Bronze sword. How is a bronze sword better than an iron one from the “that’s interesting” series. Defensive weapons: shield, helmet and armor

And it so happened that in the process of exchanging opinions on materials published in VO, it became clear that a fairly significant part of the users of this site were interested in ... the Bronze Age and, in particular, the weapons and armor of the legendary Trojan War. Well, the topic is really very interesting. Moreover, it is familiar to almost everyone, even at the level of a school textbook for the fifth grade. “Copper-sharp spears”, “helmet-shining Hector”, “famous shield of Achilles” - all this is from there. And besides, this in itself historical event unique. After all, people learned about him from a poem, a work of art. But it turned out that after learning about it and showing appropriate interest, they acquired knowledge about a culture previously unknown to them.

Black-figure ceramic vessel from Corinth depicting characters from the Trojan War. (About 590 - 570 BC). (Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York)

Well, you will need to start from the very beginning. Namely, that the myth of Troy, besieged by the Greeks, was not confirmed by convincing facts until the end of the 19th century. But then, fortunately for all mankind, the romantic childhood dream of Heinrich Schliemann received powerful financial support (Schliemann became rich!) and he immediately went to Asia Minor in search of the legendary Troy. After 355 AD this name was not mentioned anywhere, Schliemann decided that the description Herodotus had was identical to the Hissarlik hill and began to dig there. And he dug there from 1871 for more than 20 years, until his death. At the same time, he was no archaeologist! He removed finds from the excavation site without describing them, threw away everything that did not seem valuable to him and dug, dug, dug... Until he found “his” Troy!

Many scientists of that time doubted that this was really Troy, but British Prime Minister William Gladstone began to patronize him, he got professional archaeologist Wilhelm Dornfeld into his team and gradually the secret ancient city began to open! Their most amazing discovery was that they discovered as many as nine cultural layers, that is, each time a new Troy was built on the ruins of the previous one. The oldest, of course, was Troy I, and the “youngest” was Troy IX of Roman times. Today, even more such layers (and sublayers) have been found - 46, so it turned out to be not at all easy to study Troy!

Schliemann believed that the Troy he needed was Troy II, but in fact the real Troy is number VII. It has been proven that the city died in a fire, and the remains of people found in this layer eloquently indicate that they died a violent death. The year when this happened is considered to be 1250 BC.

It is interesting that during the excavations of Troy, Heinrich Schliemann discovered a treasure of gold jewelry, silver cups, bronze weapons, and he took all this for the “treasure of King Priam.” Later it turned out that the “Priam’s treasure” belongs to an earlier era, but that’s not the point, it’s that Schliemann simply appropriated it. His wife Sofia, a like-minded person and assistant, who secretly removed all these things from the excavations, helped him to do this unnoticed. But officially this treasure should have belonged to Turkey, but it did not get it except for a few small things. They placed him in the Berlin Museum, but during the Second World War he disappeared, and until 1991 no one knew where he was or what happened to him. But in 1991 it became known that since 1945 the treasure, taken as a trophy, has been in Moscow at the Pushkin Museum. A.S. Pushkin and today it can be seen in hall number 3.

However, even without finds from this treasure, we know a lot about that time today. The fact is that professional archaeologists took Schliemann’s discovery as a challenge, but took into account his experience and began to dig in all the places mentioned in Homer’s Iliad - in Mycenae, Pylos, and Crete. They found the “golden mask of Agamemnon,” a lot of other items from that era, and just a very large number of swords and daggers.

Moreover, the good thing is that they were bronze, not iron, and therefore well preserved! So, this is what learned historians from different countries of the world, including the “master of swords” Evart Oakeshott, think about the swords and daggers of the era of the Trojan War, in, so to speak, a concentrated form...

In their opinion, the early swords of the Aegean Bronze Age are among the most striking artifacts of the era in terms of craftsmanship and luxury. Moreover, these could be ritual items, and weapons actually used in the war. Early swords developed from daggers. The shape is derived from stone daggers. The stone, however, is very brittle, and hence cannot be made into a long sword. With the introduction of copper and bronze, daggers eventually evolved into swords.

The earliest swords from the Aegean period were found in Anatolia, Turkey, and date back to approximately 3300 BC. e. The evolution of bladed weapons from bronze is as follows: from the dagger or knife in the Early Bronze Age, to swords (“rapiers”) optimized for thrusting (Middle Bronze Age), and then to the typical swords with leaf-shaped blades of the Late Bronze Age.

One of the earliest swords of the Aegean world is the sword from Naxos (circa 2800-2300 BC). The length of this sword is 35.6 cm, that is, it looks more like a dagger. A copper sword was discovered in the Cyclades at Amorgos. The length of this sword is already 59 cm. Several Minoan bronze short swords were discovered in Heraklion and Siwa. Their general design clearly shows that they are also descended from early leaf-shaped daggers.

But one of the most interesting inventions of the Aegean Bronze Age was the great sword. These weapons, which appeared in the middle of the second millennium BC on the island of Crete and on the territory of mainland Greece, differ from all earlier examples.

Analysis of some specimens shows that the material is an alloy of copper and tin, or arsenic. When the percentage of copper or tin is high, the blades can be distinguished even by their appearance, as they have a reddish or silver color respectively. Whether this was done intentionally to imitate high-value metals such as gold and silver to give these swords or daggers a beautiful appearance, or whether it was simply the result of miscalculation of the right amount of additives in the alloy is unknown. To typologize bronze swords found in Greece, the Sandars classification is used, according to which swords are located in eight main groups, under the letters A to H, plus numerous subtypes, which are not given in this case due to their abundance.

The connection between Minoan triangular small swords or daggers and long swords can be traced, for example, in an example found in Malia on Crete (circa 1700 BC). It has distinctive blade rivet holes at the tail and a distinct rib. That is, this sword, like early daggers, did not have a hilt. The handle was wooden and fastened with rivets with massive caps. It is clear that it was impossible to chop with such a sword, but to stab - as much as you wanted! The finish of its handle, which was covered with a gold engraved sheet, was surprisingly luxurious, and a wonderful piece of rock crystal was used as a pommel.

Long rapier swords have been found in the palace of Crete in Mallia, in Mycenaean tombs, in the Cyclades, in the Ionian Islands and in Central Europe. Moreover, both in Bulgaria and Denmark, Sweden and England. These swords sometimes reach a meter in length. All have a riveted handle and a high diamond-shaped rib, except when it has complex decoration.

The hilts of these swords were made of wood or ivory and were sometimes decorated with gold plates. The swords date from 1600-1500. BC, and the most recent examples to the period around 1400 BC. The length ranges from 74 to 111 cm. They also find a scabbard, or rather their remains. Based on these finds, we can conclude that they were made of wood and often wore gold jewelry. Moreover, the preservation of metal and even wooden (!) parts, which made it possible to carry out radiocarbon analysis of these products, makes it possible to completely reconstruct swords and daggers of this period, which was done, in particular, on the instructions of the archaeological museum in Mycenae.

Swords were worn on richly decorated baldrics, the decor of which has also survived to our time. Well, confirmation that piercing blows were inflicted with such swords are the images of warriors who fight with them on rings and seals. At the same time, modern dating shows that a number of such swords were made during the 200 years of Homer's Trojan War!

In this regard, many historians note that such long piercing swords were in service with the “peoples of the sea” and, in particular, the famous Shardans, known in Egypt from images on the walls of the temple in Medinet Habu in 1180 BC.

It is worth once again drawing attention to the fact that the existing opinion that these swords are suitable for anything other than their immediate purpose is incorrect. Replicas of these swords were tested, and they demonstrated their high effectiveness as a piercing weapon, designed to make deadly attacks in the fight of real fencers!

That is, today the finds of bronze swords and daggers in the Aegean Sea region are so voluminous that they have made it possible to develop their typology and also draw a number of interesting conclusions. It is clear that all of them simply cannot be attributed directly to the Trojan War. This is nonsense! But we can talk about the “Homeric time”, the Cretan-Mycenaean civilization, the “Aegean region”, etc.

Moreover, the distribution similar weapons in European countries tells us that perhaps trade relations at that time were much more developed than is commonly believed, so it is quite possible to speak of “European internationalization” and “integration” in the Bronze Age. Specifically, this can be expressed in the fact that there was a certain people of seafarers - the same “peoples of the sea”, who sailed around the whole of Europe and spread Mycenaean and Cretan weapons, and, in particular, swords throughout Europe.

Somewhere they found use, but where the war tactics were different, these weapons were purchased as “overseas curiosities” and sacrificed to the gods. In addition, we can draw a conclusion about tactics: there was a people whose warriors were a caste, and a rather closed one at that. The warriors of this people learned to use their long piercing swords from childhood. But it was impossible to just pick up this sword and cut with it from the shoulder. But then this caste died out.

“Soldiers” were needed for the “mass army,” whom there was neither time nor energy to train, and piercing swords very quickly replaced cutting ones. After all, the chopping blow is intuitive and much easier to master than the thrust. Especially with a sword of such a complex design.

The first sword belongs to the group of swords with a leaf-shaped blade and a three-sided tang with “shoulders”. "Efes" was riveted to a similar sword separately. It is missing from this sword. The blade of the sword is leaf-shaped, double-edged, bronze, with a clearly defined tip and a medial stiffening rib. The total length of the weapon is 474 mm, weight 347 grams, blade length 368 mm, maximum blade width 43 mm, blade thickness (max.) 6.83 mm.

The second sword belongs to the same group of swords from the Bronze Age: with a leaf-shaped blade and a three-sided shank with holes for rivets. The blade of the sword is leaf-shaped, double-edged, bronze with a clearly defined tip and a central longitudinal rib. The blade is broken in the narrowest place - at the "shoulders". The total length of the weapon is 503 mm, weight 411 grams, maximum blade width 42 mm, shoulder width 65 mm, blade thickness (max.) 6.96 mm.

The third bronze sword was produced at the same time as the first two and is of the same type. The blade of the sword is leaf-shaped, double-edged, bronze with a clearly defined tip and an implicit central longitudinal rib. The total length of the weapon is 479 mm, weight 352 grams, blade length 388 mm, maximum blade width 39 mm, minimum blade width 30 mm, blade thickness (max.) 5.85 mm.

The idea is rather speculative. Since it is difficult to find any noticeable progress in tools before the production of iron. And people begin to master iron quite late, hardly earlier than the 15th century. Moreover, massively iron tools in peasant life appear only in the 19th century. Therefore, without additional factors, archeology is not able to distinguish an 18th century village from a Neolithic village.

Before the mass production of iron, there was no significant increase in labor productivity in agriculture, the basis of the pre-industrial economy. Let me make a reservation: agricultural productivity has grown, but mainly due to increased efficiency of agricultural technologies, and not tools. Perhaps the only thing that iron products had a qualitative influence on was navigation. Serious without iron nails and bolts sea ​​ship you won't build. An iron ax is also a good thing in carpentry.

In general, although progress in metalworking had an impact on the economy, it was not of decisive importance until the 18th and 19th centuries. But it was of great importance in the production of weapons.

By the way, do you know what the joke of the famous legend aboutGordian knot . A complex knot of leather belt or something equally strong served as a secure lock. There was no way to cut it...

And if everything is more or less clear with stone and iron tools, then bronze ones have always raised doubts. Bronze is a rather difficult material to process. For example, it is possible to cast an arrowhead or a spear. It seems that you can make some kind of armor or helmet.

Although I have doubts about the bronze helmet. Last year I visitedMuseum of Olympia . I saw bronze ancient Greek helmets there.

There are deposits in their storerooms.

You can't see it in the photo, but you can take my word for it. Helmets are tiny. Baby. It will turn out to be put on the head of a child no older than five years. We asked local guides. They shrug their hands - they themselves, they say, are surprised.

Or the ancient Greeks were hobbits. Or casting a bronze helmet of a complex shape for an adult, so that the helmet is thin-walled and therefore does not have excessive weight, is technically difficult. I don't have any other versions.

Well, God bless them, bronze helmets and armor. Critically important question about bronze swords.

For a long time I have been fascinated by the mystery of bronze swords, according to official history very common before iron processing. From bronze - an alloy of copper and tin - it is possible to cast all sorts of crafts. But making swords is difficult, since bronze is usually a hard and brittle material. For a long time I have been occupied with the question of what the official history says on this subject.

And one day I came across a series of articles about weapons of the Bronze Age. The link is at the end of this post.

Articles are compilation historical information and opinions of official history on the subject. I will quote the article that talks about bronze swords.

“... it turned out that a fairly significant part of the users of this site are interested in... Bronze Age weapons and, in particular, the weapons and armor of the legendary Trojan War. Well, the topic is really very interesting.”

“... To typologize bronze swords found in Greece, the Sandars classification is used, according to which swords are located in eight main groups, under the letters A to H, plus numerous subtypes, which are not given in this case due to their abundance.”

"Sandars classification. It clearly shows that the most ancient swords 500 years before the fall of Troy (which is believed to have taken place in 1250 BC) were exclusively piercing! Two hundred years before it, swords with V-shaped crosshairs and a high edge on the blade appeared. The handle is now also cast along with the blade. 1250 is characterized by swords with an H-shaped handle, which in principle can be used to both chop and stab. Its base was cast together with the blade, after which wooden or bone “cheeks” were attached to it with rivets.

The idea of ​​a bronze sword in the form of a rapier is understandable. It is difficult to obtain a good cutting blade from bronze; a sharp tip is easier to make. However, the genesis of the bronze rapier sword is not clear. The evolution of iron weapons is clear: knife, dagger, sword, and so on. And what did you wash away the bronze rapier with? It is wiser to use a spear or dart with a bronze tip.

There was an uproar in the comments to the article. Many doubted the sufficient effectiveness of bronze swords. And the author took the trouble to deepen the topic. A lot of interesting things were discovered. It turned out that in the West there is a whole industry for the production (reconstruction) of bronze swords.

“After a long search, I managed to find three specialists in this field. Two in England and one in the USA and obtain permission from them to use their text and photographic materials. But now regulars of VO and simply its visitors have a unique opportunity to see their work, get acquainted with the technologies and their own comments on this interesting topic.

I’ll start by giving the floor to Neil Burridge, a Briton who has been working with bronze weapons for 12 years.”

It turned out that some types of bronze can be forged.

“.. the cutting edge of the blade of bronze swords was always forged to increase its strength! The sword itself was cast, but the cutting edges were always forged!”

But, as they say, it is better to see once than to hear a hundred times. Let's lookbronze sword test video from the mentioned British masterNeil Burridge.

Neil Burridge, a highly skilled maker of Bronze Age swords, sent me an unpolished version of a Ewart Park type sword for hard, abusive testing to get an idea of ​​the material's limits.

Well, how do you like it?

In general, it is suitable for practical use. Although the quality is inferior to a steel sword.

The problem, however, is that this bronze sword is an achievement of modern science and technology. The alloy is manufactured with an accuracy of fractions of a percent. Where did such knowledge of chemistry and the necessary purity of metals come from in antiquity? An ancient sword would be significantly inferior to the product of a modern British master. That is, it would not be suitable for practical needs.

So I finally lost faith in the Bronze Age.

During the Bronze Age, several types of “classical” weapons appeared, which lasted throughout the subsequent millennia until very recently. These are a sword and a spear as offensive weapons and a shield, helmet and shell as elements of armor. For fast movement, two-wheeled, horse-drawn war chariots were invented, which, together with the crew - a driver and an archer - constituted a fast and deadly fighting machine.

This combination of these military innovations led to social transformations everywhere, as it changed not only the conduct of combat and war itself, but also the underlying social and economic conditions. There was a need for new abilities and new craftsmen, such as those who could make the horse harness with which the driver could maneuver the war chariot, or those who could build the chariot itself. In addition, dexterity in handling new types of hand weapons - a sword and a spear - was now necessary, which required long and lengthy training, which can be judged, for example, by the highly developed shoulders of skeletons from the early Mycenaean burials of Aegina. Remains in Bronze Age burials often show wounds inflicted by a sword or spear, and the weapon itself often bears marks combat use- damage and re-sharpening. An organized and deadly method of warfare entered the historical arena.

Il. 1. Bronze Age warrior, reconstructed based on funerary goods and textiles found in Danish oak coffins

The new military aristocracy differed from their fellow tribesmen in their clothing and well-groomed appearance. There was a need for razors and tweezers, which helped maintain this look; in addition, the new elite sported luxurious woolen raincoats (ill. 1). It would not be a mistake to assume that warfare as a profession has been actively developing since the Middle Bronze Age. The status of a warrior was especially attractive to young men, which forced them to serve as mercenaries in very remote areas. In the cemetery in Neckarsulm in southern Germany, more than a third of male burials, even without weapons in the grave goods, are the remains of non-local, alien men. Globalization was also reflected in the widespread use of new types of swords. Thus, a sword with a tongue-shaped platform for attaching the handle for the period from 1500 to 1100 BC. e. spread from Scandinavia to the Aegean Islands, which indicates an intensive exchange of knowledge in the field of military and combat practice, as well as long journeys of warriors and mercenaries (ill. 2).

War chariots

In all likelihood, war chariots appeared in the southern Russian steppes, then, in the period between 2000 and 1700 BC. e. they spread from the region of the Eastern Urals and the Sintashta culture to the Black Sea region, the islands of the Aegean Sea and further to the Central and Northern Europe, where rock paintings contain very realistic and detailed images of war carts. The kingdoms and palace cultures of the Middle East, the Hittites in Anatolia and the Mycenaeans in Greece, especially readily adopted the new product. The aristocratic style of fighting became widespread: first spears were used, and then rapiers and swords up to a meter long. They were used primarily as piercing rather than slashing weapons, this is illustrated by Mycenaean seals and inlays on blades, which depict a piercing attack on the enemy’s shield. It is clear that the sword was the weapon of the elite, the leader, who, however, was always accompanied by a large group of foot soldiers with spears and probably bows and arrows to hit distant targets. In Germany and Denmark - regions in which settlements and necropolises of the Bronze Age are well studied - it is possible to calculate how many warriors from individual households supported the few leaders with swords: the ratio is 6-12 warriors per leader. This coincides with the number of oarsmen on Scandinavian cave paintings with ships and can be considered a stable number of warriors in a group under a local leader (Fig. 3).

Fortified Settlements

At the same time, in the Danube-Carpathian region there was a widespread strengthening of large settlements located on the ground with the help of ramparts and deep ditches. This shows how organized the preparations were for local conflicts; Large groups of warriors provided constant protection of people and property. Many of these fortified settlements are located at crossroads near big rivers or mountain passes, from which we can conclude that they were needed to ensure the safety of the metal trade. In some places the fortifications were made of large solid stones, this is especially impressive at Moncodonier in Metri and where even the gates were separately protected by a complex stone structure, which is sometimes found in Central European fortifications. On the northern Italian Pa and a certain plain there are also defensive structures of complex design, where water ditches are built around the settlements (Fig. 4).

Fortifications existed throughout the Bronze Age, and there is an explanation for this. Near some, for example, near Velem in Bohemia, those killed in battle were found, dumped in large numbers into pits. Further excavations of Bronze Age fortifications will probably yield the same results.

Swords with a tongue-shaped platform for attaching the hilt

The most ancient swords were practically unsuitable for combat, since the blade and hilt were connected to each other only with rivets. Soon there was an effective and powerful weapon, in which the handle and blade were cast as one piece. The handle itself, made of wood, bone or horn, which ended with a pommel, was attached to a tongue-shaped platform. Such a sword could reflect strong blows and not break when hit by a shield. The new sword, with a tongue-shaped platform for attaching the hilt, became the standard weapon of the Bronze Age warrior, and it spread over a vast area from Scandinavia to the Aegean islands, indicating intense connections between groups of mercenaries or even between entire Bronze Age societies. It continued to be used in different variations of shape and length until the very end of the Bronze Age.

In Central Europe, a blade length of 60 cm was preferred. Some blades found were slightly shorter, indicating repeated sharpening of the tip, which could often bend or break. This length of the sword indicates, rather, in favor of individual combat rather than phalanx attacks. In the Aegean region, the length of the sword, after some fluctuations, became 40 cm, like the later Roman gladius, which speaks in favor of fighting in a phalanx with limited movement (ill. 5).

Darts and spears

The most common weapons of the Bronze Age were undoubtedly javelins and spears, which only at the end of this period began to be quite distinctly different from each other. The latter, like modern bayonets, were used in close combat and were the par excellence weapon of the infantry. Each warrior usually carried two javelins or spears, as evidenced by images on Mycenaean vases, as well as grave goods found throughout Europe.

Defensive weapons: shield, helmet and armor

A warrior's best protection from injury has always been his own skillful handling of weapons. Therefore, the Celts went into battle naked to demonstrate their military superiority and fearlessness. However, even the best warrior needed protection from all sorts of surprises, and along with the progress of weapons, defensive equipment also improved.

Outside Greece, almost no defensive equipment was found in finds dating from the Early and Middle Bronze Ages, since they were made mainly of wood or leather (shields) and bone (wild boar tusks for helmets). The best sources available to us on this topic are Mycenaean depictions of warfare. Helmets with boar tusks from the Middle Bronze Age were found in the Carpathian region. Nevertheless, in Central Europe, some elements of men's equipment were probably developed specifically for protection in battle: wrist spirals and heavy spiral rings protecting the hand and elbow were often found along with swords. There is no doubt that they were used as they show mechanical damage. Conventional wrist spirals were shaped like the forearm and tapered towards the wrist.

Only towards the end of the Bronze Age, special protective equipment made of unchained bronze appeared throughout Europe - helmets, shields, armor and leggings. Since unforged bronze did not provide the necessary protection, this equipment was considered the prestigious vestment of the military aristocracy, used exclusively for ceremonies and to demonstrate their social status. This conclusion coincides with the observation of researchers that leaders with cast-hilted swords did not take part in heavy battles. In addition, this confirms the presence of a hierarchy in the conduct of hostilities in the Late Bronze Age - the battle was predominantly carried out by warriors, and the elite directed their actions.

Nevertheless, some usefulness of defensive equipment cannot be ruled out. The armor and leg armor were probably lined on the inside with leather or other organic materials such as felt or linen, as evidenced by fastening rivets. In Greece, helmets, leg plates and wrist guards also had holes for attaching linings. It can be assumed that the situation was the same in the rest of Europe. In addition, one of the most famous helmets dating back to the Late Bronze Age, the helmet from Hajdu-Bösörmei is covered with dents from blows of a sword and ax or arrows and darts. Judging by the rivet holes on inside, the helmet had a lining of leather or fabric, thanks to which it sat firmly and comfortably on the head.

Bronze swords: functionality and use

One of the constantly repeated arguments against the fact that both cast and tongue-shaped swords were actually used in warfare is the claim that the hilt itself is too short to be held in the hand. Having held hundreds of swords in my hand, I find this argument to be unfounded. Iron Age swords are quite heavy, at least compared to historical or modern rapiers, with most of the weight being in the blade. To control the movements of the sword, you need to clasp the handle very tightly with your palm. This is precisely what the short handle with protruding shoulders, which in this case are the functional part of the handle, is designed for. The hand covered the handle along with the hanger, making all movements more precise and controlled. Fingers in such a coverage also became more mobile, which made it possible to use a variety of military techniques. This was an ideal solution for a combination of slashing and stabbing attacks carried out with one hand. During the Late Bronze Age, cutting techniques became dominant and made sword handling even more difficult, leading to one interesting invention(ill. 6). Most swords with a cast hilt have a small hole in the pommel, the purpose of which has not yet been explained. However, some swords have abrasions in the area of ​​this hole, clearly caused by a strap, most likely leather. On ill. b shows the use of this cord, which brings to mind the modern police baton, since such a device for the sword handle corresponded to the same practical functions: it prevented the ability to release the sword from the hand, allowed the hand to relax, and the warrior to use a larger swing and greater force when striking.

Proper balancing plays an essential role in sword fighting. The distribution of weight between the handle and the blade determines its use for stabbing or slashing. The long and thin blades of the Middle Bronze Age speak more about their use as a piercing weapon, and in the Late Bronze Age the blade became wide and heavy, which was necessary for a chopping weapon. The difference lies in the location of the center of gravity: for thrusting swords it is located next to the hilt, for cutting swords it is much lower, in the area of ​​the blade.

This means that the piercing sword had to make it possible to make quick defensive and offensive movements, and the slashing sword was too heavy for this, it was intended for energetic movements with a large swing. It should be emphasized, however, that the cutting and thrusting swords of the Bronze Age cannot be compared with modern types of swords, which are very highly specialized and suitable only for their originally intended use. The Bronze Age sword could be used in a variety of ways, despite the fact that one of the functions of a piercing or cutting weapon could be realized by one sword better than by another. Only the earliest examples of rapiers are purely piercing weapons, even compared to the most ancient swords with a tongue-shaped platform for attaching the hilt.

All of the above shows that swords were indeed used in battles in the Bronze Age. This is confirmed by the traces of fighting on the blades, which can be found on most swords. Such serrations and subsequent re-sharpening are characteristic of swords throughout the Bronze Age. The place under the handle is a protection zone, so it is here that especially severe damage and traces of sharpening occur. Most often, the defects are more pronounced on one side than on the other, since the warrior usually held the weapon in his hand always in the same way. The consequence of repeated sharpening was that the blades under the handle often became narrower, they were sharpened more.

Older swords, longer used in combat and more frequently damaged and repaired, had the lower crossguard sometimes broken due to repeated sharpening and the fury of enemy blows. Therefore, the lower rivet holes turned out to be damaged and unusable. In the Late Bronze Age, this led to technical improvements in swords, in particular to the appearance of a ricasso under the hilt, which helped to hold the enemy blade so that it would not slip up, damage the crossguard, and injure the warrior's fingers. Sometimes the entire hilt was bent due to frequent strikes and defensive moves, indicating that heavy fighting was not uncommon. Swords with a tongue-shaped platform for attaching the hilt could break at the same time in the hilt area. The finds show that this happened very often, even if you do not count some of the broken swords found, in which breakage could happen in recent times.

In the middle part of the blade there is damage that occurs during an attack when the striking sword is stopped by the enemy's sword. Here, too, there may be concavities in the cutting edge that appear due to repeated sharpening. These concavities are especially noticeable in comparison with swords that have damage that has not been corrected by re-sharpening (ill. 7). Some swords have oblique notches on the middle edge, indicating that Bronze Age warriors also used defensive techniques that used the flat surface of the blade. The tip of the blade could also be bent or even broken off when the sword hit the shield during a stabbing blow. Sharpening with the formation of a new point is quite common in swords dating back to the Middle Bronze Age, although it is also characteristic of the Late Bronze Age, which indicates the varied use of swords - both for chopping and piercing.

To summarize, we can say that we have clear evidence of the great importance of sword fighting in Bronze Age Europe. Throughout this period, there were well-trained experts in the art of sword fighting. It can be stated that different types of swords also had different functions: a sword with a tongue-shaped platform for attaching the handle was the standard weapon of professional warriors, and a sword with a cast handle was more of a leader’s weapon, although it was also used in battle. In swords of this type, the blade is usually damaged to a much lesser extent than in swords with a tongue-shaped platform for attaching the handle. Regarding the Early and Middle Bronze Age, further evidence of this use of fused hilt swords is the fact that the hilt was attached only with rivets, which could hardly withstand swipe. In the Late Bronze Age, the end of the blade was already inserted into the hilt to make the weapon more stable and prevent the sword from breaking between the blade and the hilt. Therefore, the number of rivets was reduced to two, and very small ones. It can be assumed that at this time swords with cast hilts were more often used in real combat. The damage found on both swords with a tongue-shaped mounting platform and on swords with a cast hilt is not similar to that which could occur when using swords in training battles. For them, real swords were too valuable, so special wooden swords were used for training already in the Bronze Age, which, in turn, also indicates the great importance of war in the lives of Bronze Age people.

Nomadic warriors and their significance for the metal trade

During the Bronze Age, an international warrior culture emerged for the first time, testifying to the intense relationships and active mutual influence of various groups of warriors throughout Europe. This can be illustrated using maps of the distribution of different types of swords, for example, swords with a tongue-shaped platform for attaching the hilt or swords with a cast octagonal hilt from the 15th and 14th centuries before. n. e., uniting Denmark with Southern Germany and Central Europe (ill. 8). In addition, the mapping clearly demonstrates that some women were used to establish political alliances between local groups and establish peaceful relations, which were necessary for the metal trade and allowed traders and warriors to move safely between neighboring groups. Il. Figure 8 shows, among other things, that male warriors left home much more often and moved longer distances from it.

Such movements were recently confirmed by the discovery of a men's cemetery in Neckarsulm, where more than fifty people were buried. By studying strontium isotopes in tooth enamel, it was possible to prove that a third of the men buried there were from other places. Most likely, these were mercenaries in the service of a foreign ruler. Traders, blacksmiths, warriors, mercenaries, migrants and diplomats traveled long distances in those days. Good examples here would be the ship remains found off the capes and. These ships could transport not only goods to distant possessions, but also warriors or mercenaries, who at the same time also protected the cargo.

It has been historically proven that Germanic and Celtic mercenaries served the Romans, returning after service to their homeland with Roman weapons and Roman goods, the possession of which ensured prestige in society. Therefore, the presence in the eastern part of Central Europe of the 14th and 13th centuries BC. e. Greco-Mycenaean weapons can well be interpreted as evidence of the return of mercenaries after service in Mycenaean territories. The same can be confirmed by Central European, primarily Italic, swords with a tongue-shaped platform for attaching the handle, found in the area of ​​Mycenaean palaces, as well as ceramics made in the traditions of the native places of the newcomers, for example, vessels reminiscent of Italic ones and discovered in the East Mediterranean.

Ethnographic examples support the thesis of warriors and traders moving over long distances. Warriors often formed their own group identity (warrior communities), which united them within a specific territory through clear rules of acceptable behavior. The rules could concern both the recruitment of new warriors and one’s own travels to distant lands in order to return with glory and prestigious goods. This behavior is characteristic of the Maasai and Japanese samurai, and is present as a recurring plot element in the stories of warriors and wars.

Organization of military units

In some regions of Europe, the proportion of weapons in burials and treasures is so high that it is possible to calculate how many weapons and warriors were available in certain moment time. In Denmark from the period between 1450 and 1150 BC. e. About 2,000 swords have survived, almost all of which were found in burials. At this time, approximately 50,000 burial grounds were built, from 10 to 15% of which it was possible to explore and find funeral gifts there. Extrapolating from these data, we can conclude that in reality the necropolises contained total almost 20,000 swords. If we proceed from the lifespan of a sword (30 years), then a warrior’s family needed from three to four swords for a century, which is for three hundred years, about which we're talking about, is 12-15 swords. This, in turn, gives a figure for the simultaneous use of swords - 1300, which approximately corresponds to the number of settlements in Denmark at that time. The sword was probably the weapon of the local leader, and his troops were armed with javelins, although some may also have carried a sword.

The ratio of the number of leaders with swords and the number of peasants and warriors in the detachment can also be calculated based on the number of settlements. Individual farms varied in size, with families ranging from 10 to 15 people. Based on one farm per square kilometer and from the then population of half of the territory of Denmark, the total area of ​​​​44,000 square kilometers, then at the same time there should have been from 25,000 to 30,000 farms of various sizes. The leader assembled a detachment of supposedly 20-25 farms. Thus, the rulers of even small groups of the population could quickly assemble an army of several hundred warriors. If only the largest households delegated warriors, then for each leader with a sword there were probably only 5-10 warriors, which corresponds more closely to data calculated for some parts of Germany and the number depicted on ships in cave paintings. Thus, it can be considered proven that European societies Bronze Age people were very well armed. Throughout the era, the number of simultaneously existing weapons amounted to tens and hundreds of thousands, even if we take Denmark, a small but rich country, as the basis for calculations. Therefore, it is logical to assume that traces of military victims should also be preserved, and this assumption turns out to be fair.

war casualties

Behind Lately our knowledge of battle wounds on skeletons has increased significantly, as well as our understanding of the number of people killed during different types conflicts.

In the Olmo di Nogara cemetery in Northern Italy, dating back to the Middle Bronze Age, 116 male skeletons were examined, half of which were buried along with swords with a tongue-shaped platform for attaching the handle, including early types with short language. Approximately 16% of these people had injuries to the bones and skull caused by combat, most often blows from swords or arrows. If we consider that there are many fatal wounds inflicted by a spear or arrow that do not leave marks on the bones, then 16% will turn out to be a very high proportion, indicating constant local conflicts. In this region, warriors who had a sword actively participated in battles, which corresponds to the picture of burials with weapons in the arch of Mycenaean burials B, for those buried there have numerous wounds and a very short life expectancy.

However, there were also ruthless massacres. The fortification at Vilema in Bohemia has already been mentioned. Another example is Sund in Western Norway. A mass grave from the late Middle Bronze Age was discovered here, where more than 30 people were buried - men, women and children, who were killed around 1200 BC. e. The wounds indicate a fierce fight between men who apparently fought with swords and many of whom had healed wounds from past battles. Some showed signs of malnutrition, suggesting that control of food sources may have been the cause of the war.

Finally, we must mention the great battle that also took place around 1200 BC. e. in the valley of the small river Tollensee in present-day Mecklenburg, in Vorpommern. Here, on a section of the river 1-2 kilometers long, the remains of the skeletons of more than a hundred people were found, and it is likely that others will be discovered in the future (Fig. 9). Obviously, here, after a lost battle, all the dead of the entire army were thrown into the river. The remains of wooden clubs and axes (Fig. 10), as well as arrowheads, were found from weapons. It is likely that those who died were migrants looking for new lands, because at this time dramatic changes were taking place throughout Europe.

Thus, there is evidence of the existence of organized warfare, from small conflicts to confrontations of entire armies. In this sense, the Bronze Age was not much different from the subsequent Iron Age.

Conclusion

Even twenty years ago, research into Bronze Age weapons was aimed exclusively at elucidating their typological development, and their practical use was highly questioned. A new generation of researchers looked at the object of their study in a new way. Today, traces of its use on weapons have already been studied, experiments with reconstruction have been carried out, showing how well organized and dangerous the fighting was in the Bronze Age, which is confirmed by anatomical studies of wounds. It is not far from the truth to say that modern methods of warfare have their origins in the Bronze Age, since the forms of weapons and defense systems known to us from later times were developed then.

Bronze swords appeared around the 17th century BC. e. in the area of ​​the Aegean and Black Seas. The design of such a weapon was nothing more than an improvement of its predecessor, the dagger. It was significantly lengthened, resulting in a new type of weapon. About the history of bronze swords, high-quality photos of which are given below, their varieties, models different armies and will be discussed in this article.

History of appearance

As stated earlier, Bronze Age swords appeared in the 17th century BC. e., however, they managed to completely displace daggers as the main type of weapon only in the 1st century BC. e. From the earliest times of sword production, their length could reach more than 100 cm. The technology for producing swords of this length was presumably developed in what is now Greece.

Several alloys were used to make swords, most commonly tin, copper and arsenic. The very first specimens, which were more than 100 cm long, were made around the 1700s BC. e. Standard Bronze Age swords reached 60-80 cm in length, while weapons that were shorter were also produced, but they had different names. So, for example, it was called a dagger or short sword.

Around 1400 BC. e. the prevalence of long swords was mainly characteristic of the Aegean Sea and part of the southeast modern Europe. This type of weapon began to become widespread in the 2nd century BC. e. in regions such as Central Asia, China, India, Middle East, UK and Central Europe.

Before bronze began to be used as the main material for making weapons, obsidian or flint stone was used exclusively. However, weapons made of stone had a significant drawback - fragility. When copper, and later bronze, began to be used in the manufacture of weapons, this made it possible to create not only knives and daggers, as before, but also swords.

Finding area

The process of the appearance of bronze swords as a separate type of weapon was gradual, from a knife to a dagger, and then to the sword itself. Swords have several different shape due to a number of factors. For example, both the army itself of a state and the time when they were used are important. The range of finds of bronze swords is quite wide: from China to Scandinavia.

In China, the production of swords from this metal begins around 1200 BC. e., during the reign of the Shang Dynasty. The technological culmination of the production of such weapons dates back to the end of the 3rd century BC. e., during the war with the Qin dynasty. During this period, rare technologies were used, such as metal casting, which had a high tin content. This made the edge softer and therefore easier to sharpen. Or with a low content, which gave the metal increased hardness. The use of diamond-shaped patterns, which were not aesthetic, but technological, making the blade reinforced along its entire length.

Bronze swords of China are unique due to technologies in which high-tin metal was periodically used (about 21%). The blade of such a blade was super-hard, but broke when bent too much. In other countries, swords were made with a low tin content (about 10%), which made the blade soft and bending rather than breaking when bent.

However, iron swords supplanted their bronze predecessors; this happened during the reign of the Han Dynasty. China became the last territory where bronze weapons were created.

Scythian weapons

Bronze swords of the Scythians have been known since the 8th century BC. e., they had a short length - from 35 to 45 cm. The shape of the sword is called “akinak”, and there are three versions about its origin. The first says that the shape of this sword was borrowed by the Scythians from the ancient Iranians (Persians, Medes). Those who adhere to the second version argue that the prototype of the Scythian sword was a weapon of the Kabardino-Pyatigorsk type, which was widespread in the 8th century BC. e. on the territory of modern North Caucasus.

Scythian swords were short and primarily intended for close combat. The blade was sharpened on both sides and shaped like a highly elongated triangle. The cross-section of the blade itself could be rhombic or lenticular, in other words, the blacksmith himself chose the shape

The blade and handle were forged from one piece, and then the pommel and crosshair were riveted to it. Early examples had a butterfly-shaped crosshair, while later ones, dating back to the 4th century, were already triangular in shape.

The Scythians kept their bronze swords in wooden sheaths, which had buterols (the lower part of the sheath), which were protective and decorative. Currently, a large number of Scythian swords have been preserved, found during archaeological excavations in various mounds. Most of the specimens are preserved quite well, which indicates their high quality.

Roman weapons

Bronze legionnaires were very common at that time. The most famous is the sword gladius, or gladius, which later began to be made of iron. It is assumed that the ancient Romans borrowed it from the Pyrenees and then improved it.

The tip of this sword has a fairly wide sharpened edge, which had a good effect on cutting characteristics. These weapons were convenient to fight in dense Roman formations. However, the gladius also had disadvantages, for example, it could deliver slashing blows, but they did not cause serious damage.

Out of order, these weapons were very much inferior to German and Celtic blades, which were longer. The Roman gladius reached a length of 45 to 50 cm. Subsequently, another sword was chosen for the Roman legionaries, which was called the “spata”. A small amount of this type of bronze sword has survived to this day, but their iron counterparts are quite sufficient.

The spatha had a length of 75 cm to 1 m, which made it not very convenient to use in close formation, but this was compensated for in a duel in free territory. It is believed that this type of sword was borrowed from the Germans, and later slightly modified.

The bronze swords of Roman legionnaires - both gladius and spatha - had their advantages, but were not universal. However, preference was given to the latter due to the fact that it could be used not only in foot combat, but also while sitting on a horse.

Swords of Ancient Greece

Bronze swords of the Greeks have a very long history. It originates in the 17th century BC. e. The Greeks had several types of swords different times, the most common and often depicted on vases and in sculpture is the xiphos. It appeared during the Aegean civilization around the 17th century BC. e. Xiphos was made of bronze, although later it began to be made of iron.

It was a double-edged straight sword, which reached approximately 60 cm in length, with a pronounced leaf-shaped tip, it had good chopping characteristics. Previously, xiphos was made with a blade up to 80 cm long, but for inexplicable reasons they decided to shorten it.

In addition to the Greeks, this sword was also used by the Spartans, but their blades reached a length of 50 cm. Xiphos was used by hoplites (heavy infantry) and Macedonian phalangites (light infantry). Later, these weapons became widespread among most of the barbarian tribes that inhabited the Apennine Peninsula.

The blade of this sword was forged immediately along with the hilt, and later a cross-shaped guard was added. had a good cutting and piercing effect, but due to its length its cutting characteristics were limited.

European weapons

In Europe, bronze swords have been quite widespread since the 18th century BC. e. One of the most famous swords is considered to be the Naue II type sword. It got its name thanks to the scientist Julius Naue, who was the first to describe in detail all the characteristics of this weapon. Naue II is also known as the tongue-hilted sword.

This type of weapon appeared in the 13th century BC. e. and was in service with the soldiers of Northern Italy. This sword was relevant until the beginning of the Iron Age, but it continued to be used for several more centuries, until approximately the 6th century BC. e.

Naue II reached a length of 60 to 85 cm and was found in the territories of what is now Sweden, Great Britain, Finland, Norway, Germany and France. For example, a specimen that was discovered during archaeological excavations near Brekby in Sweden in 1912 reached a length of about 65 cm and belonged to the period of the 18th-15th centuries BC. e.

The shape of the blade, which was typical for swords of those times, is a leaf-shaped formation. In the IX-VIII centuries BC. e. Swords with a blade shape called “carp tongue” were common.

This bronze sword had very good characteristics for this type of weapon. It had wide, double-edged edges, and the blades were parallel to each other and tapered towards the end of the blade. This sword had a thin edge, which allowed the warrior to inflict significant damage to the enemy.

Due to its reliability and good characteristics, this sword became widespread throughout most of Europe, as confirmed by numerous finds.

Andronovo swords

Andronovo is the common name for various peoples who lived in the 17th-9th centuries BC. e. in the territories of modern Kazakhstan, Central Asia, Western Siberia and the Southern Urals. Andronovo people are also considered Proto-Slavs. They were engaged in agriculture, cattle breeding and handicrafts. One of the most common crafts was working with metal (mining, smelting).

The Scythians partially borrowed some types of weapons from them. The bronze swords of Andronovo were distinguished by the high quality of the metal itself and its combat characteristics. The length of this weapon reached from 60 to 65 cm, and the blade itself had a diamond-shaped stiffener. The sharpening of such swords was double-edged, due to utilitarian considerations. In battle, the weapon became dull due to the softness of the metal, and in order to continue the battle and inflict significant damage on the enemy, the sword was simply turned in the hand and the battle continued again with a sharp weapon.

The Andronovites made scabbards of bronze swords from wood, covering their outer part with leather. The inside of the scabbard was sealed with animal fur, which contributed to the polishing of the blade. The sword had a guard that not only protected the warrior’s hand, but also securely held it in its sheath.

Types of swords

During the Bronze Age, there was a wide variety of types and types of swords. During their development, bronze swords went through three stages of development.

• The first is a bronze rapier of the 17th-11th centuries BC. e.
• The second is a leaf-shaped sword, with high piercing-cutting characteristics of the 11th-8th centuries BC. e.
• The third is a Hallstadt type sword from the 8th-4th centuries BC. e.

The identification of these stages is due to various specimens found during archaeological excavations in the territory of modern Europe, Greece and China, as well as their classification in catalogs of bladed weapons.

Bronze swords of antiquity, related to the rapier type, first appeared in Europe as a logical development of a dagger or knife. This type of sword arose as an elongated modification of the dagger, which is explained by practical combat needs. This type of sword primarily ensured the infliction of significant damage to the enemy due to its prickly characteristics.

Such swords were most likely made individually for each warrior, as evidenced by the fact that the hilt was of different sizes and the finishing quality of the weapon itself varied significantly. These swords are a narrow bronze strip that has a stiffening rib in the middle.

Bronze rapiers were intended to use piercing blows, but they were also used as slashing weapons. This is evidenced by notches on the blade of specimens found in Denmark, Ireland and Crete.

Swords XI-VIII centuries BC. e.

The bronze rapier, several centuries later, was replaced by a leaf-shaped or phallic-shaped sword. If you look at the photos of bronze swords, their difference will become obvious. But they differed not only in shape, but also in characteristics. For example, leaf-shaped swords made it possible to inflict not only stab wounds, but also chopping and cutting blows.

Archaeological research carried out in various parts Europe and Asia, suggest that such swords were widespread in the territory from present-day Greece to China.

With the advent of swords of this type, from the 11th century BC. e., it can be observed that the quality of decoration of the sheath and handle is sharply reduced, but the level and characteristics of the blade are noticeably higher than those of its predecessors. And yet, due to the fact that this sword could both stab and cut, and therefore was strong and did not break after a blow, the quality of the blade was worse. This was due to the fact that a larger amount of tin was added to bronze.

After some time, the shank of the sword appears, which is located at the end of the handle. Its appearance allows you to deliver strong slashing blows while keeping the sword in your hand. This is how the transition to the next type of weapon begins. - to the sword of Hallstadt.

Swords of the 8th-4th centuries BC. e.

Swords changed due to objective reasons, for example, due to changes in fighting techniques. If earlier the fencing technique dominated, in which the main thing was to deliver an accurate piercing blow, then over time it gave way to the chopping technique. In the latter, it was important to deliver a strong blow with one of the sword blades, and the more force applied, the more significant the damage.

By the 7th century BC. e. chopping technology completely replaces piercing technology due to its simplicity and reliability. This is confirmed by bronze swords of the Hallstadt type, which are intended exclusively for slashing.

This type of sword received its name due to the area located in Austria, where it is believed that this weapon was first produced. One of the features of such a sword is the fact that these swords were made of both bronze and iron.

Hallstadt swords resemble leaf-shaped swords in shape, but they are noticeably narrower. The length of such a sword reaches about 83 cm, has a strong stiffening rib, which allows it not to deform when delivering chopping blows. This weapon allowed both infantrymen and horsemen to fight, as well as attack the enemy from a chariot.

The handle of the sword was crowned with a tang, which allowed the warrior to easily hold the sword after striking. This weapon was universal at one time and was highly valued.

Ceremonial swords

In the Bronze Age, there was another type of sword, which is not described above, since it cannot be attributed to any of the classifications. This is a sword with a single edge, whereas all other swords had sharpening on both sides. It is an extremely rare type of weapon, and to date only three copies have been found in one of the regions of Denmark. It is believed that this sword was not a combat sword, but a ceremonial one, but this is just a hypothesis.

conclusions

It can be concluded that bronze swords of antiquity were made using high level, taking into account the underdevelopment of the technological process. In addition to their combat purpose, many swords were works of art, thanks to the efforts of the craftsmen. Each type of sword for its time met all combat requirements, to one degree or another.

Naturally, the weapon was gradually improved, and efforts were made to minimize its shortcomings. Having gone through centuries of evolution, ancient bronze swords became best weapon of its era, until it gave way to the Iron Age and began new page in the history of edged weapons.