Stages of civilization - Napoleon Bonaparte's Egyptian campaign. Battle for the pyramids. Bonaparte's Egyptian campaign. Egyptian Campaign Memoirs of an Emperor

Annotation

The book tells the story of one of the largest and at the same time tragic military campaigns of the French army of the 19th century - the Egyptian Campaign. This is a chronicle of bloody battles carried out by the most brilliant military leader and strategist, a genius of military and political thought - Emperor Napoleon I.

Translation: V. Golant

Napoleon Bonaparte

Campaigns in Egypt and Syria 1798-1799

Chapter I Malta

Chapter II Description of Egypt

Chapter III Conquest of Lower Egypt

Chapter IV Nile naval battle

Chapter V Religious Affairs

Chapter VI Uprising in Cairo

Chapter VII Conquest of Upper Egypt

Chapter VIII Syria

Chapter IX Conquest of Palestine

Chapter XI Battle of Abukir

Chapter XII Napoleon's Return to the West

Napoleon's Concluding Remarks on the Egyptian Campaign

Appendix From the work “Essay on the Wars of Frederick II”

Chapter IV, § 6

Chapter IX, § 2

Napoleon Bonaparte

Egyptian Campaign Memoirs of an Emperor

Publishing house "RIMIS" - laureate Literary Prize them. Alexandra Belyaev 2008.

Published according to the edition: Napoleon. Selected works. – M.: Voenizdat, 1956.

The publishing house "RIMIS" expresses its sincere gratitude to Apollo Borisovich Davidson for his assistance in working on the book.

Campaigns in Egypt and Syria 1798-1799

Chapter I Malta

I. Plan of war with England during the 1798 campaign. – II. Training and composition of the Eastern Army. – III. Departure of the fleet from Toulon (May 19). – About the island of Malta and the Order of St. John of Jerusalem. – V. Defenses of Malta. – VI. The hesitation of the Grand Master and his Council. – VII. Hostilities; fights; truce (June 11). – VIII. Negotiations and surrender (June 12). – IX. The entry of the army into the capital of Malta; organization of governance of Malta. – X. Departure from the island (June 19).

The Treaty of Campo Formio restored peace on the mainland. The German Emperor was satisfied with the conditions that were provided to him. France again took possession of the Gauls' inheritance. She has reclaimed her natural boundaries. The first coalition, which threatened to strangle the republic in its cradle, was defeated and disintegrated. Only England remained armed. She took advantage of the troubles that befell the mainland to take possession of the two Indies and establish her tyranny on the seas. The Directory stopped negotiations in Lille, being confident that balance in the Indies and freedom of the seas could be restored only through a successful campaign on the seas and in the colonies.

Several campaign plans were outlined for 1798. There was talk of landing troops in England with the help of flat-bottomed ships, covered by the joint actions of the French and Spanish squadrons, but preparations required hundreds of millions, which could not be counted on given the financial crisis at that time. In addition, the invasion of England required the use of the main forces of France, which would have been premature due to the state of excitement in which the mainland was still located. The government adopted the following plan: to keep 150,000 people in camps on the English Channel coast, who would threaten England with an imminent invasion, but in fact would be ready to march to the Rhine if necessary; at the same time two small armies of 30,000 men each would act offensively. One of them, taken onto the ships of the Brest squadron, will land in Ireland, where 100,000 rebels are waiting for her; the other, intended for action in the East, will cross to the other side Mediterranean Sea, in which the Toulon squadron dominated. This would deal a crushing blow to the British colonies in India. Tippu Sahib, Marathas, Sikhs were only waiting for the signal. It seemed necessary to entrust the command of the Eastern Army to Napoleon. Egypt, Syria, Arabia, Iraq were waiting for such a person. The Turkish administration fell into disrepair. The consequences of this expedition could be as great as the happiness and genius of the one who was to lead it.

Simultaneously with the landing of the army in the East, a ceremonial embassy was to arrive in Constantinople, equipped with the means necessary to achieve success. In 1775, the Mamluks entered into an agreement with the English India Company. From that moment on, French trading houses were subjected to insults and all kinds of humiliation. Following a complaint from the Versailles court, the Porte sent Kapudan Pasha Hasan against the beys in 1786; but since the revolution French trade has again been persecuted. The Porte declared that it could not do anything about it, and that the Mamluks were “greedy, godless and rebellious people,” and made it clear that it would treat the expedition against Egypt with toleration, just as it treated the expeditions against Algeria, Tunisia and Tripoli.

The English squadrons left the Mediterranean at the end of 1796, when the Neapolitan king made peace. From that time on, the tricolor flag dominated the Adriatic, the Levant and all the way to the Strait of Gibraltar. The successful advance of the Eastern Army depended on how secret preparations for the expedition could be kept. Napoleon, as commander-in-chief of the English army, first of all toured the camps on the English Channel, pretending to be concerned only with them, but in fact being truly concerned only with the Eastern Army. From the cities he visited in Flanders and Belgium, Napoleon sent couriers who carried his orders to the Mediterranean coast. He took charge of all preparations on land and at sea. The fleet, the convoy, the army - all of this was brought to a state of readiness within a few weeks. He corresponded with the generals: Caffarelli - in Toulon, Rainier - in Marseille, Barage d\"Ilie - in Genoa, Desaint - in Civita Vecchia, Vaubois - in Corsica. These five persons authorized by him procured food, collected and armed ships with such energy that on April 15 the troops boarded ships in five ports. The commanders could only wait for the order to sail. The composition of the expedition was as follows:

Of the thirteen battleships that were part of the squadron, the Amiral was 120-gun, three were 80-gun, and nine were 74-gun. Among them were the Guerrier and the Conkeran, old and bad ships; they were equipped with only 18-pounder guns. Among the ships of the convoy were two Venetian 64-gun ships, four 40-gun frigates and ten corvettes and messengers serving as guards. Vice Admiral Brueys, an officer of the old fleet, who a year earlier had commanded the fleet in the Adriatic, was considered one of the best military sailors of the republic. Two-thirds of the ships had good commanders, but one-third were commanded by people who were not capable of this. The squadron and army had a supply of food for one hundred days and water for forty.

The ground army consisted of fifteen infantry semi-brigades, seven cavalry regiments and twenty-eight companies - artillerymen, workers, sappers, miners, namely: the 2nd, 4th, 21st, 22nd light infantry semi-brigades; 9th, 18th, 19th, 25th, 32nd, 61st, 69th, 71st, 80th, 85th, 88th linear infantry semi-brigades, each with three battalions (each battalion has nine companies); 7th Hussars, 22nd Cavalry, 3rd, 14th, 15th, 18th, 20th Dragoon Regiments; sixteen artillery companies; eight companies of workers, sappers and miners; four companies of artillery convoy. The cavalry had a set of saddles and harnesses, but only three hundred horses; the artillery had three times the norm of ammunition, a lot of cannonballs, gunpowder, tools, a siege park and everything necessary for the defense of a long coastline, 12,000 spare guns, various equipment, harness for 6,000 horses. The Commission of Sciences and Arts had its own workers, libraries, printing houses - French, Arabic, Turkish and Greek - and translators who spoke all these languages. Infantry - 24,300 people, cavalry - 4,000, artillery - 3,000, non-combatant personnel - 1,000. A total of 32,300 people.

In the mid-90s of the 18th century, the newly emerged French Republic defended its independence and went on the offensive. It was obvious that the main enemy of France was Great Britain, sheltered from attacks by French divisions by its island position. The planned invasion of England through Ireland was never carried out. England could be harmed by disrupting its trade and jeopardizing the security of its colonial possessions. Considering this, General Bonaparte, who acquired after Italian campaign enormous popularity, he proposed organizing an expedition to Egypt. If this enterprise was successful, it was possible to create a French colony in Egypt and then move towards India. By proposing this plan, Bonaparte hoped to strengthen his influence, and the Directory government hoped to send the restless and already dangerously popular general “longer and further away” from Paris. Thus, in carrying out the trip to North Africa Different forces were interested.

On March 5, 1798, Napoleon was appointed commander of the "Egyptian army." 38 thousand the expeditionary army was concentrated in Toulon, Genoa, Ajaccio and Civitavecchia. Napoleon, in a short period of time, did a tremendous amount of work preparing the expedition, inspecting the ships, and selecting people for the expedition. The flower of the generals of the Republic went on a campaign - Kleber, Deze, Berthier, Murat, Lannes, Bessieres, Junot, Marmont, Duroc, Sulkowski. Lavalette, Bourrienne. Scientists also went on the campaign - the future “Institute of Egypt”, the famous Monge, Berthollet, Saint-Hillaire, Conté, Dolomieu, etc.

On May 19, 1798, an armada of four hundred transports and warships left the ports and, united, moved south. Its flagship was battleship"Orion". All of Europe knew that an expeditionary force was being prepared in France, and that its commander was the famous Bonaparte. The question was: where will it be sent? To capture Malta, Sicily, Egypt? To Ireland? No one, except the narrowest circle of military leaders, knew where the fleet was heading. Newspapers spread all sorts of rumors. At the beginning of May, there was a popular rumor that the fleet would pass the Strait of Gibraltar, circle the Iberian Peninsula and land on the Green Island. The British also believed this rumor; Nelson was guarding Gibraltar at the time the French fleet left the harbor for Malta.

2 Capture of Malta

On June 9-10, advanced French ships reached Malta. The island belonged to the Order of the Knights of Malta since the 16th century. The Order maintained friendly relations with England and Russia, enemies of France. The island was used as a temporary base for the British fleet.

The French made a request for a supply of drinking water. The Maltese gave permission for only one ship to take on water at a time. Considering the size of the French fleet, this was audacity. The delay could lead to the appearance of the British fleet. General Bonaparte demanded the surrender of the island. The Maltese began to prepare for defense. However, the knights had long lost their fighting spirit and were incapable of fighting, the mercenaries did not show a desire to die the death of the brave and capitulated or went over to the side of the French, the local population also did not express a desire to fight. The Grand Master of the Order of Malta, Ferdinand von Gompesch zu Bolheim, was unable to organize a defense; on the contrary, he readily surrendered to the French, explaining his actions by saying that the order’s charter prohibited hospitallers from fighting Christians. As a result, the French fleet easily landed several troops, which quickly occupied the entire island. The French banner was raised over the La Valette fortress.

Napoleon won his first victory. On June 19, the French fleet moved on, favorable winds blew, and the British were not visible. A small garrison was left on the island.

3 Landing in Egypt

On June 30, the shores of Africa appeared. On July 2, at Marabou, near Alexandria, the army hastily, but in in perfect order was planted. The troops immediately set out and a few hours later were at Alexandria. The French entered the city. The French fleet under the command of Admiral Brueys d'Aigallier remained near Alexandria, having received orders from the commander-in-chief to find a passage deep enough for battleships into the city's harbor, where they would be safe from a possible attack by the British fleet.

Egypt at this time was de jure the possession of the Ottoman sultans, but in fact it was ruled by the military caste-estate of the Mamluks. These were Turkic and Caucasian warriors by origin, who formed the guard of the last Egyptian rulers from the Ayyubid dynasty. In 1250, the Mamluks overthrew the last Ayyubid sultan, Turan Shah, and seized power in the country. The Mamluk beys paid some tribute to the Ottoman sultan, recognized his supremacy, but were practically independent of Constantinople.

Bonaparte, after a minor skirmish, occupied Alexandria. Here he pretended that he was not fighting the Ottomans, on the contrary, he was fighting Turkey deep world and friendship, and the French came to free the local population from oppression by the Mamluks. Bonaparte already addressed the Egyptian people with an appeal on July 2. In it, he said that the beys ruling over Egypt were insulting the French nation and endangering its traders, and the hour of vengeance had come. He promised to punish the “usurpers” and said that he respects God, his prophets and the Koran. The French commander called on the Egyptians to trust the French, to unite with them in order to throw off the yoke of the Mamluks and create a new, more just order.

4 Transition to Cairo

Bonaparte did not linger in Alexandria; a strong force of 10 thousand was left there. garrison under Kleber. On the night of July 4, the French vanguard (4.6 thousand Dese division) set out towards Cairo. Of the two roads: through Rosetta and further up the Nile River and through the Damangur (Damakur) desert, connecting at Romagne, the French commander-in-chief chose the latter, shorter route. Behind the vanguard were the divisions of Bon, Rainier and Menou. The latter took command of the Rosetta district, and 1 thousand were left in Rosetta itself. garrison. At the same time, the division of General Dugas (formerly Kleber) went through Abukir to Rosetta, so that it was supposed to proceed from there to Romagna, accompanied by a flotilla of light ships that carried ammunition and provisions along the Nile. On July 9, Bonaparte himself left Alexandria with his headquarters. Before this, he ordered Admiral Brues, who was heading towards Abukir, not to linger there, but to move towards Corfu or enter the port of Alexandria.

The transition through the desert was very difficult. The soldiers suffered from the scorching rays of the African sun, the difficulties of crossing the hot desert sands, and lack of water. Local residents, who were informed that they wanted to turn everyone into slaves, left their wretched villages. Often the wells were damaged. Dysentery was the scourge of the army. The Mamelukes occasionally disturbed the French army with their raids. Napoleon was in a hurry, he knew that the enemy had to be defeated before the Nile flooded, since during the flood the entire area in the Cairo area would be a swamp, which would extremely complicate the task of destroying the main forces of the enemy.

On July 9, the French reached Damacourt and the next day advanced to Romagna. On July 13, the French defeated the Mamluks near the village of Chebreys. Here, the French commanders used formations in a square against the brave enemy cavalry - each division was lined up in a square, on the flanks of which there was artillery, and horsemen and convoys inside. The Mamluks retreated to Cairo.

5 Battle of the Pyramids

When the minarets of Cairo were already visible in the distance, in front of the French 20 thousand. The Mameluke cavalry appeared as an army. On July 20, 1798, the French army reached the village of Vardan, here the commander gave the troops a two-day rest. The soldiers needed at least a little refreshment and to get themselves in order. At the end of the second day, intelligence reported that the Mamluk army under the command of Murad Bey and Ibrahim Bey was preparing for battle at a camp near the village of Imbaba. Napoleon began to prepare the army for a general battle. French troops, having completed a 12-hour march, saw the pyramids.

The Turkish-Egyptian army of Murad and Ibrahim occupied a position with its right wing adjacent to the Nile and its left wing to the pyramids. On the right flank, the fortified position was occupied by Janissaries and foot militia with 40 cannons; in the center stood the best forces of Egypt - the cavalry corps of the Mamelukes, noble Arabs, and on the left flank - the Arab Bedouins. Part of the Turkish-Egyptian army under the command of Ibrahim was on the eastern bank of the Nile. The river itself was blocked by about 300 ships. Residents of Cairo also gathered to watch the battle.

Before the battle, Napoleon addressed the soldiers with a speech in which he uttered his famous phrase: “Soldiers, forty centuries of history are looking at you!” Apparently, not a small role in the high fighting spirit The soldiers were motivated by the hope of a quick rest in Cairo. The army was divided into 5 squares. Napoleon's headquarters conducted reconnaissance and quickly found out weak spots enemy: the main Mameluke camp at Imbaba was poorly fortified, the artillery was immobile, the enemy infantry could not support the cavalry, so Napoleon did not attach of great importance enemy infantry. It was necessary first of all to defeat the Mameluke cavalry in the center.

At approximately 15:30, Murad Bey launched a massive cavalry attack. The advanced divisions of Rainier and Deze were surrounded by masses of enemy cavalry, led by Murad Bey himself. Mamelyukov began to mow down the rifle and artillery fire. Those individual horsemen who were able to break through to the square itself died under bayonet attacks. One detachment of Mamelukes, having suffered huge losses, was able to break through the defenses of Deze and break into the square, but it was quickly surrounded and killed. For some time the Mamelukes circled around the impregnable squares, but then, unable to withstand the destructive fire, they retreated. Murad and part of the detachment retreated to the pyramids of Giza, while other Mamelukes headed to the fortified camp.

At the same time, the divisions of Bon, Dugua and Rampon repelled an attack by enemy cavalry from the camp from Imbaba. The cavalry retreated to the Nile, in the waters of which many found their deaths. Then the enemy camp was captured. The Egyptian infantry from the camp at Imbaba, realizing that the battle was lost, abandoned the camp and began using improvised means and swimming to the other side of the Nile. Murad's attempts to break through to the camp were repulsed. The Bedouins, who stood on the left flank and practically did not participate in the battle, disappeared into the desert. Towards nightfall, Murad also retreated, ordering the ships on the Nile to be burned.

It was a complete victory. The Turkish-Egyptian army, according to Napoleon, lost up to 10 thousand people. The losses of the French army were insignificant - 29 soldiers were killed, 260 were wounded. The Muslim clergy, after Napoleon's victory, surrendered Cairo without a fight. On July 24, 1798, Napoleon entered the Egyptian capital. Murad Bey with 3 thousand. the detachment retreated to Upper Egypt, where he continued the fight against the French. Ibrahim with a thousand horsemen retreated to Syria.

Bonaparte, having captured Cairo, was able to begin reorganizing the Egyptian system of government. All main power was concentrated in the French military commandants of cities and villages. Under them, an advisory body (“divan”) was established from the most eminent and wealthy local residents. The commandants, with the support of the “divans,” were supposed to maintain order, perform police functions, control trade and protect private property. The same advisory body was to appear in Cairo under the commander-in-chief; it included not only representatives of the capital, but also the provinces. Mosques and Muslim clergy were not subject to oppression, were respected and were inviolable. It was planned to streamline the collection of taxes and taxes, as well as organize delivery in kind for the maintenance of the French army. All land taxes that the Mameluke beys levied were abolished. The land holdings of the rebellious feudal lords, who fled with Murad and Ibrahim to the south and east, were confiscated.

6 Battle of Abukir

By the evening of August 1, 1798, the squadron of the British Admiral Nelson, having wandered in vain in search of a rival along the coast of Turkey, returned to the mouth of the Nile and discovered the French. The French squadron, consisting of 13 ships and 4 frigates, was anchored in the Gulf of Abukir. Nelson had 14 ships and one brig. The French had the numerical superiority, but in fact the British had significant advantages. Thus, a significant part of the French ships, such as the Guerrier and Conqueran, were old and dilapidated, the maximum caliber of the guns installed on them was only 18 pounds.

The commander of the French squadron, Vice Admiral Francois Bruet, did not take obvious measures to protect the fleet, which were possible in Abukir Bay, did not keep patrol ships at sea and did not send scouts to give advance warning of the approach of the British. On August 1, a significant part of the team was sent ashore for fresh water, and the battery decks are cluttered with barrels pulled out of the hold for filling water brought from the shore. The disposition of the squadron itself was poorly organized. There were 13 battleships in the first line, but none of the flanks was so close to the 4-fathom shallows that the enemy could not bypass it, and that he could not penetrate into the disposition. The passages between the sandbank and the flanks were not protected even by the groups of frigates that formed the second line against the middle part of the first. Small ships were located just off the coast, at Cape Abukir.

The British admiral took advantage of the opportune moment and seized the initiative into his own hands. He attacked the French from two directions - from the sea and the coast. The British were able to surround a significant part of the French fleet and subjected them to fire from both sides. By 11 a.m. on August 2, the French fleet was completely defeated: 11 battleships were destroyed or captured. The French flagship Orient exploded and sank along with the treasury - 600 thousand pounds sterling in gold bars and precious stones, which were seized from Rome and Venice to finance the Egyptian expedition. The French lost 5.3 thousand people, killed, wounded and prisoners. Admiral Francois-Paul Bruet also died along with his fleet. Only the commander of the French rearguard, Admiral P. Villeneuve, with two battleships and two frigates, was able to go to sea. The British lost 218 people killed and 677 wounded.

This defeat had very serious consequences for the Egyptian expedition. Napoleon's troops were cut off from France, and supplies were disrupted. Istanbul, which had been hesitant until that time, ceased to support the fiction spread by Bonaparte that he was not at all at war with the Ottoman Empire, but was only punishing the Mamelukes. On September 1, the Ottoman Empire declared war on France and the concentration of the Turkish army began in Syria.

7 Trek to Syria

The Ottomans, having concluded an alliance with England, were preparing an army to attack Egypt through the Isthmus of Suez. At the beginning of 1799, the Pasha of Acre, Jesar, occupied Taza and Jaffa and advanced the vanguard to the fort of El-Arish, the key to Egypt on the Syrian side. Simultaneously with the attack of the army from Syria, Murad Bey was supposed to attack the French in Upper Egypt, and they planned to land an amphibious corps at the mouth of the Nile.

Napoleon learned of the destruction of the French fleet only on August 13, 1798. When he received this terrible message, he did not become despondent. Bonaparte began to outline urgent measures to recreate the fleet. He did not give up his plans. However, the strength of the French army was melting away - at the end of 1798, Egypt was left with 29.7 thousand people, of which 1.5 thousand were unfit for combat. For the campaign in Syria, Napoleon was able to allocate only 13 thousand corps: 4 infantry divisions(Klebera, Rainier, Bona, Lanna) and 1st cavalry division (Murat). The remaining troops remained in Egypt. Desaix was left in Upper Egypt, in Cairo - Dugas, in Rosetta - Menou, in Alexandria - Marmont. A detachment of three frigates under the command of Perret was supposed to deliver a siege park (16 guns and 8 mortars) to Jaffa from Alexandria and Damietta. The corps was accompanied by a pack train of 3 thousand camels with a 15th supply of food and a 3rd supply of water.

The Syrian campaign was terribly difficult, especially due to the lack of water. On February 9, 1799, units of Kleber and Rainier arrived at El-Arish and besieged it. On February 19, when the rest of the troops arrived, the fort, after a small skirmish, capitulated. On February 26, after a difficult journey through the desert, the French reached Gaza. Initially, the operation was successful. On March 3, French troops reached Jaffa. On March 7, having made a hole in the wall, the Lanna and Bona divisions took the city. Several dozen guns were captured in the fortress. Palestine was conquered. However, the further the French went east, the more difficult it became. The resistance of the Turkish troops intensified, and the British loomed behind them. The population of Syria, on whose support Napoleon hoped, was as hostile to the infidels as in Egypt.

During the assault on Jaffa, the city was severely defeated; the French soldiers were extremely cruel to the vanquished, exterminating everyone. Napoleon, before the assault, told the townspeople that if it came to an attack, there would be no mercy. The promise was kept. A crime was committed against prisoners of war in Jaffa. About 4 thousand Turkish soldiers surrendered on the condition that their lives were spared. The French officers promised them captivity, and the Turks left the fortification they occupied and laid down their arms. Bonaparte was very annoyed by the whole affair. “What should I do with them now?” - the general shouted. He had no supplies to feed the prisoners, no men to guard them, no ships to transport them to Egypt. On the fourth day after the capture of the city, he ordered everyone to be shot. All 4 thousand captives were taken to the seashore and here they killed every single one. In Jaffa, plague appeared in the army. The dead population of the city “took revenge” on the French - unburied corpses were lying all over Jaffa.

The war did not turn out the way Napoleon dreamed, but he still hoped to turn the situation around. On March 14, the army moved on and on the 18th approached the walls of the old fortress of Saint-Jean d'Acre (Acre). The fortress was defended by 5 thousand. garrison (initially, then increased) under the command of Ahmed Al-Jazzar. Napoleon believed that the capture of this fortress would open up a direct route to Damascus and Aleppo, to the Euphrates. He saw himself following the path of the great Alexander the Great. Beyond Damascus, Baghdad and a direct route to India awaited him. But old fortress, which at one time belonged to the crusaders, did not succumb to Napoleon’s troops. Neither the siege nor the assaults produced the expected results.

The Turkish command sent a 25 thousand army under the command of the Damascus Pasha Abdullah to the rescue of the fortress. Napoleon initially sent Kleber's division against it. But having learned about the significant superiority of the enemy forces, Bonaparte personally led the troops, leaving part of the corps to besiege Acre. On April 16, at Mount Tabor, Napoleon defeated the Turkish troops, the Turks lost 5 thousand people, all their supplies and fled to Damascus.

The siege of Acre lasted two months and ended unsuccessfully. Napoleon did not have enough siege artillery, and there were few people for a massive assault. There were not enough shells and ammunition, and their transportation by sea and land was impossible. The Turkish garrison was strong. The British helped the Ottomans: the defense was organized by Sidney Smith, and the British brought reinforcements, ammunition, weapons, and provisions from the sea. Acre crushed the small French army. Napoleon could not replenish the ranks of his army, and the Turks constantly received reinforcements.

Early in the morning of May 21, French troops withdrew from their positions. The soldiers marched quickly, shortening their rest time so as not to be overtaken by the enemy, along the same road from which they had come, after three months of suffering and sacrifice that were in vain. The withdrawal was accompanied by the devastation of the region in order to complicate the Ottomans' offensive operation. The retreat was even more difficult than the advance. It was already the end of May, and summer was approaching, when the temperature in these parts reaches maximum level. In addition, the plague continued to haunt the French army. Those with the plague had to be left behind, but the wounded and sick were not taken with them because of the plague. Napoleon ordered everyone to dismount and provide the horses, all carts and carriages to those incapacitated. He walked on foot, like everyone else. It was a terrible transition, the army was melting before our eyes. People were killed by the plague, overwork, heat and lack of water. Up to a third of its members did not return. On June 14, the remnants of the corps reached Cairo.

8 Return to Europe

Before Bonaparte had time to rest in Cairo, news arrived that a Turkish army had landed near Abukir. On July 11, the Anglo-Turkish fleet arrived at the Abukir roadstead, and on the 14th 18,000 troops were landed. landing Mustafa Pasha had to gather the Mamelukes and all those dissatisfied with French rule in Egypt. The French commander immediately set out on a campaign and headed north to the Nile Delta. By July 25, Napoleon gathered about 8 thousand soldiers and attacked Turkish positions. In this battle, the French washed away the shame of the French fleet for the recent defeat. The Turkish landing army simply ceased to exist: 13 thousand dead (most of them drowned trying to escape), about 5 thousand prisoners. The losses of the French troops amounted to 200 killed and 550 wounded.

After this, Napoleon decided to return to Europe. France at this time was suffering defeat in Italy, where all the fruits of Napoleon's victories were destroyed by Russian-Austrian troops under the command of Suvorov. France itself and Paris were threatened by an enemy invasion. Turmoil and complete disorder in affairs reigned in the Republic. Napoleon received a historic chance to “save” France. And he took advantage of it. On August 22, taking advantage of the absence of the British fleet, accompanied by his fellow generals Berthier, Lannes, Andreosi, Murat, Marmont, Duroc and Bessières, the commander sailed from Alexandria. On October 9 they landed safely at Fréjus.

The command of the French troops in Egypt was entrusted to Kleber. The troops cut off from France resisted for some time, but by the end of the summer of 1801 they were forced to clear Egypt and return to France.

Bonaparte's plans. In the mid-90s. XVIII century the newly emerged French Republic defended its independence and went on the offensive. It was obvious that the main enemy of France was Great Britain, sheltered from attacks by French divisions by its island position. The planned invasion of England through Ireland was never carried out. England could be harmed by disrupting its trade and jeopardizing the security of its colonial possessions. By the way, it was worth thinking about expanding French colonial possessions, most of which were lost in the last decades of the “old order”, i.e. under Kings Louis XV and Louis XVI.

Taking this into account, General Bonaparte, who gained enormous popularity after the Italian campaign, proposed organizing an expedition to Egypt. If this enterprise was successful, it was possible to create a French colony in Egypt and then move towards India. By proposing this plan, Bonaparte hoped to strengthen his influence, and the Directory government hoped to send the restless and already dangerously popular general “longer and further away” from Paris. So, for various reasons, different forces were interested in carrying out a campaign in North Africa.

Organization of the trip. They tried to keep the organization and preparation of the event strictly secret. The enemy should not have known why such a significant fleet was gathering in Toulon, Genoa, Civitta Vecchia and Ajaccio, and where this fleet intended to go. To transport a huge army (in total The forces gathered under the command of General Bonaparte amounted to about 50 thousand people) about 500 sailing ships were assembled in French Mediterranean ports. The flagship battleship "Orient" carried 120 guns, and it was supposed to carry Commander N. Bonaparte and Admiral Bruy. The army included 30 thousand infantry, 2,700 cavalry, 1,600 artillerymen, and about 500 guides. The command staff was headed by the best generals of the republic, such as Berthier, Deze, Kleben, Lannes, Murat, Sulkowski, Lavalette. They took only 1,200 horses, hoping to compensate for their shortage on the spot. In addition, a “detachment” of scientists was seconded to the army, consisting of specialists in a wide variety of fields, from mathematicians and geographers to historians and writers. Among them were the famous Berthollet, the chemist Conte, the writer Arno, the mineralogist Dolomier, and the physician Degenette.

Bonaparte sailed from Toulon on May 19, 1798. This fact, quite naturally, became known to the British, but they did not know where the French fleet was heading. Two months after the large squadron entered the Mediterranean Sea, a diversionary landing was launched in Ireland. Rumors spread that Bonaparte's expedition should turn west through Gibraltar.

The pursuit of Bonaparte. The English Admiral Nelson entered the Mediterranean Sea through Gibraltar in early May to control the movements of the French. It so happened that a strong storm pretty much battered the British ships, and when they completed the repairs, the French had already departed in an unknown direction. Nelson had to go in pursuit of the missing enemy. On May 22, he learned that a week earlier the French had captured the island of Malta and left in an easterly direction.

Nelson's squadron headed for Egypt. Since the English ships were faster than the French, she arrived there on June 28, ahead of the enemy. The English admiral decided that he had chosen the wrong direction and sailed from Alexandria towards Turkey, missing Bonaparte by one day.

Landing at Abukir. At noon on July 1, the French army began landing at Abukir, located a few miles east of Alexandria. The next night, the commander inspected the landing part of the troops. After this, the soldiers, hungry and unrested, marched towards Alexandria. The dilapidated defensive structures of the city could not withstand the assault, and by the night of July 2 the city was taken. Meanwhile, the landing of the French army near Aboukir was completed only on July 5. After this, Bonaparte moved along the Nile to the south, towards Cairo.

The country's population was made up of fellahins (dependent peasants), Bedouin nomads and Mameluke warriors, representing the dominant stratum of Egyptian society. Politically, Egypt was a vassal of Turkey, but the Sultan did not interfere in the internal affairs of this territory. However, the unscrupulous invasion of the French, who did not even bother to officially announce the start of the war, pushed the Sultan towards an anti-French coalition.

Fellahi and the Declaration of Rights. The French hoped that by entering Egyptian soil they would secure the support of the fellahs if they promised them freedom and equality. An appeal from General Bonaparte was drawn up and read out, promising the fellahs to “punish the usurpers and restore their rights.” The fellahs gloomily listened to the educational slogans addressed to them and remained completely indifferent. Flowery phrases about equality and human rights did not find any response in the souls of these illiterate and half-starved people, preoccupied with such prosaic problems as the need to feed their families. The words of the appeal, so pleasing to the Europeans of the Enlightenment, hit above and beyond their target in Egypt. This situation, in essence, determined the entire course and outcome of the campaign: Bonaparte had to act, in the words of the historian Manfred, “in a social vacuum,” without response and support among the mass of the local population. When conceiving this campaign, Napoleon, who was still thinking in terms of revolutionary times, hoped that the French would act according to the scenario worked out in Europe: the peoples of the East would rise up to meet the army bringing liberation from the oppression of the British. Meanwhile, he and his soldiers found themselves in the sphere of a different civilization, living by different values, by different rules.

Mamelukes. As for the brave Mamelukes, they bravely advanced to meet the uninvited guests. These dashing riders and skilled grunts boasted how they would chop foreigners into pieces, “like pumpkins.” On July 21, two armies met in the Valley of the Pyramids near Cairo. Murad Bey's army consisted of thousands of well-armed (carbine, two pairs of pistols, a saber, a stiletto, an ax tied to the pommel of the saddle) horsemen, desperately brave, excellent command of horse and weapon and accustomed to act at their own peril and risk, as in a single duel . In their rear there were hastily erected earthen fortifications, behind which the infantry, consisting of hastily armed fellahs, took refuge.

Battle in the Valley of the Pyramids. They were opposed by a well-coordinated military machine, where each soldier was part of a single whole. The attacking Mamelukes did not expect that the enemy would withstand their rapid and unstoppable onslaught. Tradition ascribes to General Bonaparte words that he allegedly said when addressing his soldiers before the start of the battle. We will leave their reliability to the conscience of Napoleonic historiographers, but it sounds expressively: “Soldiers, know that forty centuries are looking at you from the tops of these pyramids!” When the French moved towards the Mamelukes, they attacked their closed formation of bayonets in separate detachments. Moving forward, the French squares outflanked the Mamelukes, defeated them, and partially pushed them back to the Nile, where many of the Mamelukes drowned. The losses of the parties were as follows: about fifty French and about two thousand Mamelukes. Bonaparte's victory was complete. The Battle of the Valley of the Pyramids is a representative example of armed conflict between medieval warriors and the regular army of the late 18th century.

A day later, the French entered Cairo and settled there, marveling at the abundance of dirt and jewelry. Bonaparte took up the task of establishing governance of the country “in the European style,” still hoping to organize support and support for himself in the local environment.

Defeat at Aboukir. And then an event occurred that dramatically changed the whole situation. By the evening of August 1, 1798, Nelson's squadron, having wandered in vain in search of a rival along the coast of Turkey, returned to the mouth of the Nile and discovered the desired French fleet in the Gulf of Abukir. There were more French ships, so the English naval commander, famous for his bold and unexpected decisions, did this: he wedged some of the English ships between the shore and the line of French ships. Thus, the French found themselves literally “between two fires.” True, the British were fired upon not only from the sea, but also from the shore, but the British artillery fire was stronger. Admiral Bruy was killed by the cannonball, and after that the flagship Orient, on which he was located, flew into the air. By noon on August 2, the French fleet ceased to exist. Most of it was destroyed or captured. The crews of the two ships, seeing the hopelessness of their situation, chose to sink their ships themselves. Vice Admiral Villeneuve managed to take four ships away from enemy fire. The naval battle of Abukir (another name is the Battle of the Nile) nullified all the successes achieved by Bonaparte in military operations on land.

The Mameluke conqueror learned of the disaster that had befallen him only two weeks after the Battle of the Nile: even his organizational genius was unable to establish communications in this country, where time and speed did not matter. Bonaparte realized that he was cut off from communication with France, and this meant a delayed but inevitable death.

"Donkeys and scientists to the middle!" Nelson, having repaired his ships, left Egypt and went to Naples, leaving his rival deprived of naval means of transportation. Part of the French army, led by Dese, headed to the upper Nile, pursuing the remnants of Murad Bey's troops. Among the units of Deza there were also scientists who decided to take advantage of the opportunity to study the secrets of the East. When Mameluke detachments attacked the French troops, the command was heard: “Donkeys and scientists to the middle!” The soldiers placed these two expeditionary assets in the center of the square - inquisitive two-legged intellectuals and reliable long-eared porters - and entered into battle. In skirmishes with the Mamelukes, the French emerged victorious, but this did not change their hopeless situation.

A desperate decision. To escape the mousetrap, in February 1799 Bonaparte made a desperate decision to move to Syria “overland,” that is, through the desert. The French advanced inland, capturing fortresses and skirmishing with the elusive enemy. At the beginning of March, the stubbornly resisting fortress of Jaffa was taken, half of its garrison was killed during the assault, the other half was captured and also killed. The reason for such cruelty was that among those captured were people whom the French had released after capturing another fortress. The two-month siege of the coastal fortress of Acre (Saint-Jean d'Acre), the defense of which was led by European officers from the British and French royalists, ended in vain. Losses among privates and command staff. The plague epidemic became a terrible scourge for the French army.

Exhausted by battles, plague, lack of water and heat, the French army was forced to return to Egypt, where the Turks, who had landed near Abukir, were waiting for them. On July 25, 1799, another land battle took place near the same Abukir, during which Bonaparte managed to restore his military reputation. But this victory did not give anything to the winner - another Turkish army was approaching from Syria.

Bonaparte abandoned his plans to create a state in Egypt, organized in a European manner. The Egyptian campaign interested him largely in how much it could increase his popularity in France. It was the situation in France, where at the time of his departure to the East, the position of the Directory government was precarious and uncertain, that occupied him in the first place. Echoes of events taking place in Europe reached Bonaparte. Now, a year and a half after he left Paris, it was obvious that the Directory was finally “ripe” to fall.

It is difficult to guess the logic of Bonaparte’s thoughts, but his actions were as follows: discarding as unnecessary the sense of duty and responsibility for the troops entrusted to him, on August 22, 1799, Bonaparte fled from Egypt on one of the remaining ships, leaving his army to the mercy of fate. He left his deputy, General Kleber, with a written order transferring command to him. Moreover, the order was received by the deputy when Bonaparte was already at sea. For several more months, the brave Kleber continued the hopeless task until he was killed, and in the fall of 1801 the French army in Egypt was forced to surrender to the Anglo-Turkish troops.

Bonaparte's coup d'etat. Common sense suggests that a general who committed such an act should say goodbye to his career. The government was obliged to punish him severely, and the public was obliged to subject him to no less severe censure. Everything happened, however, exactly the opposite: the French welcomed the conqueror of the mysterious East with hope and jubilation, and the thieving Directory did not dare to reproach the hero for anything. A month after Bonaparte landed on French coast, he carried out a coup d'etat and became an absolute dictator, "citizen first consul."

The Egyptian campaign, which showed how great the distance is between a military victory and the consolidation of its results in society, left a glorious mark on the development of European science and culture. The works of the scientists accompanying Bonaparte's army became the only achievement of this grandiose adventure. The Egyptian campaign contributed to changing the world in the sense that it was upon returning from there that Napoleon Bonaparte turned the French Republic into Napoleonic France.

The fall of the monarchy in France was brutal and bloody. Instead of “liberty, equality, fraternity,” anarchy blossomed on the ruins of the Bastille. Crowns and heads rained down on the long-suffering French soil. The coups were followed by riots, the Vendee was drowning in the blood, torn apart by the flaring civil war prudent neighbors reached out to the country. Taking advantage of the rebellion in Lyon, the Piedmontese invaded from the east. Paoli in Corsica, acting together with the British, drove the French out of the island. Britain laid siege to Dunkirk, the Spaniards attacked Perpignan, the Austrians occupied Valenciennes and Condé, and the brave Prussians took Mainz... The country's economy was bursting at the seams, the printing press did not turn off, on the outskirts of Paris the National Guard was being torn apart by numerous gangs... Against this apocalyptic background, what happened rise of Napoleon Bonaparte.

Egyptian campaign

Against the backdrop of a series of brilliant victories and subsequent epic defeats, Napoleon's campaign may not seem so bright. But the Egyptian campaign (1798-1801) fits perfectly into the military-political concept of Napoleon and the general context of the Napoleonic wars.

What was Napoleon looking for in Egypt? To answer this question, you need to know what the situation was like in the newly emerged French Republic at the end of the 18th century. She managed to defend her independence and go on the offensive. The main enemy of the French were the British, who were difficult to reach on their island.

Therefore, it was decided to approach them by disrupting their trade and the security of the colonies. In addition, it was necessary to expand French colonial possessions, which were largely lost. Bonaparte also sought to strengthen his influence, while the Directory wanted to send away the overly popular general. That's why Napoleon's campaign in Egypt was organized. We will talk about it briefly in our article.

Preparation of the event

The preparation and organization of Napoleon's Egyptian campaign of 1798-1799 were carried out in the strictest secrecy. The enemy should not have received any information about the purpose for which the French were gathering a fleet at points such as Toulon, Genoa, Civitta-Vecchia, and where it would go.

The history of the Egyptian campaign of Napoleon Bonaparte brought to us the following figures:

• The total number of French troops was approximately 50 thousand people.
• The army included: infantry - 30 thousand, cavalry - 2.7 thousand, artillerymen - 1.6 thousand, conductors - 500.
• About 500 sailing ships were concentrated in the ports.
• The flagship Orient had 120 guns.
• 1,200 horses were taken, taking into account the replenishment of their number on the spot.

In addition, the army included a group of scientists - mathematicians, geographers, historians and writers.

Departure

The story of Napoleon in Egypt began with his sailing from Toulon in May 1798. Naturally, the English side found out about this, but they did not know where exactly such a significant French fleet was heading.

Two months after the squadron entered the Mediterranean, the French launched an amphibious landing in Ireland, which was a diversionary maneuver. At the same time, rumors were spread that the expedition led by Bonaparte would soon turn west through the Strait of Gibraltar.

Chase

The vice admiral, commander of the English fleet, entered the Strait of Gibraltar at the very beginning of May. He intended to control all French movements. However, the storm that broke out severely damaged the English ships, and when their repairs came to an end, there was no trace of the French.

Nelson had to organize a pursuit. By the end of May, he received information that a week earlier the French had captured Malta, and they went further east.

Nelson hurried to Egypt. Due to the fact that the British ships were faster than the French, the first arrived there earlier. The English vice admiral thought that the direction he had chosen was wrong, and set off from Alexandria towards Turkey. Thus, he missed Napoleon by only one day.

Landing at Abukir

The first point of Napoleon's campaign in Egypt was the city of Abukir. It is located a few kilometers east of Alexandria, where the French army began its landing on July 1. Hungry and tired soldiers marched towards Alexandria. By the night of the next day, the city was taken, after which the French proceeded south along the Nile, towards Cairo.

At that time, the population of Egypt was as follows:

• Dependent peasants are fellahins.
• Bedouin nomads.
• The predominant layer are Mameluke warriors.

Politically, Egypt was dependent on Turkey, but the Sultan did not practice interference in the internal affairs of this territory. But the French invasion was the impetus for him to organize an anti-French coalition.

Appeal to the fellahs

By organizing Napoleon's campaign in Egypt, the French believed that they could secure the support of the peasant population by promising them equality and freedom. Bonaparte addressed the fellahs with an appeal containing flowery phrases about human rights, equality and brotherhood. But these half-starved and illiterate people remained completely indifferent. Their main concern was to feed their families.

This situation became decisive in the entire further course of Bonaparte’s Egyptian campaign. When it was conceived by the French, they imagined that the peoples of the East would rise up to meet the army bringing liberation from British coercion, and would act according to a given scenario. However, in a different civilization, with different values, they had to plunge into a social vacuum.

Mamelukes

home component Egyptian society - the Mamelukes - boldly opposed the uninvited guests. Being skilled warriors and dashing riders, they boasted that they would chop them into pieces like pumpkins.

Not far from Cairo, in the Valley of the Pyramids, on July 21, a meeting of two armies took place. The Mameluke army, consisting of several thousand well-armed soldiers, was led by Murad Bey. They had carbines, pistols, sabers, knives and axes at their disposal. In their rear were quickly erected fortifications with infantry consisting of fellahs hiding behind them.

Battle for the Pyramids

At that moment, Napoleon's army was a well-coordinated war machine, in which each soldier was one with her. However, the Mamelukes were confident in their superiority and did not expect that the opposing side could withstand their rapid onslaught.

Before the battle, Bonaparte addressed his soldiers with a fiery speech, saying that as many as forty centuries of history were looking down at them from the tops of the pyramids.

In response to the French attack, the Mamelukes moved into a formation of closed bayonets in scattered groups. Making their way forward, the French outflanked the Mamelukes and defeated them, and pushed some of them back to the bank of the Nile. Many of the Mamelukes drowned in its waters.

Losses on both sides were unequal. About 50 French and about 2 thousand Mamelukes died in the battle. Napoleon won a complete victory. The battle for the pyramids in Bonaparte's Egyptian campaign was an example of the superiority of the regular army of the late 18th century over, in fact, a medieval army.

The next day the French were already in Cairo. Having settled there, they were amazed by the abundance of jewelry and unsanitary conditions. Bonaparte began to establish governance of Egypt in a European manner. He still hoped to find local support.

French defeat

Meanwhile, on August 1, the fleet of Vice Admiral Horatio Nelson, having not found an opponent off the Turkish coast, sailed to the mouth of the Nile. They spotted French ships in the Gulf of Abukir. There were much fewer of them than the English, and their leader made an extraordinary decision. He wedged some of his ships between the French on one side and the shore on the other. The recent victors of the Mamelukes found themselves “between two fires.”

But the British also fired from the shore, and their artillery fire was more powerful. The French flagship Orient was blown up, flying into the air. On August 2, the French fleet ceased to exist, the vast majority of it was either captured or destroyed. Two ships, due to the hopelessness of the situation, were sunk by their own. Only four ships were saved from enemy fire.

The defeat at Aboukir nullified all of Bonaparte's previous successes on land. He learned about this military disaster only two weeks later. As it turned out, his organizational talent did not help in this country, where speed and efficiency were not at the forefront. Napoleon realized that due to the loss of contact with France he was doomed to death.

Skirmishes with the Mamelukes

Vice Admiral Nelson, after repairing his ships, left Egypt for Naples. He left his rival without means of transportation along the sea route.

Part of the French army moved to the upper reaches of the Nile River, while pursuing the remnants of the Mamelukes led by Murad Bey. The group of pursuers included scientists who decided to seize the opportunity and begin researching the secrets of the East.

The extent to which scientists, as well as horse-drawn vehicles such as donkeys, were valued is shown by the following fact. At that moment, when the Mameluke detachments launched another attack, a team of scientists and donkeys followed to put them in the middle. Then the soldiers surrounded them to protect them, and only then did they engage in battle. Although the French most often won the skirmishes, this could not change their hopeless situation.

Desperate step

Looking for a way out of the mousetrap, Bonaparte decided in February 1799 to go to Syria through the desert. The French moved deeper into the country, engaging in battles with an elusive enemy along the way and capturing fortresses. At the beginning of March, Jaffa was conquered, which had previously stubbornly resisted.

Half of its garrison was killed during the assault, and the second half was captured or destroyed after it. Such cruelty was explained by the fact that among the prisoners there were people whom the French had previously released during the capture of another fortress.

Then came the siege of Acre, which lasted two months and ended in nothing. At the head of its defense were English officers and representatives of the French royalists. Meanwhile, losses among the command and rank and file of the French were increasing. One of the terrible episodes of Napoleon's campaign in Egypt was the plague epidemic.

Exhausted by this scourge, as well as by battles, heat, and water shortages, the French army was forced to return to Egypt. There the Turks were already waiting for them, who landed near Abukir. At the end of July 1799, another battle took place there, on land. Then Napoleon Bonaparte still managed to improve his reputation as a commander. However, by and large, this victory did not give him anything, since the Turkish army was already moving from Syria.

To the mercy of fate

Plans to create a European-style state were abandoned. Now Napoleon's campaign in Egypt interested him in to a greater extent how he can increase his popularity in France. That is, he was interested precisely in the situation at home. When Bonaparte departed for the East, the position of the Directory was very unstable and not fully defined. Judging by the echoes of events that reached him from Europe, her days were numbered.

Historians do not fully understand the logic of the commander-in-chief, who abandoned his sense of duty and the responsibility assigned to him for the army, who at the end of August 1799 abandoned him to the mercy of fate. Napoleon left Egypt on the surviving ship, leaving General Kléber, his deputy, with orders for the transfer of powers. Moreover, the order was received only when the escaped general was already at sea.

Consequences of Napoleon's Egyptian campaign

After the commander-in-chief fled, Kleber continued to fight for several months. In the fall of 1801, he was killed, and the French army located in Egypt surrendered to the mercy of the Anglo-Turkish troops.

Logically, the career of a general who compromised himself with such an unseemly act should inevitably end. There should have been severe punishment on the part of the government, and no less severe moral condemnation on the part of society.

However, everything happened quite the opposite. The French people greeted the fugitive commander with jubilation as a conqueror of the East. And the thieving Directory did not express the slightest reproach to him. A month after the fugitive landed in France, a coup was carried out, he turned into a dictator, becoming first consul.

However, the strategic goal of Napoleon's Egyptian expedition, which was mentioned above, was not achieved. The only achievement of this grandiose adventure was scientific works devoted to the culture of Egypt. This led to a surge of interest in this issue. As a result of the campaign in France, it was taken out a large number of historical monuments. In 1798 the Institute of Egypt was opened.

In addition, Napoleon's campaign in Egypt was an important milestone in relations between the European and Arab-Ottoman worlds in modern times. It was with him that the open colonial confrontation between European countries in the Middle East and North Africa began.