Events in the Novgorod land in the 12th-13th centuries. Great Novgorod principality

The history of the Novgorod land is, firstly, the history of one of largest cities Middle Ages, which demonstrated closeness to the European type of development, and, secondly, the history of a powerful state that stretched from the Baltic to Arctic Ocean and Ural.

The oldest core of the Novgorod land was an interethnic confederation of Slavic (Slovenes, Krivichi) and Finno-Ugric (Merya, Chud) tribes. Its political and economic center, the city of Novgorod, was located on both banks of the Volkhov, not far from the source of this river from Lake Ilmen. Volkhov divided the city into two sides: the eastern one - the Trade one and the western one - the Sofia one. By the end of the XIII century. the division of the city into five main administrative districts was finally determined - the ends of Slavensky (in the eastern part of the city), Nerevsky, Lyudin (on the Sofia side), Plotnitsky, Zagorodsky. The territory around Novgorod was divided into five provinces, later called Pyatin. To the northwest of Novgorod, between the rivers Volkhov and Luga, lay the Vodskaya Pyatina; northeast, on both sides Lake Onega to the White Sea - Obonezhskaya; to the south-west, on both sides of the Shelon River - Shelonskaya; to the southeast, between Msta and Lovat - Derevskaya; in the direction of the Volga - Bezhetskaya. Novgorod "colonies" lay to the north and east of the pyatins - Zavolochye on the Northern Dvina, Tre on Kola Peninsula, Pechora, Perm, Vyatka. Already in the XII century. all these lands paid tribute to Novgorod. To capture the colonies and exploit their wealth, the Novgorod boyars made extensive use of explorers-robbers - "ushkuiniki".

The suburbs of Novgorod were located in the pyatins: Ladoga, Staraya Russa, Torzhok, Izborsk, Koporye. The largest suburb was Pskov, which eventually separated into an independent republic and began to be called " younger brother Novgorod".

Agriculture has long been developed in the Novgorod land. However, few fertile soils significantly reduced the efficiency of grain production. Therefore, in the event of crop failures, Novgorod depended on neighboring Russian lands. At the same time, natural and climatic conditions favored the development of cattle breeding. Hunting, fishing, beekeeping became widespread. An important source of Novgorod's wealth was the plunder of colonial lands, from where furs, silver, wax and other items of trade came from.

The level of handicraft production in Novgorod was no lower than in the famous centers of Western Europe and the Middle East. Skillful blacksmiths, tanners, jewelers, gunsmiths, weavers, coopers and other specialists worked here. The vast majority of craft workshops were located in rich boyar estates, the owners of which exploited the work of artisans. A large boyar family had an exhaustive set of different industries. Contributing to boyar consolidation, such a system of organizing urban ownership at the same time strongly opposed the consolidation of artisans on professional basis. Participation of artisans different professions in a single economic organization the boyar clan became an insurmountable obstacle to their unification into guild organizations.

The foreign trade of Novgorod was largely subordinated to the needs of crafts: handicraft raw materials were imported - non-ferrous metals, gems, amber, boxwood, cloth, etc. For a long time salt was imported until its local deposits were discovered. The main objects of Novgorod export in Western Europe were furs, walrus tusks, wax, lard, flax, hemp.

Trade relations between Novgorod and Scandinavia go back to a very early time. Novgorod merchants visited Byzantium, the countries of the East, traded in remote Russian cities. In the XII century. Novgorodians had their own guest house in the city of Visby on the island of Gotland. In Novgorod itself there were two courts of foreign merchants: Goth (the inhabitants of the island of Gotland were called Goths) and German. From the second half of the XII century. the intensive trade of Novgorodians with the Baltic German cities begins, which was subsequently formed by the Hanseatic League. Emperor Frederick II gave Novgorod merchants the right to trade duty-free in Lübeck.

The large Novgorod merchants were organized into hundreds, which somewhat resembled Western European merchant guilds. The most influential and organized was the association of wax merchants (wax merchants) "Ivanovskoe Sto", which existed at the Church of John the Baptist on Opoki.

Large sections of the city were the hereditary property of large boyar families. The owners of neighboring city estates were descended from one common ancestor. It has been established that the city estates of the boyars themselves did not change their borders during the 10th-15th centuries. The emergence of the patrimonial system in the Novgorod land dates back only to the beginning of the 12th century, when the boyars began to actively acquire “villages”. Prior to this, boyar land ownership existed not in a privately owned, but in a corporate form. The fact is that the local aristocracy, who apparently originated from the tribal nobility, took Active participation in the collection and control of government revenues. This distinguished Novgorod from the southern Russian lands, where undivided princely control over state revenues (the polyudya system) dominated. Turning into a special corporation, the Novgorod boyars separated themselves from the princely retinue organization. It completely retained the collection of state revenues even during the patrimonial period, which consolidated the tops of Novgorod society and gave them the means and opportunities for effective fight with princely power.

The socio-political development of the Novgorod land initially had its own specifics. Princely power has always been secondary in relation to Novgorod. Already under Yaroslav the Wise, Novgorodians achieved significant political successes. The memory of the calling of Rurik and the established practice of concluding an agreement (“row”) with the prince ideologically prepared the triumph of the republican order in Novgorod. Around 1117, the Novgorodians became “free in the princes”, that is, they openly declared their right to expel the prince regardless of the will of Kiev, and in 1126 they themselves elected their own posadnik (before that, the posadnik was either sent from Kiev or appointed by the prince from squad composition).

An important milestone on the path to the complete independence of Novgorod from Kyiv was the events of 1132-1136. After the death of the great Kyiv prince Mstislav Vladimirovich, his son Vsevolod, who occupied the Novgorod throne, decided to leave Novgorod and take Pereyaslavl. When he, having not achieved success in the south, returned to Novgorod, the Novgorod veche expelled him. In 1136, the Novgorodians took Vsevolod and his entire family into custody. The prince was blamed for “not watching the stink”, he wanted to go to reign in Pereyaslavl, he was the first to flee the battlefield in the war with the Suzdal prince Yuri Dolgoruky.

It is traditionally considered that with the victory of the boyars over the princely power in 1136, the orders of the feudal boyar republic finally triumphed in Novgorod. From that time on, the boyars began to exert a decisive influence on the choice of the prince.

Initially, none of the princely families of Rus' managed to gain a foothold in Novgorod for a long time, but from the 30s. 13th century only representatives of the Suzdal branch reigned there. In total, during the XII-XIII centuries. the change of princely power in Novgorod took place about 60 times. The supreme power in Novgorod was in the hands of the city council. It was engaged in legislative activities, concluded and terminated agreements with the prince, elected all the highest officials, resolved issues of war and peace, established the duties of the population. The prince was an integral part of the republican administrative apparatus, but his functions were sharply limited. They boiled down mainly to protecting Novgorod from external danger. The prince was obliged to strictly comply with the conditions of the “row” with the Novgorodians, otherwise he could be “showed the way”. The judicial rights of the prince were limited, he could not subject the Novgorod husbands to repressions "without fault", he was forbidden to acquire land in the volosts, that is, on the outskirts of the Novgorod land. But the princely power often took on intermediary functions and reconciled the warring boyar groups.

From the environment and under the control of the boyars, the veche elected the posadnik, who eventually concentrated all executive power in his hands. He convened the veche and carried out its decisions, concluded agreements with the prince. In addition, the posadnik supervised the activities of all officials, together with the prince led military campaigns, performed judicial functions, and represented in foreign relations.

The next senior official of Novgorod was the thousand. Initially, he was appointed prince, but from the end of the XII century. also became elected. For a long time (until the second half of the 14th century), representatives of the non-Yarsk population were the thousands - lesser people, merchants. Tysyatsky controlled tax system, watched the order in the city, and in war time led the militia.

Bishop (later Archbishop) played an important role in the life of Novgorod. From the middle of the XII century. the spiritual pastor also began to be chosen by the Novgorodians themselves. Veche named three candidates. After that, on the other side of the Volkhov, in Sophia Cathedral, one of the three most authoritative ministers of the church was chosen by lot with the help of a child or a blind man. The hierarch chosen in this way was sent to the metropolitan in Kyiv for consecration. The first Novgorod lord who went through a similar procedure was Arkady. The election took place in 1156.

Novgorod lord was the keeper of the city treasury, was in charge state lands, participated in the leadership foreign policy, controlled the standard of measures and weights, had his own regiment. Any land transactions were considered invalid without his sanction. The Novgorod Chronicle was kept at the Bishop's court. The archbishop's position was for life, although it happened that the bishops went to the monastery or were expelled by the decision of the veche.

There were also other officials in Novgorod. At the head of the end were the "Konchansky", at the head of the streets - the "street" elders. They were chosen at the appropriate ("Konchan" and "Ulichan") meetings.

One of the essential issues in the history of Novgorod has always been to identify the degree of democracy in its political system. Many historians of the XIX-XX centuries. saw in the Novgorod Republic an example of “democracy” (N.M. Karamzin, I.Ya. Froyanov), the antithesis of the monarchy. It is widely believed that the entire male population of the city participated in the veche meeting of Novgorod - from boyars to simple artisans and merchants. However, the real power in the Novgorod Republic belonged to the feudal lords (boyars and lesser) and the richest merchants. There was a clear trend towards an oligarchic form of government (VL Yanin). Over time, the boyars also created a special body - the council of "gentlemen". The meetings of this unofficial government of Novgorod were held in the chambers of the lord on the Sofia side and under his chairmanship. The council prepared the agenda of veche meetings, developed measures to influence the veche, and supervised officials of the republic.

Veche Square of Novgorod, which was located near the Nikolsky Cathedral on the Trade side, did not exceed the size of the boyar estate. There was a tribune ("degree") for the leaders of the republic, as well as benches for the rest of the participants. According to V.L. Yanin, it could accommodate a maximum of 400-500 people, which corresponded to the number of wealthy boyar estates in Novgorod. It is clear that the places on the benches could be occupied primarily by wealthy homeowners. Apparently, the advantages of the republican system and its external democracy were based not on the large number of people in the city council, but on its publicity, as well as on the multi-stage system of the city council. If the city-wide veche was, in fact, an artificial body, the result of the creation of an inter-Konchan confederation, then the lower levels of the veche (“Konchan” and “Ulichan”) genetically descended from the most ancient popular assemblies. But they were also the most important means of organizing the internal political struggle of the boyars for power. It was easier to kindle and direct the political emotions of everyone in the right direction. social groups end or street.

IN normal conditions the boyars had no need to convene a veche and appeal to the will of the lower classes. Therefore, the city council was not a daily governing body. Chronicle memories of him are separated by years. Veche assumed full power only in emergency cases: in case of rejection of an unwanted prince, enemy invasion, etc.

The state of emergency in Novgorod was usually accompanied by the arrest of the prince, the posadnik or other representatives of the republican administration, and the robbery of the property of persons outlawed. But the elements of the veche system formed a peculiar mentality of the Novgorodians. If in Southwestern Rus' the boyars executed princes, then in Novgorod they were not killed, but the veche did not stand on ceremony with elected officials and dealt with all cruelty.

For inner life Novgorod was characterized by social tension, which often resulted in urban uprisings (1136, 1207, 1228-1229, etc.). Although the urban rank and file took an active part in movements of this kind, it would be an exaggeration to consider these uprisings a manifestation of the class struggle. In each specific case, some groups of Novgorodians, led by their boyars, fought against other groups with their boyars. It was a struggle of interests, a struggle between "Ulichanskaya" and "Konchanskaya". But the street crowd, "black people" played a decisive role in robberies and pogroms, the victims of which were representatives of any boyar clan.

It can be assumed that the self-assertion of the Novgorod boyars as a member of corporate power, in contrast to the boyars of the southern principalities, led not to centrifugal, but to centripetal consequences in the political and economic fields. Having achieved the limitation of the princely power, the boyars of Novgorod did not give the princes the opportunity to pull the Novgorod land apart.

During greatest development reached north to the White Sea, and in the east spread beyond the Ural Mountains. It covered almost the entire modern north-west of Russia.

Administrative division

Administratively, by the end of the Middle Ages, it was divided into pyatins, which, in turn, were divided into halves (pyatins) from the second half of the 16th century. The spotty division was superimposed on the earlier one - on volosts, counties (awardings), graveyards and camps, and, according to the annals, the basis of this administrative division founded in the 10th century by Princess Olga, who established graveyards and lessons in the Novgorod land. In The Tale of Bygone Years, a definition is given as "a great and plentiful land."

After the entry of Novgorod land into the Russian state territorial division was preserved, and the territories from the end of the 15th century were called pyatins, before Novgorod land was divided into lands, and in the 12th century into rows - bearing the same name with pyatins - Votskaya land, Obonezhsky and Bezhetsky row, Shelon, Dereva. In each pyatina there were several courts (counties), in each court (county) - several graveyards and volosts.

Settlement

The settlement of the territory of the Novgorod land began in the region of the Valdai Upland since the Paleolithic and Mesolithic, along the border of the Valdai (Ostashkovsky) glaciation, and in the north-west of the Ilmenye, in the area of ​​​​the future territorial center - since the Neolithic.

It is traditionally believed that the Krivichi tribes came here in the 6th century, and in the 8th century, in the process of the Slavic settlement of the East European Plain, the Ilmen Slovene tribe came. Finno-Ugric tribes lived on the same territory, leaving a memory of themselves in the names of numerous rivers and lakes. The interpretation of pre-Slavic toponymy as exclusively Finno-Ugric is questioned by many researchers.

The time of the Slavic settlement is dated, as a rule, according to the type of mound groups and individual mounds located in this territory. Pskov long mounds are traditionally associated with the Krivichi, and mounds in the form of a hill with Slovenes. There is also the so-called Kurgan hypothesis, based on which various assumptions are possible about the ways of settling this territory.

Archaeological research in Staraya Ladoga and the Rurik Settlement show the presence among the inhabitants of these first large settlements, including Scandinavians, traditionally called Varangians in ancient Russian (medieval) literary sources.

Demography

Story

Ancient period (before 882)

Novgorod land was one of the centers of formation of the Old Russian state. It was in the Novgorod land that the Rurik dynasty began to reign, and arose public education, which received the name in historiography Novgorod Rus, Upper Rus, Volkhov Rus, from which it is customary to begin the history of Russian statehood [ ] .

As part of Kievan Rus (-)

At the end of the 9th - beginning of the 10th century (according to the annalistic dating in 882), the center of the Rurikovich state moved from Novgorod to Kyiv. In the 10th century, Ladoga was attacked by the Norwegian Jarl Eric. In 980, Prince Vladimir Svyatoslavich (the Baptist) of Novgorod, at the head of the Varangian squad, overthrew the Kyiv prince Yaropolk. In the 990s, Novgorod refused to accept Christianity, and stood up for his faith with the supreme sorcerer over the Slavs Bogumil Nightingale and Ugoniy tysyatsky. Novgorod was forcibly baptized with inhuman cruelty “by fire and sword”: many Novgorodians were killed, and the whole city burned down. In -1019, the Novgorod prince Yaroslav Vladimirovich the Wise overthrew the Kyiv prince Svyatopolk the Accursed.

The greatest threat to Novgorodian independence was posed by the princes of Vladimir (who achieved increased personal power in their principality after the defeat of the old Rostov-Suzdal boyars in 1174-1175), since they had in their hands an effective lever of influence on Novgorod. They captured Torzhok several times and blocked the supply of food from their "grassroots" lands.

The Novgorodians also undertook campaigns in North-Eastern Rus', in particular, even under the leadership of Vsevolod Mstislavich, on January 26, 1135, they fought at the Zhdana Mountain, and in 1149, together with Svyatopolk Mstislavich, they devastated the environs of Yaroslavl and left due to spring floods, also as part of the struggle against Yuri Dolgoruky.

In 1392, the Peace of Niebuhr was officially signed in Novgorod by a delegation of Vendian cities.

In 1610, Tsar Vasily Shuisky was overthrown and Moscow swore allegiance to Prince Vladislav. A new government was formed in Moscow, which began to take the oath to the prince and other cities of the Russian state. I. M. Saltykov was sent to Novgorod to take the oath and to protect himself from the Swedes who appeared at that time in the north and from gangs of thieves. Novgorodians and, probably, at their head and Odoevsky, who was constantly on good terms with the Novgorod metropolitan Isidore, who had big influence against the Novgorodians, yes, apparently, he himself enjoyed respect and love among the Novgorodians, they agreed to let Saltykov in and swear allegiance to the prince no sooner than they receive from Moscow a list with an approved cross-kissing letter; but even after receiving the letter, they swore allegiance only after they took a promise from Saltykov that he would not bring the Poles with him into the city.

Soon a strong movement against the Poles arose in Moscow and throughout Russia; at the head of the militia, which set it as its task to expel the Poles from Russia, was Prokopiy Lyapunov, who, together with some other persons, constituted the provisional government, which, having taken control of the country, began to send out the governor to the cities.

May 25, 1613 begins an uprising against the Swedish garrison in Tikhvin. The rebellious townspeople recaptured the fortifications of the Tikhvin Monastery from the Swedes and withstood the siege in them until mid-September, forcing Delagardie's detachments to retreat. With the successful Tikhvin uprising, the struggle for the liberation of North-Western Rus' and Novgorod began, culminating in the signing of the Stolbovsky peace treaty in 1617.

By the middle of the 12th century, 15 small and large principalities were formed in Kievan Rus. By the beginning of the 13th century, their number increased to 50. The collapse of the state had not only a negative (weakening before the invasion of the Tatar-Mongols), but also a positive result.

Rus' in the period of feudal fragmentation

In some principalities and estates, the rapid growth of cities began, trade relations with the Baltic states and the Germans began to form and develop. Changes in local culture were also noticeable: chronicles were created, new buildings were erected, and so on.

Large regions of the country

The state had several large principalities. Such, in particular, can be considered Chernihiv, Kiev, Seversk. However, the largest were considered three in the southwest, Novgorod and Vladimir-Suzdal principalities in the northeast. These were the main political centers of the state of that time. It should be noted that they all had distinctive features. Next, let's talk about what were the features of the Novgorod principality.

General information

The origins from which the development of the Novgorod principality began are still not entirely clear. The oldest mention of the main city of the region dates back to 859. However, it is assumed that at that time the chroniclers did not use weather records (they appeared by the 10-11th century), but collected those legends that were most popular among the people. After Rus' adopted the Byzantine tradition of compiling legends, the authors had to compose stories, independently estimating dates, before the start of weather records. Of course, such dating is far from accurate, so it should not be completely trusted.

Principality "Novgorod land"

What this region was like in means "new" was called fortified settlements surrounded by walls. Archaeologists found three settlements located on the territory occupied by the Novgorod principality. Geographical position these areas is indicated in one of the annals. According to information, the region was located on the left bank of the Volkhov (where the Kremlin is now located).

Over time, the settlements merged into one. The inhabitants built a common fortress. She received the name of Novgorod. Researcher Nosov developed the already existing point of view that Gorodische was the historical predecessor of the new city. It was located somewhat higher, not far from the sources of the Volkhov. Judging by the chronicles, Gorodishe was a fortified settlement. The princes of the Novgorod principality and their governors stayed in it. Local historians even expressed a rather bold assumption that Rurik himself lived in the residence. Considering all this, it can be fully argued that the Novgorod principality originated from this settlement. The geographical location of the Settlement can be considered an additional argument. It stood on the Baltic-Volga route and was considered at that time a fairly large trade, craft and military administrative center.

Characteristics of the Novgorod principality

In the first centuries of its existence, the settlement was small (by modern standards). Novgorod was completely wooden. It was located on two sides of the river, which was a rather unique phenomenon, since usually the settlements were located on a hill and on one bank. The first inhabitants built their houses near the water, but not close to it, because of the rather frequent floods. The streets of the city were built perpendicular to the Volkhov. A little later, they were connected by "breakthrough" lanes that ran parallel to the river. The walls of the Kremlin rose from the left bank. At that time it was much smaller than the one that stands in Novgorod now. On the other side in the Slovenian village there were estates and a princely court.

Russian chronicles

The principality of Novgorod is mentioned in the records quite a bit. However, this little information is of particular value. In the chronicle, dated 882, it is told about from Novgorod. As a result, two large East Slavic tribes united: the Polyans and the Ilmen Slavs. It was from that time that the history of the Old Russian state began. Records from 912 indicate that the principality of Novgorod paid the Scandinavians 300 hryvnias a year for maintaining peace.

Recordings of other peoples

The principality of Novgorod is also mentioned in Byzantine chronicles. So, for example, Emperor Constantine VII wrote about the Russians in the 10th century. The Novgorod principality also appears in the Scandinavian sagas. The earliest legends appeared from the time of the reign of the sons of Svyatoslav. After his death, a struggle for power broke out between his two sons Oleg and Yaropolk. In 977, a battle took place. As a result, Yaropolk defeated Oleg's troops and became the Grand Duke, having planted his posadniks in Novgorod. There was also a third brother. But fearing to be killed, Vladimir fled to Scandinavia. However, his absence was relatively short. In 980, he returned to the Novgorod principality with hired Vikings. Then he defeated the posadniks and moved to Kyiv. There, Vladimir overthrew Yaropolk from the throne and became the prince of Kyiv.

Religion

The characterization of the Novgorod Principality will be incomplete if we do not talk about the significance of faith in the life of the people. In 989 a baptism took place. First it was in Kyiv, and then in Novgorod. Power has been strengthened by Christian religion and her unity. The church organization was built on a hierarchical basis. It has become a powerful tool for the formation of Russian statehood. In the year of baptism, Joachim the Korsunian (a Byzantine priest) was sent to Novgorod. But, I must say that Christianity did not immediately take root. Many residents were in no hurry to part with the faith of their ancestors. According to archaeological excavations, many pagan rites survived until the 11th-13th centuries. And, for example, Maslenitsa is celebrated today. Although this holiday is given a somewhat Christian coloring.

Yaroslav's activities

After Vladimir became prince of Kyiv, he sent his son Vysheslav to Novgorod, and after his death - Yaroslav. The name of the latter is associated with an attempt to get rid of the influence of Kyiv. So, in 1014 Yaroslav refused to pay tribute. Vladimir, having learned about this, began to gather a squad, but in the course of preparation he suddenly died. Svyatopolk the Accursed ascended the throne. He killed his brothers: Svyatoslav Drevlyansky and later canonized as saints Gleb and Boris. Yaroslav was in a rather difficult position. On the one hand, he was absolutely not opposed to seizing power in Kyiv. But on the other hand, his squad was not strong enough. Then he decided to address the people of Novgorod with a speech. Yaroslav called on the people to seize Kyiv, thus returning back to himself everything that was taken in the form of tribute. The inhabitants agreed, and after some time in the battle near Lyubech, Svyatopolk was defeated on his head and fled to Poland.

Further developments

In 1018, together with the retinue of Boleslav (his father-in-law and the King of Poland), Svyatopolk returned to Rus'. In the battle, they thoroughly defeated Yaroslav (he fled with four combatants from the field). He wanted to go to Novgorod and then planned to move to Scandinavia. But the residents did not let him do it. They cut down all the boats, collected money and a new army, enabling the prince to continue to fight. At this time, confident that he was sitting firmly enough on the throne, Svyatopolk quarreled with the Polish king. Deprived of support, he lost the battle on Alta. Yaroslav, after the battle, let the Novgorodians go home, giving them special letters - "Pravda" and "Charter". According to them they had to live. During the following decades, the principality of Novgorod also depended on Kyiv. First, Yaroslav sent his son Ilya as governor. Then he sent Vladimir, who in 1044 founded the fortress. The following year, at his behest, construction began on a new stone cathedral instead of the wooden St. Sophia Cathedral (which burned down). Since that time, this temple has symbolized Novgorodian spirituality.

Political system

It developed gradually. There are two periods in history. In the first there was a feudal republic, where the prince ruled. And in the second - the management belonged to the oligarchy. During the first period, all the main organs of state power existed in the Novgorod principality. The Boyar Council and the Veche were considered the highest institutions. executive power were endowed with thousand and princely courts, posadniks, elders, volostels and governors of volosts. Veche was of particular importance. It was considered the supreme power and possessed here greater strength than in other principalities. The veche resolved issues of a domestic and foreign policy nature, expelled or elected a ruler, townsman and other officials. It was also the highest court. Another body was the Council of Boyars. The entire city government system was concentrated in this body. The Council was attended by eminent boyars, elders, thousands, posadniks, the archbishop and the prince. The power of the ruler himself was significantly limited in functions and volume, but at the same time, of course, it occupied a leading place in the governing bodies. At first, the candidacy of the future prince was discussed at the Council of Boyars. After that, he was invited to sign a treaty letter. It regulated the legal and state status and duties of the authorities in relation to the ruler. The prince lived with his court on the outskirts of Novgorod. The ruler had no right to legislate, to declare war or peace. Together with the mayor, the prince commanded the army. The existing restrictions did not allow the rulers to gain a foothold in the city and put them in a controlled position.

Reasons for strengthening Novgorod. Novgorod land was located between the lakes Ilmen and Chudskoye, along the banks of the river. Volkhov, Lovat. Cities: Pskov, Ladoga, Rusa (now Staraya Russa), Torzhok, Velikie Luki, etc. As a result of colonization, Finno-Ugric tribes - Karelians, Zavolochskaya Chud - entered the Novgorod land. According to academician V. Yanin, Novgorod arose as an association-federation of three tribal settlements: Slavic and two Finno-Ugric - Meryansky and Chudsky. Novgorod was one of the largest and richest cities in Europe. Already in 1044, stone fortifications were built here. The city had a high level of improvement: wooden pavements appeared here earlier than in Paris, the drainage system diverted groundwater. Novgorod was located on the trade routes connecting the Baltic Sea with the Black and Caspian. The city traded with Scandinavia and North German cities, which concluded in the XIV century. trade union Gá nza. Archaeologists have found the remains of a German trading yard in Novgorod. Novgorod's exports were furs, honey, wax, salt, leather, fish, and walrus ivory. The weak point of Novgorod: unfavorable conditions for agriculture, the need to import bread. The main enemy of Novgorod - the Vladimir-Suzdal principality - often cut off its supply of bread.

Features of the Novgorod Republic . There was no monarchical princely system of power in Novgorod. Here established boyar feudal republic. The Novgorod boyars, unlike the Vladimir-Suzdal ones, were by origin not princely combatants, but descendants of the local tribal nobility. They constituted a closed group of genera. In Novgorod, one could not become a boyar, one could only be born one. Here, boyar land ownership was formed early. Princes were sent here as governors. In addition to Novgorod, in 1348-1510. the Pskov Republic existed.

Control system. Novgorod was the first to separate from Kyiv. During the uprising 1136 the prince was expelled Vsevolod Mstislavich for the "neglect" of urban interests. Novgorod was considered a "stronghold of liberty". The highest authority was veche – meeting of the male population of the city, body of state administration and self-government. The first mention in the annals of the veche dates back to 997. The veche consisted of 300–500 people, resolved issues of war and peace, called and expelled princes, adopted laws, and concluded agreements with other lands. It gathered at the Yaroslav's Court, a square paved with cow's jaws, or at Sofiyskaya Square. The veche was public - they voted with a shout, sometimes a decision was made through a fight: the side that overpowered was recognized by the majority.

Elected at the meeting mayor, thousand, bishop.

- Posadnik exercised control over the city, diplomatic negotiations, ruled the court, controlled the activities of the prince.

-Thousand- the head of the people's militia, he also ruled the court on commercial matters, resolved financial issues. He obeyed Withó tsky who collected taxes.

-Bishop(since 1165 - archbishop), "Vladyka", was elected for life at a veche and then approved by the metropolitan. He headed the church and the church court, disposed of the treasury and the "sovereign" regiment, sealed international agreements with his personal seal.

- Prince of Novgorod- military commander, head of the squad, performed military and police functions, in peacetime maintained order in the city. For Novgorod, since the time of the “calling of the Varangians”, the invitation of the prince was characteristic (remember Rurik). He concluded with the prince " row”(agreement), which forbade the prince to interfere in the affairs of city government, change officials, attend a veche, acquire land and real estate, and settle in the city. The prince and his retinue lived in a country residence - on Rurik's Settlement, three kilometers from Novgorod. The veche had the right to expel the prince if he violated the “row” with the words: “prince, you are for yourself, and we are for ourselves.” The expulsion of princes (as well as posadniks) was common. For the XII-XIII centuries. princes in Novgorod changed 68 times. The fate of the exile did not escape the famous Alexander Nevskiy. In 1097-1117 Prince of Novgorod Mstislav the Great, son of Vladimir Monomakh. When in 1102 the Prince of Kiev Svyatopolk Izyaslavich wanted to replace him with his son, the Novgorodians replied: “We don’t want either Svyatopolk or his son ... If your son has two heads, then send him to us!”

The territory of the republic was divided into regions - pyatiny. City of Novgorod Volkhov divided into two sides: Sofia (Kremlin) and Trade, as well as ends(districts) and streets With Konchan And street veche. The ordinary population participated in the Konchan and Ulichan veche, electing the elders of the ends and streets.

The veche system of Novgorod did not provide genuine democracy. In fact, the Novgorodian ruled the republic gentlemen(power elite) in the face of the boyars and wealthy merchants. The positions of posadniks and thousandths were occupied only by wealthy boyars (“ council of gentlemen", or " 300 gold belts"). Novgorod can be considered aristocratic, oligarchic republic. Therefore, uprisings of the common people often broke out here (1136, 1207, 1229, etc.).

Galicia-Volyn land.

The Galicia-Volyn principality is the southwestern outskirts of Rus'. Favorable climate, fertile soils, trade routes to Poland and Hungary contributed to its strengthening. Initially, Galicia and Volhynia were separate principalities. After the death of Yaroslav the Wise in Volhynia, his grandson began to rule Davyd Igorevich, and in Galicia - great-grandchildren Vasilko And Volodar. But the princely congress expelled Davyd for blinding Vasilko Terebovlsky after the Lubech congress. In Volhynia, the dynasty of Monomashichs, the descendants of Vladimir Monomakh, strengthened. The Galician principality reached power under the grandson of Volodar Yaroslav Osmomysl(1119–1187; 1153–1157 gg.), married to the daughter of Yuri Dolgoruky Olga.

In 1199, the Galician and Volyn principalities united Roman Mstislavovich Volynsky(1150–1205; 1199 – 1205 gg.). Roman sought to subdue the rebellious Galician boyars. He said about the boyars: “If you don’t kill the bees, you don’t eat honey.” In 1203, Roman occupied Kyiv and assumed the title of Grand Duke. The Pope offered Roman the royal crown, but he rejected it. In 1205, Roman died in Poland in a battle with the prince of Krakow Leshkom Bely. The strife began.

Four-year-old son of Roman - Daniel (Danilo) Romanovich(1201 or 1204–1264; 1238 – 1264 gg.) was expelled from Galich with his mother, but, having matured, by 1238 Vladimir Volynsky, Galich managed to regain himself, annexed the Kievan and Turov-Pinsk principalities, founded the city of Lvov and Kholm. In 1240, Daniel's possessions were ravaged by Batu. In 1254 he received the title of king from the Pope.

Thus, fragmentation, on the one hand, was a progressive phenomenon for economic development, but, on the other hand, undermined the defense capability of Russia and led to the Mongol yoke.

The principality of Novgorod is one of the three largest principalities, along with Galicia-Volyn and Vladimir-Suzdal, that existed at the time Ancient Rus'. His mention in the annals is almost minimal, but his participation in history is incommensurable.

The capital of the principality is Veliky Novgorod, famous for its artisans and merchants. Being one of major centers education and the largest trading center in Europe, for many centuries it retained the status of a stronghold of the northern and southern borders.

The main cities of the Novgorod principality: Vologda, Torzhok, Staraya Ladoga, Polotsk, Beloozero, Rostov, Izborsk.

Geographical position

The natural and geographical conditions of the Novgorod Principality were determined by its territorial location. Stretching for many kilometers, it occupied vast expanses of the northern part European Russia. The main part of the land was located between Ilmenskoye and Chudskoye lakes.

Most of it was covered by dense taiga forests, but along with them - endless tundra. The territory where the principality was located was full of an abundance of forests, lakes and swamps, which, coupled with harsh climatic conditions made the soil poor and infertile. However, this was offset by large reserves of timber and building stone, and the marsh soil was a real storehouse of iron ores and salts.

The Novgorod principality had access to many major river routes and seas, and lay nearby. All this provided excellent ground for the development of trade.

The political structure of the principality

The Novgorod principality differed from and in its unique political system. The republican form of government originated in the principality at the very beginning of the 12th century and persisted for several centuries, which made it one of the most developed principalities. The absence of a ruling princely dynasty made it possible to maintain unity and avoid fragmentation. This historical period is called Republican.

But democracy in the Novgorod principality was elitist. Power was concentrated in the hands of several influential boyar families.

An important role in the public role of Veliky Novgorod was played by the people's assembly - the veche, which was formed after the expulsion of Prince Vsevolod. It had very broad powers: it declared war, concluded peace, and resolved completely different issues.