg/m 3 or more. Canadian-North American region (including the Oregon upwelling), with a primary productivity of more than 200 mg C/m 2 per day and with a mesoplankton biomass of 200 -500 mg/m 3. Central American region (Gulf of Panama and adjacent waters) with a primary productivity of 200 - 500 mg C/m 2 per day and with a mesoplankton biomass of 100 -500 mg/m 3. The area has rich fish resources that have not been sufficiently developed by fishing. In most other areas of the Pacific, biological productivity is somewhat less; Thus, the biomass of mesoplankton does not exceed 100 -200 mg/m3. The main fishing objects in the Pacific Ocean are pollock, iwasi sardine, anchovies, eastern mackerel, tuna, saury and other fish. In the Pacific Ocean, according to scientists, there are still significant reserves for increasing the catch of aquatic organisms.
Biological resources Atlantic Ocean Phytoplankton The following areas are richest in phytoplankton in the Atlantic Ocean: - waters adjacent to the island. Newfoundland and Nova Scotia; - Yucatan platform of the Gulf of Mexico; - the shelf of northern Brazil; - Patagonian shelf; - African shelf; 41 - band between 50 and 60 degrees south latitude; - some areas of the northeast Atlantic. Poor in phytoplankton: zones of the open ocean in the areas of 10 -40 degrees north latitude, 20 -70 degrees west longitude, as well as 5 -40 degrees south latitude, 0 -40 degrees west longitude, located inside the northern and southern large oceanic gyres.
Zooplankton The general patterns of distribution of zooplankton and phytoplankton biomass coincide, but the areas are especially rich in zooplankton: - Newfoundland-Labrador zone; - African shelf; - equatorial zone of the open ocean. Poor in zooplankton: central zones northern and southern large oceanic gyres.
Nekton Main fishing areas: - North, Norwegian and Barents seas; - Great Newfoundland Bank; - Nova Scotia shelf; - Patagonian shelf; - African shelves; - the periphery of large-scale northern and southern oceanic gyres; - upwelling zones.
In the Atlantic Ocean, together with the Mediterranean and Black Seas, 29% of the total world catch of aquatic organisms, or 24.1 million tons, is annually caught, including 13.7 million tons in the northern part of the ocean, 6.5 million tons in central and 3.9 million tons - in the southern and Antarctic regions. The main objects of the world (and Russian) fishery for hydrobionts in the Atlantic Ocean are: Atlantic herring, Atlantic cod, capelin, sand lance, horse mackerel, sardine, sardinella, mackerel, whiting, whiting (hake), anchovies, Antarctic krill, Argentine squid, etc.
Bioresources Indian Ocean The basis of fishing in the Indian Ocean are scombroid fish (mackerel, tuna, etc.), of which about 1 million tons per year are caught here, horse mackerel (314 thousand tons), herring (sardinella with an annual catch of about 300 thousand tons), croakers (about 300 thousand tons), sharks and rays (about 170 thousand tons per year). UN FAO fisheries statistics divide the Indian Ocean into three regions: Western (WIO), Eastern (EIO) and Antarctic (ACIO).
The Western Indian Ocean includes the Arabian Sea, the Persian Gulf, and the eastern shelves of Africa and adjacent areas of the open Indian Ocean, including the waters of the Maldives, Seychelles, Comoros, Amirante and Mascarene Islands, as well as Mauritius and Madagascar. The Eastern Indian Ocean (EIO) includes the Bay of Bengal, the waters of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, the waters adjacent to the west coast of the islands of Sumatra and Java, the shelf of northern and western Australia, the Great Australian Bight and the adjacent waters of the open Indian Ocean. Antarctic waters of the Indian Ocean. The ichthyofauna of this area is represented by 44 species of fish belonging to 16 families. Only nototheniids and white-blooded fish, as well as Antarctic krill, which are very promising for commercial development here, are of commercial importance. In general, the biological resources of this area are poorer than the biological resources of the Antarctic part of the Atlantic Ocean.
Russia has very large and diverse marine biological resources. This primarily applies to the seas Far East, and the greatest diversity (800 species) is observed off the coast of the southern Kuril Islands, where cold-loving and thermophilic forms coexist. From the North Seas Arctic Ocean The Barents Sea is the richest in biological resources.
The totality of all living organisms forms the biomass (or, in the words of V.I. Vernadsky, living matter) of the planet.
By mass, this is about 0.001% of the mass of the earth's crust. However, despite the insignificant total biomass, the role of living organisms in the processes occurring on the planet is enormous. It is the activity of living organisms that determines the chemical composition of the atmosphere, the concentration of salts in the hydrosphere, the formation of some rocks and the destruction of others, the formation of soil in the lithosphere, etc.
Land biomass. The highest density of life is in tropical forests. There are more plant species here (more than 5 thousand). To the north and south of the equator, life becomes poorer, its density and the number of plant and animal species decrease: in the subtropics there are about 3 thousand plant species, in the steppes about 2 thousand, then there are broad-leaved and coniferous forests and, finally, the tundra, in which grows about 500 species of lichens and mosses. Depending on the intensity of life development in different geographical latitudes, biological productivity changes. It is estimated that the total primary productivity of land (biomass formed by autotrophic organisms per unit time per unit area) is about 150 billion tons, including 8 billion tons of organic matter per year from the world's forests. The total plant mass per 1 hectare in the tundra is 28.25 tons, in the tropical forest - 524 tons. In the temperate zone, 1 hectare of forest per year produces about 6 tons of wood and 4 tons of leaves, which is 193.2 * 109 J (~ 46 * 109 cal). Secondary productivity (biomass produced by heterotrophic organisms per unit time per unit area) in the biomass of insects, birds and others in this forest ranges from 0.8 to 3% of plant biomass, that is, about 2 * 109 J (5 * 108 cal).< /p>
The primary annual productivity of different agrocenoses varies significantly. The average world productivity in tons of dry matter per 1 hectare is: wheat - 3.44, potatoes - 3.85, rice - 4.97, sugar beets - 7.65. The harvest that a person collects is only 0.5% of the total biological productivity of the field. A significant part of the primary production is destroyed by saprophytes - soil inhabitants.
One of the important components of land surface biogeocenoses are soils. The starting material for soil formation is the surface layers of rocks. From them, under the influence of microorganisms, plants and animals, a soil layer is formed. Organisms concentrate biogenic elements in themselves: after the death of plants and animals and the decomposition of their remains, these elements pass into the composition of the soil, due to which
it accumulates biogenic elements, and also accumulates incompletely decomposed organic pechs. The soil contains a huge number of microorganisms. Thus, in one gram of chernozem their number reaches 25 * 108. Thus, the soil is of biogenic origin, consisting of inorganic, organic substances and living organisms (edaphon is the totality of all living beings of the soil). Outside the biosphere, the emergence and existence of soil is impossible. Soil is a living environment for many organisms (unicellular animals, annelids and roundworms, arthropods and many others). The soil is penetrated by plant roots, from which plants absorb nutrients and water. The productivity of agricultural crops is associated with the vital activity of living organisms in the soil. Adding chemicals to the soil often has a detrimental effect on life in it. Therefore, it is necessary to rationally use soils and protect them.
Each area has its own soils, which differ from others in composition and properties. The formation of individual soil types is associated with different soil-forming rocks, climate and plant characteristics. V.V. Dokuchaev identified 10 main types of soils, now there are more than 100 of them. The following soil zones are distinguished on the territory of Ukraine: Polesie, Forest-steppe, Steppe, Dry steppe, as well as the Carpathian and Crimean mountain regions with the types of soil structure inherent in each of them cover. Polesie is characterized by soddy-zolic soils, gray forest ones. Temnosiri forest soils, podzolized chernozems, etc. The Forest-steppe zone has gray and dark siri forest soils. The Steppe zone is mainly represented by chernozems. Brown forest soils predominate in the Ukrainian Carpathians. In Crimea there are different soils (chernozem, chestnut, etc.), but they are usually gravelly and rocky.
Biomass of the oceans. The world's oceans occupy more than 2/3 of the planet's surface area. The physical properties and chemical composition of ocean waters are favorable for the development and existence of life. As on land, in the ocean the density of life is greatest in the equatorial zone and decreases as you move further away from it. In the upper layer, at a depth of up to 100 m, live unicellular algae, which make up plankton, “the total primary productivity of phytoplankton in the World Ocean is 50 billion tons per year (about 1/3 of the total primary production of the biosphere). Almost all food chains in the ocean begin with phytoplankton, which feed on zooplankton animals (such as crustaceans). Crustaceans are food for many species of fish and baleen whales. Birds eat fish. Large algae grow mainly in the coastal areas of oceans and seas. The greatest concentration of life is in coral reefs. The ocean is poorer in life than land; the biomass of its products is 1000 times less. Most of the formed biomass - single-celled algae and other inhabitants of the ocean - die, settle to the bottom and their organic matter is destroyed by decomposers. Only about 0.01% of the primary productivity of the World Ocean reaches humans through a long chain of trophic levels in the form of food and chemical energy.
At the bottom of the ocean, as a result of the vital activity of organisms, sedimentary rocks are formed: chalk, limestone, diatomite, etc.
The biomass of animals in the World Ocean is approximately 20 times greater than the biomass of plants, and it is especially large in the coastal zone.
The ocean is the cradle of life on Earth. The basis of life in the ocean itself, the primary link in a complex food chain is phytoplankton, single-celled green marine plants. These microscopic plants are eaten by herbivorous zooplankton and many species of small fish, which in turn serve as food for a range of nektonic, actively swimming predators. Organisms of the seabed - benthos (phytobenthos and zoobenthos) also take part in the ocean food chain. The total mass of living matter in the ocean is 29.9∙109 tons, with the biomass of zooplankton and zoobenthos accounting for 90% of the total mass of living matter in the ocean, the biomass of phytoplankton - about 3%, and the biomass of nekton (mainly fish) - 4% (Suetova, 1973; Dobrodeev, Suetova, 1976). In general, ocean biomass by weight is 200 times less, and per unit surface area is 1000 times less than land biomass. However, the annual production of living matter in the ocean is 4.3∙1011 tons. In units of live weight, it is close to the production of terrestrial plant mass - 4.5∙1011 tons. Since marine organisms contain much more water, in units of dry weight this ratio looks like like 1:2.25. The ratio of production of pure organic matter in the ocean is even lower (as 1:3.4) compared to that on land, since phytoplankton contains a higher percentage of ash elements than woody vegetation (Dobrodeev, Suetova, 1976). The fairly high productivity of living matter in the ocean is explained by the fact that the simplest organisms of phytoplankton have a short life span, they are renewed daily, and total weight of ocean living matter on average approximately every 25 days. On land, biomass renewal occurs on average every 15 years. Living matter in the ocean is distributed very unevenly. The maximum concentrations of living matter in the open ocean - 2 kg/m2 - are located in the temperate zones of the northern Atlantic and northwestern Pacific oceans. On land, forest-steppe and steppe zones have the same biomass. Average values of biomass in the ocean (from 1.1 to 1.8 kg/m2) are found in areas of the temperate and equatorial zones; on land they correspond to the biomass of dry steppes of the temperate zone, semi-deserts of the subtropical zone, alpine and subalpine forests (Dobrodeev, Suetova, 1976) . In the ocean, the distribution of living matter depends on the vertical mixing of waters, causing nutrients to rise to the surface from the deep layers, where the process of photosynthesis occurs. Such zones of rising deep water are called upwelling zones; they are the most productive in the ocean. Zones of weak vertical mixing of waters are characterized by low levels of phytoplankton production - the first link in the biological productivity of the ocean, and poverty of life. Another characteristic feature of the distribution of life in the ocean is its concentration in the shallow zone. In areas of the ocean where the depth does not exceed 200 m, 59% of the biomass of bottom fauna is concentrated; depths between 200 and 3000 m account for 31.1% and areas with depths greater than 3000 m account for less than 10%. Of the climatic latitudinal zones in the World Ocean, the richest are the subantarctic and northern temperate zones: their biomass is 10 times greater than in the equatorial zone. On land, on the contrary, the highest values of living matter occur in the equatorial and subequatorial belts.
The basis of the biological cycle that ensures the existence of life is solar energy and the chlorophyll of green plants that captures it. Every living organism participates in the cycle of substances and energy, absorbing some substances from the external environment and releasing others. Biogeocenoses, consisting of a large number of species and bone components of the environment, carry out cycles through which atoms of various chemical elements move. Atoms constantly migrate through many living organisms and skeletal environments. Without the migration of atoms, life on Earth could not exist: plants without animals and bacteria would soon exhaust their reserves of carbon dioxide and minerals, and animal bases of plants would be deprived of a source of energy and oxygen.
Land surface biomass corresponds to the biomass of the land-air environment. It increases from the poles to the equator. At the same time, the number of plant species is increasing.
Arctic tundra – 150 plant species.
Tundra (shrubs and herbaceous) - up to 500 plant species.
Forest zone (coniferous forests + steppes (zone)) – 2000 species.
Subtropics (citrus fruits, palm trees) – 3000 species.
Deciduous forests (tropical rainforests) – 8,000 species. Plants grow in several tiers.
Animal biomass. The tropical forest has the largest biomass on the planet. Such saturation of life causes strict natural selection and the struggle for existence and => Adaptation of various species to the conditions of a common existence.
