The use of tools by animals. The problem of the origin of social relations and articulate speech

Without going into the course of the development of labor activity itself, we note only a few more essential points in addition to what has already been said about the tool activity of monkeys.

First of all, it is important to emphasize that a tool, as we have seen, can be any object used by an animal to solve a specific problem in a specific situation. The instrument of labor, on the other hand, must certainly be specially made for certain labor operations and implies knowledge of its future use. They are made for the future even before the possibility or need for their use arises. By itself, such activity is biologically meaningless and even harmful (a waste of time and energy “for nothing”) and can only be justified by foreseeing the emergence of such situations in which one cannot do without tools.

This means that the manufacture of tools presupposes the foreseeing of possible causal relationships in the future, and at the same time, as Ladygina-Kots showed, the chimpanzee is unable to comprehend such relationships even when preparing a tool for its direct use in the course of solving a problem.

Connected with this is the important circumstance that, during the use of tools by monkeys, the tool does not at all retain its "working" meaning. Outside the specific situation of solving the problem, for example, before and after the experiment, the object that served as a tool loses all functional significance for the monkey, and it treats it in exactly the same way as any other “useless” object. The operation performed by the monkey with the help of the tool is not fixed on it, and outside of its direct use, the monkey treats it indifferently, and therefore does not keep it permanently as a tool. In contrast to this, not only does man store the tools he has made, but the tools themselves store man's methods of influencing the objects of nature.

Moreover, even with the individual manufacture of a tool, there is a production of a social object, because this object has a special way of using it, which is socially developed in the process of collective labor and which is assigned to it. Each instrument of man is the material embodiment of a certain socially developed labor operation.

Thus, a radical change in all behavior is connected with the emergence of labor: from the general activity aimed at the immediate satisfaction of a need, a special action is singled out, not directed by a direct biological motive and gaining its meaning only with the further use of its results. This is one of the most important changes in the general structure of behavior, marking the transition from the natural history of the animal world to the social history of mankind. With further development public relations and forms of production, such actions, not directly directed by biological motives, occupy an increasing and increasing place in human activity and finally acquire decisive importance for all his behavior.

The genuine production of labor tools presupposes the impact on the object not directly by effector organs (teeth, hands), but by another object, i.e. the processing of the manufactured tool of labor must be carried out with another tool (for example, a stone). Findings of precisely such products of activity (flakes, chisels) serve for anthropologists as true evidence of the presence of labor activity in our ancestors.

At the same time, according to Fabry, when manipulating biologically “neutral” objects (and only such could become tools), although monkeys sometimes act on one object on another (Fig. 24), they pay attention to the changes that occur with the object. direct impact, i.e. with the “tool”, but not on the changes that occur with the “processed” (“second”) object, which serves no more than a substratum, a “background”. In this respect, monkeys are no different from other animals. The conclusion suggests itself that these objective actions of monkeys are in their essence directly opposite to the instrumental labor activity of man, in which, naturally, the changes in the instrument of labor that accompany it are not so important as changes in the object of labor (the homologue of the “second object”). Obviously, only under certain experimental conditions is it possible to switch the monkeys' attention to the "second object".

However, the manufacture of a tool (for example, hewing one stone with the help of another) requires the formation of such specific methods of influencing the “second object”, such operations that would lead to very special changes in this object, due to which only it will turn into a tool of labor. A clear example of this is the manufacture of the most ancient tool of labor of primitive man (a stone hand axe, Fig. 50), where efforts should have been directed to creating a pointed end, i.e. the actual working part of the tool, and a wide, rounded top (nucleus, core), adapted to firmly hold the tool in the hand. It was on such operations that human consciousness grew.

It is quite natural that from the creation of the first tools such as a hand ax of the Shellic era, and even more primitive tools (flakes) of the Sinanthropus from the pre-Chelchian era, there was still a long way to manufacture various perfect tools of labor of a modern type human (neoanthrope) (Fig. 51). Even on initial stage In the development of the material culture of the neoanthrope, for example, Cro-Magnon man, there is a huge variety of types of tools, including for the first time composite tools appear: darts, flint inserts, as well as needles, spear throwers, etc. Particularly noteworthy is the abundance of tools for making tools. Later, such stone tools as an ax or a hoe appear.

Rice. 50. Flint hand ax of the Shellic era

Rice. 51. Late Paleolithic tools

Crafty animals?

Until 1963, when Jane Goodall's work on wild chimpanzees and their use of tools was published, most scientists believed that tool use was a trait unique to humans. Half a century later, we are finally beginning to understand that the line between humans and other animals is rather thin. To prove this, we present to the attention of readers descriptions of 15 representatives of the animal kingdom who use tools in everyday life.

crows

Aside from primates, crows are the most intelligent animals in the world. Their arsenal of resourceful tricks includes manipulating sticks and twigs to get insects out of logs, dropping walnuts in front of moving cars to crack shells, and even using recycled paper as a rake or sponge.

elephants

Elephants have a distinctive ability to use tools with their flexible trunks. They scratch their backs with sticks, fan themselves with leaves to ward off flies, and chew the bark to make it porous enough to absorb. drinking water. But perhaps the most amazing property elephants are their artistic ability. Zookeepers give elephants brushes, and these sensual creatures show off their talent!

hutches

Most birds show common feature associated with tools: building nests. Barbequers, commonly seen in Australia and New Guinea, do even more, and their motives are purely romantic. To attract a partner, male bowerbirds build a complex dwelling - a carefully constructed "hut", in the creation of which various objects are often used, such as bottle caps, beads, glass fragments, and in general, everything that can be found and attracts attention.

Primates

There are endless examples of primate tool use. To name a few: chimpanzees use sticks for termite mining, stones and wooden tools for cracking nuts, sharp spears made from sticks for hunting; gorillas measure the depth of the reservoir with a staff; orangutans can open the lock with a paper clip; Capuchins make stone knives by striking pieces of flint on the floor until they have sharp edges.

Dolphins

The intelligence of dolphins is well known, but due to the fact that they do not have hands, but fins, many experts did not assume that these animals use tools. In any case, until 2005, when a flock of bottlenose dolphins was caught an interesting activity: they tore their lips and wrapped their noses in pieces, apparently in order to avoid scratches while hunting for seabed.

Common Vultures

Birds are among the most skillful tool-wielding creatures, and one of the most striking examples is the common vulture. One of his favorite treats is ostrich eggs, but the thick shell is quite difficult to break. To solve this problem, vultures manipulate stones with their beaks and hit them until the egg cracks.

Octopuses

Octopuses are considered the most intelligent invertebrates on the planet, and they often improvise with tools. This guy in the photo carries two halves of the shell with him and, in case of danger, closes them and, thus, hides. And another species of octopus tears off the tentacles of jellyfish and brandishes them as a weapon during the attack.

woodpecker

There are several types of tool-using finches, but the most famous one is obviously the Galapagos woodpecker. Since its beak cannot always squeeze into small holes where insects live, the bird compensates for this shortcoming with a branch of a suitable size, with which it takes out food.

Ants and wasps

Even insects use tools, especially social species such as ants and wasps. One of the most famous examples is a leaf-cutter ant that has developed an advanced agricultural system by cutting leaves and using them as containers to transport food and water. And single wasps break up clods of earth with the help of small pebbles.

green herbs

The resourcefulness of green herons allows them to become excellent fishermen. Instead of entering the water and waiting for prey to surface, these animals use fishing lures to get the fish to come within striking distance. Some night herons have been seen throwing food, such as bread crumbs, onto the water to attract fish.

sea ​​otters

Even strong jaws sea ​​otter not always enough to open the shell of a delicious clam or oyster. And here is cute marine mammal shows ingenuity. The otter always carries a stone around its belly and uses it to open its food.

arrow fish

Most insect-eating fish wait for their prey and then fall clumsily into the water, but not arrowfish. Instead, fish of this species use a specially designed mouth to literally shoot insects with a jet of water. And they have excellent aim. An adult shooter almost never misses, and this fish can hit an insect located on a leaf or branch at a distance of no more than three meters.

Crabs

Even crabs use tools. With the help of claws, you can perfectly manipulate objects. Crabs of some species dress in sea ​​anemones pulling them over your back. Usually they do it for the purpose of disguise, although in other cases, probably just to look beautiful.

beavers

Beavers make extensive use of tools. These animals build their dams to protect themselves from predators and provide free access to food and calm swimming. Some dams reach 800 meters in length. Beavers build their structures by cutting down trees and covering them with mud and rocks.

parrots

Parrots can be the most smart birds in the world, and there are many examples of their use of tools. Many owners of these birds learn about this skill when a pet, using a piece of metal or plastic, lifts the lock of the cage. The palm cockatoo (shown here) has been known to wrap leaves around its beak to twist open nuts, similar to how a person would pick up a towel to add friction to open a bottle.

guns
guns
animals
animals
Made by Titova Alina,
3rd grade student MBOU
Secondary School No. 2, Rudny
Smolensk region
Head Rogova N.N.,
teacher primary school

It is generally accepted that
the use of tools distinguishes man from
animals. Throughout the history of mankind
it is a story of development and improvement
guns. However, our ancestors were not
the first inhabitants of this planet,
who have learned to expand their
opportunities with the help of non-living
items.

Find out how to use
animal tools for expansion
their capabilities through
Target:
inanimate objects.

What are animals for?
tools are used:
getting food,
providing a comfortable living environment,
communications,
aggression

Gun actions are observed in:
few types of insects
in birds,
in mammals (slightly more common in anthropoid
monkeys) in the areas of behavior:
 food (breaking a food object with a stone),
 comfortable (scratching with a foreign object),
 communication (contact through
subject),
 defensive (throwing an object at an enemy)
Sometimes an object is pre-adapted to

use as a tool.

1515 representatives
representatives
animal kingdom,
animal kingdom,
using tools
using tools
work in everyday
work in everyday
life
life

crows
crows
sticks and
use sticks and
use
branches to
get
to get
branches
log insects,
from logs
insects
dumped walnuts
dumping walnuts
in front of moving
in front of moving
machines to
to
machines
crack open the shell, and
, And
crack the shell
even use
even use
waste paper in
waste paper in
as a rake or
as a rake or
sponges..
sponges

elephants
scratch their backs with sticks,
scratch their backs with sticks,
fanned by leaves,
fanned by leaves,
thus driving away the flies,
thus driving away the flies,
chew the bark to make it
to make her
chew the bark
porous enough for
porous enough for
absorption of drinking water.
absorption of drinking water.
But perhaps the most
But perhaps the most
the amazing property of elephants
artistic
are their artistic
are their
capabilities. Rangers
Rangers
capabilities.
zoos give brushes to elephants, and
these sensual creatures
these sensual creatures
demonstrate extraordinary
demonstrate extraordinary
talent!
talent!

hutches
used in nest building
tools:
Bowlers of Australia and New Guinea,
to attract a partner, males
barbequers build a complex dwelling -
carefully constructed "hut", in
the creation of which are often used
various items like lids from
bottles, beads, glass fragments and
in general, everything that can be found and that
attracts attention.

stones and wooden tools
cracking nuts,
cracking nuts,
for picking fruit
knocking fruit from trees
from the trees
sticks
sticks for
fighting off enemies, hunting.
fighting off enemies, hunting.
sharp spears from sticks for hunting.
Chimpanzee
Chimpanzee
PP
pp
ai
mm
aa
tt
yy
use
use
termite sticks,
termite sticks,
twigs and straws
twigs and straws - to
fish out
- to extract
insects, especially aggressive
especially aggressive
insects,
tuned or poisonous termites
previously
(straws they are preliminarily
(they are straws
slobber to make them
drooling
to make them sticky
sticky).

Chimpanzee
Chimpanzee
stuffed into hollows
stuffed into hollows
grass to collect
to collect
water flowing in and
water flowing in
squeeze it out
then squeeze it out
then
into your own mouth.
into your own mouth.

Gorillas
Gorillas
measure depth
measure depth
pond with the help
pond with the help
staff.
staff.

Orangutans
Orangutans
open the lock
may
can open the lock
using paper clips.
using paper clips.

capuchins
capuchins
stone
make stone
make
knives hitting pieces
knives hitting pieces
flint on the floor until
until
flint on the floor
get sharp edges.
get sharp edges.

Dolphins
Dolphins
tore lips and and
tore lips
wrapped in pieces
wrapped in pieces
noses, obviously
noses, obviously
to avoid
in order to avoid
in order to
scratches during
scratches during
seabed hunting
seabed hunting
Dolphins surround
Dolphins surround
fish flock "bag"
fish flock "bag"
from air bubbles
from air bubbles
confusing fish and not
confusing fish and not
giving them
giving them
spread out.
spread out.

Ordinary
Ordinary
vultures
vultures
manipulate the stones
at
manipulate stones
help of the beak and beat them to
help of the beak and beat them to
ostrich egg
as long as the ostrich egg
until
break them down and get the bone
brain. And some predatory
brain. And some predatory
birds kill turtles.
birds kill turtles.
won't crack..
will not crack
So are the eagles
So are the eagles
throw the dice to
throw the dice to

Eagles
Eagles
lambs
lambs
throw the dice to
, to
throw the dice
break them down and get them
break them down and get them
Bone marrow.
Bone marrow.
And some predator birds
And some birds of prey
smash turtles.
smash turtles.

Octopuses
Octopuses
This guy in the photo
This guy in the photo
carries two
carries two
shells and in and in
shell halves
halves
danger
case of danger
case
closes them and
closes them and
is hiding.
way, hiding.
the way
And another kind of octopus
And another kind of octopus
rips off tentacles
rips off tentacles
jellyfish and and waving
jellyfish
waving them
them
time
as a weapon during
as a weapon in
attacks.
attacks.

reel
reel
pricks a worm
impales
worm thorn
sharp fish
sharp fish
prickly like a fisherman
like a fisherman

Ants,
Ants,
creating a developed
creating a developed
agricultural
agricultural
system, cut the leaves and
system, cut the leaves and
use them as
use them as
containers for
containers for
transportation of food and water.
transportation of food and water.

tropical
tropical
ants
ants
tailors
tailors
as tools
as tools
own
use... their own
use...
larvae: while only members
while some members
larvae:
families hold the edge
families hold the edge
leaves joined together
leaves joined together
others take in the jaw
others take in the jaw
larvae and drive them from
larvae and drive them from
one sheet to another
one sheet to another
many allocated
many allocated
cobweb larvae
cobweb larvae
fasten sheets.
fasten sheets.

WaspsWasps
breaking up clods of earth
breaking up clods of earth
help of small stones.
help of small stones.

Greens
Greens
night heron
night heron
use
use
fishing lures,
fishing lures
to force the fish
to force the fish
get close to
get close to
impact distance.
impact distance.
seen how some
seen how some
scatter
heron scatter
night heron
food such as
I'm going to the water
such as
on the water
bread crumbs to
bread crumbs to
attract fish.
attract fish.

Maritime
Maritime
otter
otter
picks up at the bottom along with prey
stone, and one is flat.
two two stones
, and one is flat.
Then, lying belly up on
Then, lying belly up on
surface of the water (this is their favorite
pose), the sea otter puts on his chest
shell or
flat stone, on it a shell or
flat stone, on it
sea ​​urchin, and hits them from above
, and hits them from above
sea ​​urchin
second stone
second stone

spatter fish
spatter fish
uses as
uses as
a trickle of water. .
trickle of water guns
guns
Shooting it from under
Shooting it from under
surfaces, sprinkler
surfaces, sprinkler
knocks down those sitting above
in the water sitting above
knocks down
insects.
her insects.

Crabs
dress in marine
dress in marine
anemones by pulling them
pulling them
anemones,
on your back. Usually they
on your back. Usually they
do it for the purpose
do it for the purpose
Beautiful.
Beautiful.
disguise, although in others
although in others
disguise,
cases, probably just
cases, probably just
to look like
to look
to many owners of these birds
learn about this skill when
learn about this skill when
a piece
pet using a piece
pet using
metal or plastic
metal or plastic
lifts the cage lock. .
raises the cage lock
It is known that palm
It is known that palm
cockatoo (shown in the photo)
cockatoo (shown in the photo)
covers the beak
covers the beak
leaves to twist
to twisting
leaves
open the nuts with a movement
open the nuts with a movement
just like a man
just like a man
I would take a towel
I would take a towel
increase friction for
increase friction for
bottle opening.
bottle opening.

bird
bird
tailor
tailor
vegetable
spinning from vegetable
spinning from
fibers real thread and
real threads and
fibers
stitching the leaves
sews leaves together
them
building your own nest.
building your own nest.

More such animals
More such animals
who use tools
who use tools
case by case (the
constantly, but occasionally
(those
constantly, and
moreover, that the concept of "tool" has no
any defined boundaries.
a pole against which a horse itches,
can also be considered a tool).
can also be considered a tool).

Famous
Famous
Inherit or
Inherit or
study?
German
scientist I.Able
scientist I.Able
German
study?
Eibesfeldt raised a finch chick to a full
isolation from other birds, and when the pupil
grew up
cage
grew up
cage
a few sticks.
a few sticks.
researcher
researcher
planted
planted
V
V
And then it turned out that the bird from birth
“knows” that food can be reached with a chopstick, but
don't understand how to do it at all
experimental bird clumsily and haphazardly
stuck a wand into the crack in the cage.
Only one conclusion could be drawn:
only one could be done:
Conclusion
extract
help
skill
help
extract
skill
"tool" the young finch learns from his
relatives.
relatives.
prey
prey
With
With

Tools are used not only by people, but also by animals. In the arsenal of crows, for example, there are sticks with which they rake fallen leaves. Often, these smart birds drop nuts from a height to crack the shell.

Chimpanzee. Photo: Tambako the Jaguar/flickr.com Elephants can scratch their backs using a branch they grab with their flexible trunks. In addition, elephants can draw.

Chimpanzees use sticks to get termites, break nuts with rocks, and hunt with sticks. Gorillas, crossing the river, measure the depth with a staff. Capuchins make something like a knife, cutting off the edges of stones.

Vulture birds, to feast on ostrich eggs, take stones in their beaks and beat the eggs until they crack.

Octopuses are considered the smartest invertebrates, they build their shelters from halves of coconut or shells of mollusks. In the event of an attack, octopuses close the entrance to their abode with the second half of a nut shell or other shell.

The woodpecker extracts insects from the bark of trees with a twig if it cannot reach the bug with its beak.

Even ants use tools. For example, leaf-cutting ants cut leaves and use them to transport food and water.

Sea otters open oyster or clam shells with stones.

Dolphin. Photo: morguefile.com Crabs camouflage themselves by placing seaweed or shells on their backs.

Beavers build real castles from branches and sticks, they even surround their buildings with stones and mud.

The parrot can open the lock of the cage with a piece of plastic. And the cockatoo wraps its beak with leaves, this helps them open nuts, something like a person does when you need to open a bottle, only we use towels to increase friction.

Dolphins, hunting at the bottom, can wrap their nose with algae to protect it from scratches.

Until 1963, when Jane Goodall's work on wild chimpanzees and their use of tools was published, most scientists believed that tool use was a trait unique to humans. Half a century later, we are finally beginning to understand that the line between humans and other animals is rather thin. To prove this, we present to the attention of readers descriptions of 15 representatives of the animal kingdom who use tools in everyday life.

1. crows. Aside from primates, crows are the most intelligent animals in the world. Their arsenal of resourceful tricks includes manipulating sticks and twigs to get insects out of logs, dropping walnuts in front of moving cars to crack shells, and even using recycled paper as a rake or sponge.

African Elephant (Loxodonta africana)

2. elephants. Elephants have a distinctive ability to use tools with their flexible trunks. They scratch their backs with sticks, fan themselves with leaves to ward off flies, chew the bark to make it porous enough to absorb drinking water. But perhaps the most amazing property of elephants is their artistic abilities. Zookeepers give elephants brushes, and these sensual creatures show off their talent!

3. Bowerbirds. Most birds exhibit a common tool-related trait: nest building. Barbequers, commonly seen in Australia and New Guinea, do even more, and their motives are purely romantic. To attract a partner, male bowerbirds build a complex dwelling - a carefully constructed "hut", in the creation of which various objects are often used, such as bottle caps, beads, glass fragments, and in general everything that can be found and attracts attention.

4. Primates. There are endless examples of primate tool use. To name a few: chimpanzees use sticks for termite mining, stones and wooden tools for cracking nuts, sharp spears made from sticks for hunting; gorillas measure the depth of the reservoir with a staff; orangutans can open the lock with a paper clip; Capuchins make stone knives by striking pieces of flint on the floor until they have sharp edges.

5. Dolphins. The intelligence of dolphins is well known, but due to the fact that they do not have hands, but fins, many experts did not assume that these animals use tools. In any case, until 2005, when a flock of bottlenose dolphins were caught doing an interesting thing: they tore their lips and wrapped their noses in pieces, apparently in order to avoid scratches while hunting on the seabed.

6. Common Vultures. Birds are among the most skillful tool-wielding creatures, and one of the most striking examples is the common vulture. One of his favorite treats is ostrich eggs, but the thick shells are quite difficult to break. To solve this problem, vultures manipulate stones with their beaks and hit them until the egg cracks.

7. Octopuses. Octopuses are considered the most intelligent invertebrates on the planet, and they often improvise with tools. This guy in the photo carries two halves of the shell with him and, in case of danger, closes them and, thus, hides. And another species of octopus tears off the tentacles of jellyfish and brandishes them as a weapon during the attack.

8. woodpecker. There are several types of tool-using finches, but the most famous one is obviously the Galapagos woodpecker. Since its beak cannot always squeeze into small holes where insects live, the bird compensates for this shortcoming with a branch of a suitable size, with which it takes out food.

9. Ants and wasps. Even insects use tools, especially social species such as ants and wasps. One of the most famous examples is the leaf-cutter ant, which developed an advanced agricultural system by cutting leaves and using them as containers to transport food and water. And single wasps break up clods of earth with the help of small pebbles.

Green night heron (Butorides striatus)

10. green herbs. The resourcefulness of green herons allows them to become excellent fishermen. Instead of entering the water and waiting for prey to surface, these animals use fishing lures to get the fish to come within striking distance. Some night herons have been seen throwing food, such as bread crumbs, onto the water to attract fish.

Sea otter (Enhydra lutris)

11. Sea otters (sea otters). Even the strong jaws of a sea otter are not always enough to open the shell of a delicious clam or oyster. And this is where the cute animal shows quick wit. The otter always carries a stone around its belly and uses it to open its food.

12. arrow fish. Most insect-eating fish wait for their prey and then fall clumsily into the water, but not arrowfish. Instead, fish of this species use a specially designed mouth to literally shoot insects with a jet of water. And they have excellent aim. An adult shooter almost never misses, and this fish can hit an insect located on a leaf or branch at a distance of no more than three meters.

13. Crabs. Even crabs use tools. With the help of claws, you can perfectly manipulate objects. Crabs of some species dress up as sea anemones, pulling them over their backs. Usually they do it for the purpose of disguise, although in other cases, probably just to look beautiful.

14. beavers. Beavers make extensive use of tools. These animals build their dams to protect themselves from predators and provide free access to food and calm swimming. Some dams reach 800 meters in length. Beavers build their structures by cutting down trees and covering them with mud and rocks.

15. parrots. Parrots may be the smartest birds in the world, and there are plenty of examples of how they use tools. Many owners of these birds learn about this skill when a pet, using a piece of metal or plastic, lifts the lock of the cage. The palm cockatoo has been known to cover its beak with leaves to open nuts with a twisting motion, similar to how a person would take a towel to increase the friction to open a bottle.