What was the name of a young spruce undergrowth standing separately in the old days? Preservation of forest undergrowth What is the name of a small spruce undergrowth

480 rub. | 150 UAH | $7.5 ", MOUSEOFF, FGCOLOR, "#FFFFCC",BGCOLOR, "#393939");" onMouseOut="return nd();"> Thesis - 480 rubles, shipping 10 minutes 24 hours a day, seven days a week and holidays

Gutal Marko Milivoevich. The viability and structure of spruce undergrowth under the canopy of forest stands and in clearings: dissertation ... candidate of agricultural sciences: 06.03.02 / Gutal Marko Milivoevich; [Place of protection: St. Petersburg State Forestry University named after S.M. Kirov http://spbftu.ru/science/sovet/D21222002/dis02/].- St. Petersburg, 2015.- 180 p.

Introduction

1 Problem status 9

1.1 General information about spruce phytocenoses 9

1.2 Spruce undergrowth 11

1.2.1 Features of the age structure of spruce undergrowth 12

1.2.2 Features of the light regime under the canopy of spruce forests 16

1.2.3 Spruce undergrowth viability 22

1.2.4 Number of spruce undergrowth 25

1.2.5 Influence of forest type on spruce undergrowth 27

1.2.6 Features of the development of spruce undergrowth under the forest canopy 30

1.2.7 Influence of lower layer vegetation on spruce undergrowth 33

1.2.8 The impact of economic activities on undergrowth spruce 35

2 Research program and methodology 39

2.1 Research program 39

2.2 Study of forest phytocenosis by structural elements 40

2.2.1 Determining the main characteristics of the stand 40

2.2.2 Accounting for undergrowth 41

2.2.3 Accounting for undergrowth and living ground cover 46

2.2.4 Determination of needle biometrics 49

2.3 Research objects 51

2.4 Scope of work performed 51

3 Dynamics of the state of spruce undergrowth under the canopy of a forest stand .

3.1 Dynamics of the vital state of spruce undergrowth based on the results of long-term studies 53

3.2 Patterns of changes in the viability of spruce undergrowth in connection with the type of forest 69

3.3 Influence of the maternal canopy on the dynamics of the state and structure of spruce undergrowth

3.4 Correlation between viability of spruce undergrowth and average growth over the period of 3, 5 and 10 years.

3.5 Age structure as an indicator of the state of undergrowth 86

3.6 Undergrowth height structure as a status indicator 89

3.7 Comparative analysis of the state and structure of spruce undergrowth in the spruce forests of the Lisinsky and Kartashevsky forestries 93

4 Influence of economic measures on the number and viability of spruce undergrowth

4.1 Influence of thinnings on the viability dynamics of spruce undergrowth 105

4.2 Undergrowth thinning - as a measure to promote the natural regeneration of spruce 122

5 Dynamics of the state of spruce undergrowth on clearing 127

5.1 Features of the structure and condition of spruce undergrowth 127

5.2 Dependence of the dynamics of the state of spruce undergrowth on the age of felling 134

6 Biometric characteristics of needles as an indicator of viability of spruce undergrowth

6.1 Biometric indicators of needles under the canopy and in clearing 140

6.2 Biometric indicators of needles of viable and non-viable undergrowth of spruce.

Bibliography

Features of the light regime under the canopy of spruce forests

Spruce is one of the main forest-forming species on the territory of the Russian Federation, occupying the fourth place in terms of occupied area, second only to larch, pine and birch. Spruce grows from the tundra to the forest-steppe, but it is in the taiga zone that its forest-forming and edificatory role is most pronounced. The spruce genus (Picea Dietr.) belongs to the pine family (Pinacea Lindl.). Individual representatives of the spruce genus date back to the Cretaceous period, that is, 100-120 million years ago, when they had one common area on the Eurasian continent (Pravdin, 1975).

European spruce or common spruce - (Picea abies (L.) Karst.) is widespread in the north-east of Europe, where it forms continuous forests. In Western Europe, coniferous forests are not a zonal type of vegetation, and vertical differentiation takes place there. The northern border of the range in Russia coincides with the border of forests, and the southern border reaches the black earth zone.

Norway spruce is a tree of the first magnitude with a straight trunk, a cone-shaped crown and not strictly whorled branching. Max Height reaches 35-40 meters in flat conditions, and in the mountains there are specimens up to 50 m high. The oldest known tree was 468 years old. However, the age of more than 300 years is very rare, and in the zone of coniferous-deciduous forests it decreases to 120-150 (180) years (Kazimirov, 1983).

Norway spruce is characterized by a relatively high plasticity of the root system, capable of adapting to various soil conditions. The root system is most often superficial, but relatively deep vertical branches often develop on well-drained soils (Shubin, 1973). The trunk of the common spruce is full-woody, covered with relatively thin green-brown, brown or gray bark. The bark of the common spruce is smooth, but becomes scaly and furrowed with age.

Growth buds are small - from 4 to 6 millimeters, ovate-conical, red with dry scales. Reproductive buds are larger and reach 7-10 millimeters.

Spruce needles are tetrahedral, sharp, dark green, hard, shiny, up to 10-30 mm long and 1-2 mm thick. Keeps on shoots for 5-10 years and falls off throughout the year, but most intensively from October to May.

Norway spruce blooms in May - June. Cones ripen in autumn the next year after flowering, seeds fall out in late winter and early spring of the following year. Male spikelets of an elongated cylindrical shape are located on the shoots of the previous year. Cones are spindle-shaped cylindrical in shape, 6 to 16 long and 2.5 to 4 centimeters in diameter, located at the ends of the branches. Young cones are light green, dark purple or pinkish, while mature ones take on a different shade of light brown or reddish brown. Mature cones contain from 100 to 200 seed scales on the stem. Seed flakes - lignified, obovate, entire, finely serrated along the upper edge, notched. Each seed scale contains 2 recesses for seeds (Kazimirov, 1983). Seeds of common spruce brown, relatively small, 3 to 5 millimeters long. The mass of 1000 seeds is from 3 to 9 grams. Seed germination varies from 30 to 85 percent depending on growing conditions. Growing conditions also determine the presence of a repetition of harvest years, which occur on average every 4-8 years.

Norway spruce is a species that grows in a relatively large area, in various soil and climatic conditions. As a result, the common spruce is distinguished by a large intraspecific polymorphism (by type of branching, cone color, crown structure, phenology, etc.), and, consequently, by the presence of a large number of ecotypes. In relation to air temperature, common spruce is heat-loving, but at the same time - cold-resistant breed that grows in a temperate and cool climate zone with an average annual temperature of -2.9 to +7.4 degrees and the temperature of the warmest month of the year from +10 to +20 degrees (Chertovskoy, 1978). The area of ​​Norway spruce spreads in the range from 370 to 1600 mm of precipitation per year.

The issue of soil moisture is closely related to its aeration. Norway spruce, although it is able to grow in conditions of excessive moisture, but good productivity should be expected only in those cases where the water is flowing. On wet soils, spruce falls out already at a speed of 6-7 meters per second, and on fresh and dry soils, wind flows at a speed of 15 meters per second can withstand. Wind speeds of more than 20 meters per second cause a massive collapse.

The most intensive growth of common spruce differs on sandy and loamy soils, underlain at a depth of 1-1.5 meters by clays or loams. It should be noted that there are no strict rules for exactingness to the soil, its composition and mechanical composition as such, since the exactingness of spruce to the soil has a zonal character. Norway spruce has a high threshold of tolerance to soil acidity and is able to grow at pH fluctuations from 3.5 to 7.0. Norway spruce is relatively demanding on mineral nutrition (Kazimirov, 1983).

Accounting for undergrowth and living ground cover

The heterogeneity of the qualitative and quantitative characteristics of the undergrowth is expressed, first of all, through the concept of the viability of the undergrowth. The viability of undergrowth, according to the Encyclopedia of Forestry (2006), is the ability of the young generation of maternal undergrowth to exist and function in changing environmental conditions.

Many researchers, such as I.I. Gusev (1998), M.V. Nikonov (2001), V.V. Goroshkov (2003), V.A. Alekseev (2004), V.A. Alexeyev (1997) and others noted that the study of the qualitative parameters of spruce forests, by and large, comes down to studying the state of forest stands.

The state of the stand is a consequence of the complex processes and stages through which the plant passes from its rudiment and seed formation to the transition to the dominant layer. This long process of plant metamorphosis requires a division into various stages, each of which must be studied in a separate order.

Thus, it can be stated that relatively little attention is paid to the concept of viability and state of undergrowth (Pisarenko, 1977; Alekseev, 1978; Kalinin, 1985; Pugachevsky, 1992; Gryazkin, 2000, 2001; Grigoriev, 2008).

Most researchers argue that under the canopy of mature forest stands there is a sufficient amount of viable spruce undergrowth, however, in this case, the interdependence of the state of the undergrowth and its spatial distribution from the characteristics of the parent stand is most often not revealed.

There are also researchers who do not claim that under the canopy of the mother stand there should be a viable undergrowth capable of fully replacing the mother stand in the future (Pisarenko, 1977; Alekseev, 1978; Pugachevsky, 1992).

Height fluctuations and group distribution of spruce undergrowth have led some authors to argue that spruce undergrowth as a whole is not capable of providing preliminary regeneration under the condition of intensive logging operations (Moilanen, 2000).

Another study by Vargas de Bedemar (1846) found that the number of trunks sharply decreases with age, and that only about 5 percent of germinated seedlings remain in the process of natural selection and differentiation by the age of ripeness.

The process of differentiation is most pronounced in the "youth" of the plantation, where the oppressed classes stand out to the greatest extent in terms of condition, and gradually captures the "old age". According to G.F. Morozov, who refers to the earlier works of Ya.S. Medvedev (1910) in this direction, a common feature of undergrowth growing in a plantation is depression. Evidence of this is the fact that at the age of 60-80 years, the undergrowth of spruce under the canopy very often does not exceed 1-1.5 m, while the undergrowth of spruce in the wild at the same age reaches a height of 10-15 meters.

However, G.F. Morozov (1904) notes that the performance and productivity of individual specimens of undergrowth can change for the better, as long as the environmental conditions change. All specimens of undergrowth, of varying degrees of oppression, differ from undergrowth in the wild in terms of the morphological characteristics of the vegetative organs, incl. fewer buds, a different crown shape, a poorly developed root system, and so on. Such morphological changes in spruce, as the formation of an umbrella-shaped crown, developing in a horizontal direction, is an adaptation of the plant to the most efficient use of the "meager" light penetrating to the undergrowth. Studying the transverse sections of spruce undergrowth stems growing in the conditions of the Leningrad district (Okhtinskaya dacha), G.F. Morozov noted that in some specimens, the annual rings were densely closed at the initial stage of life (which indicates the degree of plant oppression), and then sharply expanded as a result of some forestry measures (in particular, thinning) that changed environmental conditions.

Spruce undergrowth, abruptly finding itself in open space, also dies from excessive physiological evaporation due to the fact that in open areas this process proceeds with greater activity, to which undergrowth growing under the canopy is not adapted. Most often, this undergrowth dies as a result of a sharp change in the situation, but, as G. F. Morozov noted, in some cases, after a long struggle, it begins to recover and survives. The ability of undergrowth to survive in such circumstances is determined by a number of factors, such as the degree of its oppression, the degree of drastic changes in environmental conditions, and, of course, biotic and abiotic factors that affect the growth and development of the plant.

Individual specimens of the undergrowth often vary greatly within the same massif in such a way that one specimen of the undergrowth, marked as unviable before felling, recovered, and the other remained in the category of unviable. The undergrowth of spruce, formed on fertile soils under the canopy of birch or pine, often does not respond to the removal of the upper layer, because. did not experience light deficit even in its presence (Cajander, 1934, Vaartaja, 1952). After a buffer period of adaptation, the growth of undergrowth in height increases many times, but small undergrowth requires more time for the functional restructuring of vegetative organs (Koistinen and Valkonen, 1993).

Indirect confirmation of the fact of the pronounced ability of spruce undergrowth to change the category of state for the better was given by P. Mikola (1966), noting that a significant part of the rejected spruce forests (based on the state of undergrowth), in the process of forest inventory in Finland, was later recognized as suitable for forest growing.

Age structure as an indicator of the state of undergrowth

Depending on the planting structure, from 3 to 17 percent of photosynthetic active radiation can penetrate under the canopies of spruce stands. It should also be noted that as edaphic conditions worsen, the degree of absorption of this radiation also decreases (Alekseev, 1975).

The average illumination in the lower tiers of spruce forests in bilberry forest types most often does not exceed 10%, and this, in turn, provides, on average, the minimum energy of annual growth, which ranges from 4 to 8 cm (Chertovskoy, 1978).

Research in Leningrad region conducted under the direction of A.V. Gryazkina (2001) show that the relative illumination on the soil surface under the canopy of forest stands is 0.3-2.1% of the total, and this is not enough for the successful growth and development of the young generation of spruce. These experimental studies have shown that the annual growth of the young generation of spruce increases from 5 to 25 cm with an increase in the light penetrating under the canopy from 10 to 40%.

Viable spruce undergrowth in the vast majority of cases grows only in the canopy windows of a spruce stand, since spruce undergrowth does not experience a lack of light in the windows, and besides, the intensity of root competition is much lower there than in the near-stem part of the stand (Melekhov, 1972).

V.N. Sukachev (1953) argued that the death of undergrowth is largely determined by the root competition of mother trees, and only then by the lack of light. He supported this statement with the fact that at the earliest stages of the life of the undergrowth (the first 2 years) "there is a strong decay of spruce, regardless of the illumination." Such authors as E.V. Maksimov (1971), V.G. Chertovsky (1978), A.V. Gryazkin (2001), K.S. Bobkova (2009) and others question such assumptions.

According to E.V. Maksimova (1971), the undergrowth becomes unviable when the illumination is from 4 to 8% of the total. Viable undergrowth is formed in the gaps between the crowns of mature trees, where the illumination is on average 8-20%, and is characterized by light needles and a well-developed root system. In other words, the viable undergrowth is confined to gaps in the canopy, and the strongly oppressed undergrowth is located in the zone of dense density of the upper layers (Bobkova, 2009).

V.G. Chertovskoy (1978) also argues that light has a decisive influence on the viability of spruce. According to his arguments, viable spruce undergrowth in medium-density stands usually makes up more than 50-60% of the total. In heavily closed spruce forests, unviable undergrowth predominates.

Studies in the Leningrad region have shown that the illumination regime, i.e. canopy closure determines the proportion of viable undergrowth. With a canopy closeness of 0.5-0.6, undergrowth with a height of more than 1 m predominates. At the same time, the share of viable undergrowth exceeds 80%. With a density of 0.9 or more (relative illumination less than 10%), viable undergrowth is most often absent (Gryazkin, 2001).

However, one should not underestimate other environmental factors, such as soil structure, moisture content, and temperature conditions (Rysin, 1970; Pugachevsky, 1983; Haners, 2002).

Although spruce belongs to shade-tolerant species, spruce undergrowth in high-density stands still experiences great difficulties in low light conditions. As a result, the quality characteristics of undergrowth in dense stands are noticeably worse compared to undergrowth growing in medium and low density stands (Vyalykh, 1988).

As spruce undergrowth grows and develops, the tolerance threshold for low light decreases. Already at the age of nine years, the need for illumination of spruce undergrowth sharply increases (Afanasiev, 1962).

The size, age and condition of undergrowth depend on the density of forest stands. The majority of mature and overmature coniferous stands are characterized by uneven ages (Pugachevsky, 1992). The largest number of undergrowth individuals occurs at a fullness of 0.6-0.7 (Atrokhin, 1985, Kasimov, 1967). These data are also confirmed by the studies of A.V. Gryazkina (2001), who showed that “the optimal conditions for the formation of a viable undergrowth of 3-5 thousand ind./ha are formed under the canopy of forest stands with a density of 0.6-0.7”.

NOT. Dekatov (1931) argued that the main prerequisite for the emergence of viable spruce undergrowth in an oxalis type of forest is that the fullness of the parent canopy is in the range of 0.3-0.6.

Viability, therefore, and growth in height are largely determined by the planting density, as evidenced by the studies of A.V. Gryazkina (2001). According to these studies, the growth of non-viable undergrowth in oxalis spruce forests with a relative stand density of 0.6 is the same as the growth of viable undergrowth with a density of 0.7-0.8 spruce forests.

In spruce forests of the bilberry type of forest, with an increase in the density of the forest stand, the average height of undergrowth decreases and this dependence is close to a linear relationship (Gryazkin, 2001).

Research N.I. Kazimirova (1983) showed that spruce undergrowth is rare and qualitatively unsatisfactory in lichen spruce forests with a density of 0.3-0.5. The situation is completely different with sorrel forests, and especially with lingonberry and blueberry forest types, where, despite the high density, there is a sufficient amount of undergrowth that is satisfactory in terms of vitality.

Dependence of the dynamics of the state of spruce undergrowth on the age of felling

With an increase in the relative density of the forest stand, the proportion of medium and large viable spruce undergrowth also increases, since competition for light in such a close canopy is most of all reflected in small undergrowth. With a high density of the forest stand, the proportion of unviable small undergrowth of spruce is also very large. However, this proportion is much higher with a low relative fullness, since under such light conditions competition increases, from which small undergrowth suffers first of all.

With an increase in the relative density of the forest stand, the proportion of small non-viable undergrowth changes as follows: at low density, the proportion of small non-viable undergrowth is the largest, then it falls and reaches a minimum at a density of 0.7, and then increases again with an increase in density (Figure 3.40).

The distribution of spruce undergrowth according to the categories of condition and size confirms that the life potential of undergrowth grown in the conditions of Lisinsky forestry is greater than that of spruce undergrowth in Kartashevsky forestry. This is especially clearly seen in the height structure of the undergrowth, since the proportion of medium and large spruce undergrowth, as a rule, is greater in Lisisin sites under similar forest conditions (Figures 3.39-3.40).

The best life potential of spruce undergrowth at the Lisino sites is also evidenced by the growth rate of undergrowth, which is shown in Figures 3.41-42. For each age group, regardless of the state of life, the average height of spruce undergrowth on Lisinsky sites is greater than the average height of undergrowth grown in the conditions of the Kartashevsky forestry. This once again confirms the thesis that under relatively less favorable environmental conditions (from the point of view of soil moisture and its fertility, closer to the blueberry type of forest), spruce undergrowth is able to show its competitive abilities more. It follows from this that the changes occurring in the canopy as a result of anthropogenic or other impacts are more positive result give in the context of improving the state of spruce undergrowth in the conditions of Lisinsky rather than Kartashevsky forestry.

1. At each stage of development, the number of undergrowth, as well as the structure in height, in age in the experimental plots change in different directions. However, a certain regularity was revealed: the more the number of undergrowth changes (after fruitful seed years, it increases sharply), the more the structure of undergrowth changes in height and age. If, with an increase in the number of undergrowth due to self-seeding, there is a significant decrease in the average height and average age, then with a decrease in the number as a result of mortality, the average height and average age can increase - if predominantly small undergrowth passes into waste, or decrease - if mainly large undergrowth passes into waste. undergrowth

2. For 30 years, the number of undergrowth under the canopy of the sorrel spruce forest and blueberry spruce forest has changed, in this component of the phytocenosis the change of generations is continuous - the main part of the older generation passes into the waste, and the undergrowth of new generations regularly appears and, first of all, after a plentiful seed harvest.

3. Over three decades, the composition of the undergrowth at the observation sites has changed significantly, the proportion of hardwoods has increased markedly and reached 31-43% (after cutting). At the beginning of the experiment, it did not exceed 10%.

4. In section A of the ecological station, the number of spruce undergrowth increased by 2353 specimens over 30 years, and taking into account the surviving model specimens, the total number of spruce undergrowth by 2013 amounted to 2921 ind./ha. In 1983 there were 3049 ind./ha.

5. Over three decades, under the canopy of blueberry spruce forest and oxalis spruce forest, the proportion of undergrowth that passed from the “non-viable” category to the “viable” category was 9% in section A, 11% in section B and 8% in section C, i.e. about 10% on average. Based on the total number of undergrowth in the experimental plot of 3-4 thousand/ha, this proportion is significant and deserves attention when conducting accounting work when assessing the success of natural spruce regeneration in these types of forests. 103 6. From the category “viable” to the category “non-viable” over the specified period of time, from 19 to 24% moved from the category “viable” to the category “dry” (bypassing the category “non-viable”) - from 7 to 11%. 7. Of the total number of growing undergrowth on section A (1613 specimens), 1150 specimens of undergrowth of different heights and different ages passed into the waste, i.e. about 72%. On section B - 60%, and on section C - 61%. 8. In the course of observations, the proportion of dry undergrowth increased with the height and age of the model specimens. If in 1983-1989. it was 6.3-8.0% of the total, then by 2013, dry undergrowth included from 15% (blueberry spruce forest) to 18-19% (sorrel spruce forest). 9. Of the total number of certified undergrowth in section A, 127 specimens became trees of countable sizes, i.e. 7.3%. Of these, most (4.1%) are those specimens that have moved in different years from the category of "non-viable" to the category of "viable". 10. The repeated counting of the same specimens of spruce undergrowth over a long period of time makes it possible to indicate the main reasons for the transition from the “non-viable” category to the “viable” category. 11. Changes in the structure of undergrowth in terms of height and age, fluctuations in numbers - a dynamic process in which two mutually opposite processes are simultaneously combined: the disappearance and the arrival of new generations of undergrowth. 12. Transitions of undergrowth from one category of condition to another, as a rule, occur more often among small undergrowth. The younger the age of undergrowth, the more likely a positive transition. If during the first 6 years of observations, about 3% of specimens passed from the category “NZh” to the category “Zh”. (with an average age of undergrowth of 19 years), then after 20 years - less than 1%, and after 30 years - only 0.2%. 13. The dynamics of the state of undergrowth is also expressed by forest types. Transitions of unviable undergrowth into the category of “viable” are more likely in blueberry spruce forest than in oxalis spruce forest.

searching results

Found results: 7993 (0.60 sec)

Free access

Limited access

License renewal is being specified

1

And most importantly, teenagers will gain experience in independent social action.

2

Purpose: promotion of reading fiction through new forms of work and increasing the interest of children and adolescents in visiting the library in the summer.

3

Purpose: the formation in children of the need for a book, reading, spiritual and intellectual growth, self-education

promoting the reading of fiction through new forms of work and increasing the interest of children and adolescents

4

Purpose: to promote the creative self-realization of students, to popularize reading

5

Goal: increasing reading and creative activity, involving students in outreach activities, promoting the formation of competent reader skills

promoting the reading of fiction through new forms of work and increasing the interest of children and adolescents

6

An early sensitive marker of subclinical increase in blood pressure in children and adolescents is endothelial function. With endothelial dysfunction, the balance of key vasoactive factors is disturbed: NO, endothelin-1 and serotonin. In immature spontaneously hypertensive rats (SHR line), compared with Wistar-Kyoto rats, the concentration in blood plasma of NO is increased by 14.7%, endothelin-1 - by 2.9 times, serotonin in blood plasma and platelets - by 2.7 and 2.3 times, respectively. . The number of platelets in the blood of SHR rats was 50% higher than that in Wistar-Kyoto rats.

juvenile arterial hypertension (AH) has “rejuvenated” and is currently observed in 2.4-18% of children and adolescents<...>Kazan, Republic of Tatarstan, Russian Federation An early sensitive marker of subclinical increase in blood pressure in children and adolescents

7

Purpose: development of interest in printed sources of information, development of creative abilities and communication skills of students

topics "Encyclopedias, dictionaries, reference books", "Scientific" popular literature, "Periodical publications for adolescents

8

No. 10 [School Library: Today and Tomorrow, 2016]

Information-methodical magazine for school and children's libraries, fund methodologists. Operative and up-to-date information - in every school library! Thematic issues, special issues, methodological collections of materials on the most pressing problems of the development of the school library community, scripts, articles to help improve skills. Actual documents, new in the profession, teacher-librarian, school library as a center of local history, social partnership, IT school, best foreign experience, reviews of resources, blogs, periodicals, historical materials, innovations, projects and developments of practitioners, essays about the profession, history success, reading topic: modern and historical aspects. The materials of the journal are interactive: they are provided with links to Internet resources on the topic, blogs, a mini-dictionary of terms, and expert opinion.

promoting the reading of fiction through new forms of work and increasing the interest of children and adolescents<...>topics "Encyclopedias, dictionaries, reference books", "Scientific" popular literature, "Periodical publications for adolescents<...>And most importantly, teenagers will gain experience in independent social action.

9

The novel is alive, and even too alive. Talk about the "death of the novel", modestly celebrating its centennial anniversary, dried up. The novel deficiency of the nineties was replaced by the romance of the zero. The production of large-scale prose, bridled by the book business and literary awards, has risen to the tide.

The "reference point" of their socialization was the beginning of perestroika, which they caught as teenagers

10

No. 5 [Social Pedagogy, 2014]

"Social Pedagogics" is a journal of scientific and applied orientation, which is addressed not only to social educators and social workers, but also to a wide range of professionals who work with children and adolescents. Among the authors are well-known scientists - academicians of the Russian Academy of Education, researchers, managers and a large group of practitioners representing various regions of the country. The journal publishes normative and legal documents relating to various aspects of protecting the rights and legitimate interests of children and their families. Considerable attention is paid to improving the qualifications of specialists, innovative programs are offered for social educators, specialists from guardianship and guardianship authorities, and potential parents of foster families.

and phenomena like the desire to do good (on the part of parents in relation to their son) and the protest of adolescents<...>the influence and characteristics of the manifestations of the crisis "sa of adolescence, of particular importance in stimulating adolescent<...>The rejection of the child by parents is one of the basic causes of adolescent aggressiveness.<...>According to some studies, adolescents are the predominant component of the audience of social<...>Central Design Bureau "BIBCOM" & LLC "Agency Book-Service" It is in the networks that the real interests of modern adolescents are reflected.

11

Alexander Alekseevich Lomtev - journalist, writer. Born in 1956. Founder and publisher of the cultural and educational newspaper Sarovskaya Pustyn. Published in various Russian literary magazines. Author of the books Journey with an Angel (finalist of the 2008 Bunin Prize in the Discovery of the Year nomination), Underwood, Ashes of Memory. Laureate of the Russian Writers' Union "Imperial Culture" award, "Patriot of Russia" award, etc. Lives in the city of Sarov, Nizhny Novgorod Region.

Moscow and Leningrad intelligent teachers taught, and after school they played village games, teenagers

12

SCIENTIFIC AND FORESTRY FOUNDATIONS FOR THE PRESERVATION OF THE SPRUCE UNDER CLEAR CUTTINGS IN THE MAIN TYPES OF SPRUCE FOREST AND VEGETATION CONDITIONS OF THE LATVIA SSR ABSTRACT DIS. ... CANDIDATE OF AGRICULTURAL SCIENCES

LATVIAN ACADEMY OF AGRICULTURE

The purpose of this work was to determine the possibilities of preserving spruce undergrowth in the Latvian SSR during the development of clearcut plantations, to study the associated changes in forest conditions and their impact on spruce undergrowth, to find out the possibilities for timely determination of the expected effect of preliminary regeneration by the external signs of spruce undergrowth in accordance with forest conditions. , which would allow the practice workers to easily navigate which spruce undergrowth and where is of forestry importance in the formation of future forest plantations.

The results of studies of spruce undergrowth show that in older spruce stands, as<...>SURVIVAL OF THE SPRUCE UNDERGROWTH IN CLEAR CLEARINGS 1.<...>viable spruce undergrowth (Table 1).<...>In addition to spruce undergrowth, a certain amount of undergrowth of other species is preserved.<...>ECONOMIC EFFECT OF CONSERVATION OF THE SPRUCE UNDERGROWTH Preservation of the spruce undergrowth as a future forest-forming agent

13

Ecological and physiological features of spruce in blueberry birch forests: monograph

The results of long-term field studies on the ecology and physiology of spruce under conditions of different light and nitrogen nutrition in the northern taiga blueberry birch forests of the European North are presented. The regularities of the dynamics of physiological processes in subsoil spruce and ground cover plants depending on the succession development of birch forests, felling intensity and the dose of nitrogen introduced, as well as the physiological mechanisms of action of these environmental factors, are considered. Attention is paid to the study of the vital activity of root systems, the features of CO2 gas exchange, the seasonal dynamics of pigment accumulation, the rate of post-photosynthetic outflow, the movement and distribution of carbon-14 in spruce organs. From the physiological and biochemical standpoints, the issues of substantiating the efficiency of logging and the dose of introduced nitrogen and their influence on the physiology and growth of substory spruce are considered. The possibility of assessing the level of adaptive ability of spruce to changing conditions of the phytoenvironment based on the study of ecological and physiological indicators is shown.

Therefore, the survival of spruce undergrowth in the deciduous-spruce forests of the North mainly depends on its ability to<...>undergrowth in deciduous-spruce plantations increases significantly.<...>Spruce undergrowth - 3.6 thousand copies. per 1 ha.<...>undergrowth into spruce-deciduous and spruce plantations.<...>In control, this process has not yet begun in spruce undergrowth.

14

Ecological factors of natural renewal under the canopy of blueberry spruce forests

Northern (Arctic) Federal University named after M.V. Lomonosov

The results of the study of natural renewal under the canopy of spruce forests in the northern taiga of the Arkhangelsk region are presented. Information about the quantity and quality of undergrowth of different height categories is given. It is stated that the amount of undergrowth is clearly not enough for the successful restoration of spruce forests. The reasons for this phenomenon are being clarified. The stock of seeds in the forest litter and mineral horizons was determined. The ecological factors influencing the undergrowth are analyzed.

there was no or insufficient amount of spruce undergrowth.<...>then a 40-60-year-old spruce undergrowth under a spruce plantation is a completely common phenomenon.<...>renewal of the number of spruce undergrowth (100–760 pcs.<...>In general, all parameters of the needles of spruce undergrowth increase with an increase in the size of the undergrowth - the larger the undergrowth<...>to renew the amount of spruce undergrowth (100–760 pcs.

15

FORMATION OF MIXED spruce-deciduous young forests on clear-cut clearings on the example of the Lisinsky educational and experimental forestry enterprise ABSTRACT DIS. ... CANDIDATE OF AGRICULTURAL SCIENCES

The purpose of this research is to study the processes of formation of mixed young stands in clearings in specific forest conditions. The final result of the research is the development of care recommendations that provide not only an improvement in the qualitative composition of forest stands (due to the predominance of conifers), but also an increase in the productivity of these plantations.

", ". "~ At the beginning of the current century in Russia, well-known spruce undergrowth showed great interest in spruce undergrowth in the formation of productive spruce plantations, many researchers<...>biology and ecology of spruce undergrowth in clearings.<...>Along with the study of the above-ground part of the spruce undergrowth, root systems were also studied (36 specimens)<...>The noted fact determines the qualitative structure and growth energy of spruce undergrowth. 8.

16

Ecological and biological features of spruce in the northern taiga phytocenoses (state, anthropogenic influence) monograph

Northern (Arctic) Federal University named after M.V. Lomonosov

The results of long-term field studies on the ecology and physiology of spruce under different water and light regimes and nitrogen nutrition in the northern taiga phytocenoses of the European North are presented. Considerable attention is paid to the study of the vital activity of spruce root systems, the features of CO2 gas exchange, the seasonal dynamics of pigment accumulation, the rate of post-photosynthetic outflow, the movement and distribution of carbon-14 in organs, and growth processes depending on the state of these environmental factors. The issues of substantiating the effectiveness of different types of cuttings and the doses of nitrogen applied in northern taiga spruce forests and blueberry birch forests are considered in detail from the physiological and biochemical positions, recommendations are given to achieve higher physiological and silvicultural effects for spruce under the influence of these factors. The possibility of assessing the level of adaptive ability of spruce to changing conditions of the phytoenvironment based on the study of ecological and physiological indicators is shown.

<...> <...> <...> <...>

17

RELATIONSHIPS OF OAK AND SPRUCE IN THE MOSCOW REGION ABSTRACT DIS. ... CANDIDATE OF BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES

M.: FACULTY OF BIOLOGY AND SOIL

Throughout the studied territory, in all habitats where spruce and oak grow together, their relationship lies in the plane of short-term demutational changes. Spruce forms temporary plantations that replace small-leaved forests at the site of clearings and dry lands and are replaced by a climax - oak forest.

In P. oxalidosum, mass shoots of spruce are often observed, however, the spruce undergrowth here is little<...>Here you can see only single specimens of dried or semi-dried spruce undergrowth that appeared<...>In P. cari cosum pilosae, as a rule, spruce undergrowth is generally absent; oak undergrowth is represented by<...>Blueberry spruce forests are characterized by the presence of good spruce undergrowth, i.e. k̂. spruce is capable here<...>The group undergrowth of spruce here is always * of different ages, just as the spruce stands themselves are of different ages.

18

Northern (Arctic) Federal University named after M.V. Lomonosov

The dynamics of physiological and growth processes in substory spruce during the age change of blueberry birch forest was studied. It has been established that, in this case, the growth and formation of the spruce population are determined by the joint ontogenesis of the derivative (birch) forest stand and the recovering spruce population, the fullness and closeness of the deciduous canopy. At the initial stages of the formation of a birch stand, the rate of physiological processes and the growth of spruce mainly depend on environmental factors. The growth of apical shoots and the intensity of physiological processes in spruce undergrowth reach their maximum values ​​in a 6–8-year-old birch forest at the initial stages of colonization of deciduous species. In a birch forest of this age, the intensity of photosynthesis in spruce undergrowth is 3–4 times higher than under the canopy of an adult stand. Under these conditions, water exchange proceeds more actively in spruce, and the root system works more intensively. With further age development birch stand in connection with the formation of the upper deciduous canopy and the deterioration of the light regime, the physiological and growth activity in the sub-canopy spruce begins to weaken. Already in the 13-year-old birch forest, spruce undergrowth is experiencing an adverse environmental impact from birch. From the age of 20–25 years, complete biological suppression of spruce by birch begins, which continues until spruce enters the first layer. Despite the high content of pigments, the intensity of photosynthesis in spruce undergrowth in a stand of this age does not exceed 5–8 mg CO2/(gh), which is 3–4 times lower than in an 8-year-old birch forest, and much weaker than in 13 year old plantation. To improve the state of spruce and increase its biological stability, it is necessary to timely implement assistance measures through thinning. Already at the age of birch 20 ... 25 years, spruce clarification is required. In mature forest stands, it is expedient to start the first method of gradual felling at the age of 50...60 years, the second - after 8...10 years.

The results of our research have shown that spruce undergrowth receives the greatest amount of light on fresh<...>By the age of 23 birch, the ability of spruce undergrowth to assimilate atmospheric carbon dioxide, despite<...>In the spruce-birch stand, the first signs of the presence of radiocarbon compounds in the roots of undergrowth<...>A day later, the radioactivity of young needles in undergrowth in a ripe spruce forest stand due to its underdevelopment<...>The lowest photosynthesis and shortened shoots in spruce undergrowth were noted in a birch forest that has reached the age

19

Ecological and biological features of spruce in the northern taiga phytocenoses (state, anthropogenic influence): monograph

Northern (Arctic) Federal University named after M.V. Lomonosov

The results of many years of field research on the ecology and physiology of spruce under different water and light regimes and nitrogen nutrition in the northern taiga phytocenoses of the European North are presented. Considerable attention is paid to the study of the vital activity of spruce root systems, the features of CO2 gas exchange, the seasonal dynamics of pigment accumulation, the rate of post-photosynthetic outflow, the movement and distribution of carbon-14 in organs, and growth processes depending on the state of these environmental factors. The issues of substantiating the effectiveness of different types of cuttings and the doses of nitrogen applied in northern taiga spruce forests and blueberry birch forests are considered in detail from the physiological and biochemical positions, recommendations are given to achieve higher physiological and silvicultural effects for spruce under the influence of these factors. The possibility of assessing the level of adaptive ability of spruce to changing conditions of the phytoenvironment based on the study of ecological and physiological indicators is shown.

/ min, and in the 37-year-old spruce plantation renewed from the preserved undergrowth - 292.2 103 imp.<...>Root respiration As our studies have shown, spruce undergrowth roots breathe<...>The fund of carotenoid pigments in the undergrowth changes little during the ontogeny of a deciduous-spruce plantation.<...>Illumination mode and photosynthesis in spruce undergrowth in birch-spruce stands of the Vologda region // Physiological.<...>On the role of spruce undergrowth in the formation of spruce-birch plantations // Lesn. household 1963. No. 5. S. 7–9.

20

SCIENTIFIC SUBSTANTIATION OF MEASURES TO PROMOTE THE NATURAL RENEWAL OF CONIFEROUS SPECIES IN THE CLEARINGS OF THE KARELIAN ASSR ABSTRACT DIS. ... CANDIDATE OF AGRICULTURAL SCIENCES

LENINGRAD ORDER OF LENIN FOREST ACADEMY IM. S. M. KIROVA

In this paper, for the conditions of the Karelian ASSR, the results of a study of the process of natural renewal and its natural features at modern ways forest exploitation and the results of studying the impact on natural reforestation of the main contributing measures: the abandonment of seedlings, soil preparation, conservation of undergrowth.

Survival rate of pine undergrowth after clear-cutting in the lingonberry pine forest type and spruce undergrowth in the type<...>Small spruce undergrowth is almost completely viable, with the exception of growing on a semi-decomposed<...>the color of the needles of the entire small spruce undergrowth,. with the exception of growing on semi-decomposed dead wood<...>An external sign of the viability of large spruce undergrowth is the length of the crown, which, when<...>The role of spruce and pine undergrowth in the formation of young stands (survival of undergrowth). Sat.

21

Northern (Arctic) Federal University named after M.V. Lomonosov

Natural regeneration under the canopy of small-leaved forests in the north of the European part of Russia was studied. The studies were carried out in birch and blueberry aspen forests of different ages. It has been established that the natural regeneration of spruce in the North under the canopy of small-leaved forests is generally quite successful. Under the canopy of birch forests there is an average of up to 4.4 thousand ind./ha of undergrowth. Among the total number, there are more than 3.0 thousand ind./ha of spruce undergrowth, which is quite enough for the restoration of spruce forests with proper observance of forestry requirements and technologies during the organization of logging operations during felling. In aspen forests, most of the young spruce stands are found in the middle taiga subzone (on average, 2.8 thousand ind./ha), which is also quite enough for their transformation into spruce-deciduous and spruce plantations. In the northern subzone of the taiga, spruce renewal in aspen forests is unsatisfactory. Here, there are no more than 1.0 thousand copies per 1 hectare. young spruce and about 0.6 thousand copies. birch. The condition of the existing spruce undergrowth under the canopy of birch and aspen forests is unsatisfactory, which can be significantly improved by appropriate measures in the form of selective or gradual felling. As we move from north to south, the total number of spruce undergrowth under the canopy of small-leaved forests decreases, the share of large undergrowth decreases especially noticeably, and the share of small growth increases. In terms of the amount of undergrowth under the canopy, the birch forests of the northern subzone differ from the middle subzone in its higher content. The average age and height of most of the spruce undergrowth in blueberry birch forests of the northern subzone is 10 years higher compared to the middle subzone and is 48 and 38 years and 2.5 and 1.4 m, respectively. The participation of deciduous species in the reforestation process of birch and aspen forests ranges from 10 to 28%. The main representative in the undergrowth is birch (up to 82%). The share of participation in aspen undergrowth in birch forests does not exceed 6%, in aspen forests it rises to 17%.

up to 100 thousand copies and more than 1-2-year-old spruce undergrowth.<...>This amount of spruce in the undergrowth is clearly not enough to restore native spruce stands.<...>spruce forest.<...>Formation of spruce stands from undergrowth in clearings of small-leaved forests // Lesn. household 1991. no.<...>On the role of spruce undergrowth in the formation of spruce-birch plantations // Lesn. household 1963. No. 5.

22

Proceedings on experimental forestry in Russia report on experimental forestry for 1910

Type. Moscow A. Aleksandrova

Proceedings on experimental forestry in Russia

Sosio-spruce with li / pov podlyskom. \ Spruce-deciduous "Old Coast". Oak along the floodplain *.<...>X « 4, spruce undergrowth is very weakly populated.<...>In the first case, we are spruce-deciduous type. and in the second, spruce-broad-leaved.<...>e spruce-deciduous and spruce-broad-leaved types lies in the fact that in the first there is a significant<...>spruce-broad-leaved mud.

23

ALLELOPATIC FACTOR IN RELATIONSHIPS OF SOME FOREST PLANTS ABSTRACT DIS. ... CANDIDATE OF BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES

LENINGRAD ORDER OF LENIN FOREST ACADEMY IM. S. M. KIROVA

The purpose of this study was to establish the nature of the biochemical effect of forest grasses on the growth and other physiological processes of self-seeding of conifers and to assess the role of the allelopathic impact of grasses in the death of conifers in cereal clearings.

The average number of spruce undergrowth on the site is 7QQ thousand specimens per hectare. .<...>Pure spruce undergrowth. Composition 10E units. B.S. The amount of spruce is 860 thousand/ha. Height 30 cm. P.<...>Spruce undergrowth with a slight admixture of birch. Composition 9E1B + C. The amount of spruce is 1 million ha.<...>Spruce undergrowth mixed with birch. ",.-." t _ Composition I tier 9B1S-NE.. Height of the 1st tier 3.0 m.<...>The negative effect of toxic substances on the growth of spruce is also enhanced because spruce undergrowth

24

Selkolkhozgiz

Collection of tasks and questions on forestry

Fullness 0.6; a lot of spruce undergrowth.<...>Spruce undergrowth - rare, oppressed.<...>Lots of good spruce undergrowth.<...>Dense spruce undergrowth 3-6 m high, linden juice nearby, etc. 1358.<...>Spruce undergrowth. Undergrowth of linden, euonymus, buckthorn and mountain ash.

25

STEM AND OTHER DISEASES OF CONIFEROUS GROWTH ON FELLING IN KARELIA ABSTRACT DIS. ... CANDIDATE OF BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES

The tasks of the work included the following issues: 1) identification of the main diseases of young plantations in Karelia and the establishment of their prevalence; 2) a study of the quality of spruce undergrowth in connection with its injury during logging (types of wood lesions and the resulting mycoflora, the cause of the formation of brown wound rot and some conditions for its development; 3) a study of a disease little known in the USSR, pine canker (symptoms, pathogen and features its biology, factors contributing to the emergence and development of the disease).

DISEASES OF SPRUCE Wound rot Works on the study of wound rot of spruce undergrowth are almost unknown, although<...>Brown wound rot and wounds do not have a noticeable effect on the growth of spruce undergrowth in height, but<...>Spruce undergrowth in all growing conditions, where the main disease is wound rot. " 1.<...>Spruce undergrowth in all growing conditions, where the main disease is wound rot.<...>- Damage to spruce undergrowth during logging and wound rot.

26

DYNAMICS OF ORGANIC MATTER AND NITROGEN IN SODDY-PODZOLIC SOILS IN BEREZNYAK AND IN CLEARED CLEARING IN THE SOUTHERN TAIGA SUBZONE ABSTRACT DIS. ... CANDIDATE OF BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES

M.: MOSCOW ORDER OF LENIN AND THE ORDER OF LABOR RED BANNER AGRICULTURAL ACADEMY NAMED AFTER K. A. TIMIRYAZEV

Conclusions 1. Clear cutting with preserved spruce undergrowth in small-leaved forest stands of the southern taiga significantly affects the dynamics of organic matter and nitrogen, temperature and hydrological regimes, and, to a lesser extent, soil properties. 2. The phytocenosis formed on the felling, despite its “underdevelopment”, is able to quite fully use the potential of the habitat and the annual plant production is restored to its original values ​​in the 4-6th year after felling ...

Give an assessment of leaf analysis and biometric indicators of spruce * undergrowth while optimizing nitrogen<...>Conclusions p ".applications: fertilizers to accelerate the growth of spruce undergrowth in clearcuts were used in<...>The production of spruce undergrowth and grasses in the first year had low values, but already. the second year she sharply<...>The removal of nitrogen by spruce undergrowth increased from 3 to 6 kg/ha over the years of observation.<...>-"VI """." 7*"" ---;"7;"Saved, during the development of the cutting area, spruce undergrowth ̂ ;"."]

27

Proceedings and research on forestry and forest industry Vol. 10

Ed. Leningrad. FiSt. Petersburg All-Union. scientific research Institute of Forestry and Forestry Industry 2nd type. Transprints of the NKPS

Proceedings and research on forestry and the forest industry

Accepted limiting age of spruce undergrowth in spruce-deciduous forest stands V class. age at average<...>Spruce Undergrowth Spray FROM 1 TO t "rr "A" L Fig. 2 Projections of tree crowns and distribution of spruce undergrowth<...>Spruce undergrowth in the amount of 9.9 thousand copies per i ", up to 3 m high.<...>This closeness "allows, apparently, spruce undergrowth to settle under the canopy of spruce crowns, but in<...>When distributing spruce undergrowth by age under a canopy of spruce-deciduous forest stands of medium density

28

VIABILITY OF SPRUCE UNDERGROWTH AND ITS PRESERVATION DURING MECHANIZED CLEAR CUTTING X ABSTRACT DIS. ... CANDIDATE OF AGRICULTURAL SCIENCES

USSR ACADEMY OF SCIENCES SIBERIAN BRANCH INSTITUTE OF FORESTS AND WOOD

Questions of quantitative and qualitative characteristics of spruce renewal were studied in 1958-61. in blueberry spruce forests of Siversky, Tikhvinsky and Kapshinsky forestries

To improve the living condition of spruce undergrowth Bad quality under the forest canopy, the following<...>Includes pure spruce forests with a density of 0.5, spruce-deciduous and deciduous-spruce plantations with a density of<...>. , The available studies characterize the preserved spruce undergrowth mainly from the side of the general<...>It is also known that the use of the same technological data on the conservation of spruce undergrowth in forestry<...>Under the forest canopy spruce undergrowth of high and average vitality under continuous

29

Northern (Arctic) Federal University named after M.V. Lomonosov

The article presents the results of studies on the assessment of the potential of spruce plantations of various origins for the creation of forest plantations by silvicultural methods, intended to obtain target assortments in the conditions of the southern taiga region of the European part of Russia. Plantations with the participation of spruce of different ages of natural and artificial origin are analyzed, taking into account the characteristics of forest growth conditions in the southwestern part of the Kostroma region. In stands of spruce of artificial origin without thinning or with felling with an intensity of up to 20% at the age of 20 to 40 years, the share of hardwood species can reach up to 2–4 units. In plantations aged 45 to 60 years, the share of softwood species is no more than 2 units. Carrying out care in spruce cultures and in natural plantations of softwoods formed on the site of former fellings with viable undergrowth will allow the formation of pure and mixed plantations of accelerated cultivation. The types of plantations that are most promising for the formation of thinning plantations with accelerated cultivation of target assortments from spruce in the forest conditions of the southern taiga forest region of the European part of Russia have been identified. The potential for the formation of forest plantations in various forest growing conditions of dark coniferous forests was assessed on the basis of the assortment structure of forest stands on trial plots. Spruce forests of artificial origin compared to spruce stands of natural origin have a larger volume of commercial timber, including sawlogs. The yield of target assortments in natural forest stands decreases with increasing age of the stand. Due to the limited amount of spruce undergrowth under the canopy and a significant proportion of natural regeneration of deciduous species, it is desirable to carry out thinning (mainly in the oxalis group of forest types). Previously created conditionally plantation spruce crops need intensive thinning. For citation: Chudetsky A.I., Bagaev S.S. Assessment of the potential of spruce plantations for the creation of forest plantations using silvicultural methods in the southern taiga region of the European part of Russia // Lesn. magazine 2019. No. 2. S. 22–31. (News of higher educational institutions). DOI: 10.17238/issn0536-1036.2019.2.22
The article presents the results of studies on the potential assessment of spruce plantations of different origin for the development of forest plantations by silvicultural methods in order to obtain target assortment in the southern taiga region of the European part of Russia. The analysis of spruce plantations of different age and natural and artificial origin, taking into account the features of site conditions in the south-western part of Kostroma region, is given. In spruce stands of artificial origin at the age of 20…40 years without improvement thinning or with thinning intensity up to 20% the proportion of deciduous species can reach up to 2–4 units. The share of softwood species is not more than 2 units in plantations at the age of 45–60 years. Carrying out tending of spruce crops and natural stands of softwood species formed on the felling site with viable undergrowth will allow the formation of pure and mixed plantations of accelerated cultivation. Types of stands which are the most promising for the formation by improvement thinning of plantations for the advanced growth of spruce target assortment under forest site conditions of the southern taiga forest region of the European part of Russia were selected. The potential assessment of forest plantation formation in different forest site conditions for dark coniferous forest growing was carried out based on the stand assortment structure of trial plots. Spruce forests of artificial origin have a greater volume of industrial wood including sawlog in comparison with spruce forests of natural origin. The yield of target assortment in natural stands decreases with the increase of stand age. It is advisable to carry out improvement thinning (mainly in the sorrel family), due to the limited amount of spruce undergrowth under plantation canopy and the significant share of natural regeneration of hardwood species. The conventional plantation spruce crops, which were created earlier, need intensive thinning. For citation: Chudetsky A.I., Bagaev S.S. Potential Assessment of Spruce Stands for the Development of Forest Plantations by Silvicultural Methods in the Southern Taiga Region of the European Part of Russia. Lesnoy Zhurnal, 2019, no. 2, pp. 22–31. DOI: 10.17238/issn0536-1036.2019.2.22

undergrowth.<...>Only at BCPs No. 28 and 31, undergrowth ate better (3420 and 2650 pcs.<...>When thinning the upper canopy, the viability of the undergrowth improves (PPP No. 31).<...>undergrowth or second layer of spruce in the sour group of forest types (TLU - C3).<...>Under certain thinning regimes, it is possible to improve the productivity of second-tier spruce or spruce undergrowth

30

STUDY OF THE VALUE AND COLOR OF THE FALSE NUCLEI OF ASPEN DEPENDING ON THE CONDITIONS OF ITS GROWTH ABSTRACT DIS. ... CANDIDATE OF AGRICULTURAL SCIENCES

LENINGRAD ORDER OF LENIN FOREST ACADEMY IM. S. M. KIROVA

Purpose - to study the varieties of redness, to establish the pattern of their distribution along the trunk, to study the relationship of redness with the morphological features of trees, their growing conditions and with heart rot.

During felling, spruce undergrowth and young stands were preserved in part of the area.<...>. aspen Aspen with dense spruce undergrowth Birch-aspen Edges of aspen plantations Tree thickness<...>In spruce-aspen dark-core aspens there were only 33%, in aspen forests with dense spruce undergrowth - 25%, in pure<...>plots, by 6% and less than in aspen plantations with dense spruce undergrowth, by 7%. 7.<...>in plots and aspen forests with dense spruce undergrowth , i Birch and aspen stands are dominated by trees

31

ECOLOGICAL AND BIOLOGICAL SUBSTANTIATION OF GRADUAL FELLING IN BLUEBERRY BIRCHWOODS OF THE NORTHERN TAIGA SUBZONE OF THE EUROPEAN PART OF RUSSIA ABSTRACT DIS. ... CANDIDATE OF AGRICULTURAL SCIENCES

ALL-RUSSIAN RESEARCH INSTITUTE OF FORESTRY AND FORESTRY MECHANIZATION

The purpose of the study is to substantiate the regime for the release of spruce undergrowth from under the canopy of deciduous plantations by gradual felling in the conditions of the northern taiga subzone.

The purpose of the study is to substantiate the regime for the release of spruce undergrowth from under the canopy of deciduous plantations.<...>The main objectives of the study. 1 Assess the vital state of spruce undergrowth in the process of leaf ontogenesis<...>to shorten the growing period of spruce stands (Pobedinsky, 1961, 1973, 1983).<...>Experimental plot 1 is a two-tier birch-spruce plantation of age class VI, class IV<...>Photosynthesis, outflow and distribution of 14C assimilates in spruce in deciduous-spruce plantations under complex

32

Recommendations for sustainable forest management on drained lands

Karelian Scientific Center of the Russian Academy of Sciences

Guidelines developed on the basis of long-term studies of the Forest Institute of the Karelian Scientific Center of the Russian Academy of Sciences and long-term observations of the growth of plantations after clear, selective and gradual felling in the drained forests of Karelia. They are an addition to the existing federal "Rules for timber harvesting" (2007), take into account the provisions of the Forest Code of the Russian Federation, regional specifics of forestry and environmental conditions of drained forests.

and thinner, the second spruce tier is formed.<...>Spruce undergrowth under the forest canopy, as a rule, is of different ages and differs in height.<...>Spruce stands When choosing felling methods in drained mature and overmature spruce forests and<...>/ha of spruce undergrowth.<...>After the reconstruction of deciduous-spruce plantations (cutting of deciduous species), conditions for the growth of undergrowth are improved

33

The features of the influence of different technologies of logging operations on the elements of forest biogeocenosis: undergrowth, soil and living ground cover at the time of felling and their dynamics for a long time after felling in experimental areas of the Moscow region are considered. The preservation of undergrowth and the degree of soil mineralization are closely related to the principle of felling felled trees. The main attention was paid to areas of clear cuttings. Preservation of spruce undergrowth made it possible to accelerate the formation of a spruce plantation, while the renewal of deciduous species was observed only on trails and a loading area. Over the course of 25 years, hardwoods gradually began to be forced out of these areas, this was especially intense in the parts of the portages far from the loading area, where the passage of heavy equipment was one-time. In the near parts, with repeated passage of equipment, the appearance of a spreading rush was noted, which indicates a high density of the soil. Such conditions make it difficult to renew not only spruce, but also hardwoods, which was also noted at the loading area. Forest formation on the site without undergrowth preservation occurs with the dominance of deciduous species, spruce makes up the lower tier. The exit of spruce to the upper layer is possible only during thinning or after a considerable period of time. The role of the preserved undergrowth is significant and is determined by its height and age at the time of felling. The analysis of undergrowth distribution in areas of clear-cutting showed an advantage in the growth of spruce group undergrowth in comparison with single growth. Comparative analysis of crop growth and preserved undergrowth showed the advantage of naturally growing spruce

Preservation of spruce undergrowth made it possible to accelerate the formation of a spruce plantation, while the renewal of deciduous<...>25 years after felling, due to the increase in the height of the preserved spruce undergrowth growing<...>The spruce undergrowth is mainly represented by a small category, the larger spruce undergrowth disappears due to<...>On the site with the preservation of undergrowth, the group placement of spruce undergrowth of subsequent renewal prevails.<...>Changes in spruce ecosystems under the influence of main cuttings with the use of aggregate technology / I.S.

34

Recommendations for the renewal felling in the areas of traditional nature management, economic purposes and recreation NP "Vodlozersky"

Karelian Scientific Center of the Russian Academy of Sciences

National Park "Vodlozersky" is one of the few in the European part of Russia, where large tracts of primary forests have been preserved, which are characterized by uneven ages and vertical dissection of the canopy, specific flora and fauna. The Park, in accordance with the Federal Law "On Specially Protected Natural Territories", has five zones with different usage regimes. The project for the organization and development of forestry in the zone of traditional nature management and economic purpose of the Park defines forestry activities (cutting for young growth, thinning, renewal felling, selective sanitary and landscape formation felling). The landscape approach was adopted as the basis for planning the territorial distribution of forestry activities, assuming that the system of ongoing activities will not upset the balance of the existing landscape and at the same time preserve the biological diversity of the territory. Carrying out forest management activities (in particular, renewal felling) will help improve the sanitary condition of forest stands, preserve and enhance the water and soil protection functions of the forest and will partially solve the problem of supplying the Park with wood for landscaping its territory.

Spruce stands One of the most important characteristics of primary spruce forests is the age structure<...>/ha of viable spruce undergrowth, including large-sized (1.5 m or more high) 300–500 pcs.<...>The preservation of spruce undergrowth with the cut-to-length method of harvesting is on average about 70–75% of<...>Spruce undergrowth should be considered viable with an increase over the past 5 years of at least 10 cm, regardless<...>This also applies to large spruce undergrowth. The method of accounting for undergrowth is tape.

35

FEATURES OF SPATIAL VARIATION OF SOME PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF SODDY-PODZOL SOIL IN FOREST BIOGEOCOENOSIS ABSTRACT DIS. ... CANDIDATE OF BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES

M.: MOSCOW STATE UNIVERSITY NAMED AFTER M.V. LOMONOSOV

Goal of the work. Using the example of the soddy-podzolic soil of the hairy-swax spruce forest, to study: 1) features of variation in the physical properties of the soil both within the biogeocenosis and individual parcels, depending on the structure of the BGC and the position of sampling points relative to the edificator trees of the parcels;

For spruce undergrowth, the maximum AQ reserves were observed in the middle part of the crown projection and in “windows”.<...>The variation in litter stocks increases: 1) in rows by parcels: spruce undergrowth, hairy sedge<...>What statistically significant can be noted the confinement of spruce undergrowth to "eyes", hoof spots<...>Humidity increases in the series: hairy sedge parcel, spruce undergrowth, hoof spots.<...> Largest value£ was noted in the soil under spruce undergrowth, minimal under hoof spots.

36

The article discusses the direction of changing the rock composition in the main formations national park"Elk Island" - birch forests, pine forests, spruce forests and linden forests. The data of 15-year observations on 60 permanent sampling plots are presented, as well as a comparative analysis of forest management materials from the middle and late 20th century. The objects of research are grouped into rows, reflecting the successive stages of the change of species in the natural dynamics of plantations - the settlement of undergrowth under the parent canopy, the formation of the 2nd layer and the change of species in the main canopy. The most common variants of dynamics are the replacement of birch and pine with linden, less often with spruce. Trends in the formation of lime forests with the participation of other broad-leaved species in the place of spruce forests, which were severely affected after the drought and the outbreak of the bark beetle typographer in 2010–2012, are traced. The trend towards the dominance of small-leaved linden is considered as a natural process of restoring its positions after a decrease in activity. economic activity taking place against the background of the mesoclimatic effect of the Moscow metropolis. The former dominance of conifers is associated both with a colder climate at the time of the formation of plantations, and with the artificial maintenance of the dominance of conifers through the creation of forest plantations. The probable reasons why the dominance of spruce in the undergrowth and the second layer in the middle of the 20th century are analyzed. has not led to an increase in the area of ​​spruce forests at the present time.

Replacement of spruce with linden in conditions of complex forest types after drying of the spruce part of the forest stand. Fig. 6.<...>Spruce did not restore its positions, despite the fact that before the war, about 40% of plantations had spruce undergrowth<...>The question of why spruce undergrowth did not ensure the restoration of the share of spruce forests in Losinoostrovskaya dacha<...>in clumps and, finally, the existence of stable foci of the root fungus, which affects the spruce undergrowth and leads<...>Sustainability and dynamics of spruce and linden plantations of the north-eastern suburbs / S.A.

37

The criterion for the stable state of a species in a community is the possibility of a complete turnover of a generation. The ontogenetic structure of coenopopulations of the wild strawberry Fragaria vesca L. and the European hemorrhage Trientalis europaea L., studied in phytocenoses of different stages of succession of the forest community, depended on ecological and coenotic conditions. Cenopopulations of species with a high proportion of individuals of the generative period were formed in the destructive areas of the forest community, however, seedlings of strawberry and cuminopsis were not found in the disturbed areas. For these species, regeneration niches, or microbiotopes, areas with optimal factors for seed germination and successful passage through the initial stages of ontogenesis, can be confined to cenopopulations of the climax stages of succession. In integral forest communities, species are characterized by the manifestation of a patient behavioral strategy that ensures the strong retention of the developed territory. The discovered invasive-regressive ontogenetic structure of the cenopopulation was not an indicator of species instability in the community, but reflected the process of successful survival of seedlings. The stages of the life cycle of the strawberry and the octopus are confined to different cenopopulations, where the necessary conditions were formed for the course of individual stages of ontogenesis. The totality of cenopopulations, within which a full-fledged rotation of the generation of strawberries and oysterworts was carried out, gives a correct idea of ​​the state of the species in the community. Ecological and coenotic conditions of microgroups of the birch-spruce forb pine forest contributed to the formation of different-aged loci of the cenopopulation of the two-leaved love Platanthera bifolia (L.) Rich. A variety of factors in a heterogeneous community determined the spatial delimitation of the processes of seed formation and seedling survival. This ensured the passage of the life cycle within one cenopopulation and the stable state of the species.

The work was carried out in a spruce-linden bone pine forest (4th habitat) and in a birch-spruce pine forest<...>Undergrowth was absent 10 30 2 6 18 10 8 6 10 300 47 3.6.<...>A grouping formed by spruce undergrowth at the pole stage. Canopy closure 0.9.<...>The first layer and undergrowth were absent. 29 species have been noted.<...>and spruce undergrowth (habitats 4.2 and 4.3), where the minimum species saturation and low

38

BARKETS OF DOUBLE UNDERGROWTH IN FOREST CLEARINGS OF KARELIA ABSTRACT DIS. ... CANDIDATE OF BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES

ALL-UNION SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH INSTITUTE FOR PLANT PROTECTION

We set ourselves the following tasks: to find out the fauna of bark beetles of spruce and pine undergrowth in the fellings of Karelia and the biological characteristics of its most aggressive representatives, which are of practical importance in reforestation; reveal the main factors that regulate the dynamics of the abundance of these species and determine the emergence and extinction of their breeding centers in clearings of different age.

We set ourselves the following tasks: to find out the fauna of bark beetles of spruce and pine undergrowth in clearings<...>- Stumps of coniferous species are places - mi> breeding of important pests of undergrowth - spruce, and Siberian<...>In pine forests, spruce undergrowth under a canopy is in better condition than in full spruce forests, not so<...>drying up of small spruce and pine undergrowth on 3-5-year-old cutting areas.<...>The amount of spruce undergrowth damaged by spruce rhizomes ranges from 6-20% in 1-2-year-old clearings

39

Spruce forests of the Eastern Carpathians, THEIR GROWTH AND RENEWAL ABSTRACT DIS. ... CANDIDATE OF AGRICULTURAL SCIENCES

M.: MOSCOW ORDER OF LENIN AGRICULTURAL ACADEMY NAMED AFTER K. A. TIMIRYAZEV

1) to find out the patterns of vertical zonality of the spruce forests of the Eastern Carpathians and develop a classification of their types; 2) to investigate the natural renewal of spruce plantations under their canopy and on clear cuts in the conditions of the Eastern Carpathians; 3) explore the growth and development of the Carpathian spruce forests. 40

TYPES OF FIR AND SPRUCE FORESTS OF THE RIONI RIVER BASIN AND THEIR NATURAL RENEWAL IN CONNECTION WITH FELLING ABSTRACT DIS. ... CANDIDATE OF BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES

AZERBAIJAN AGRICULTURAL INSTITUTE

The purpose of this work was precisely to study the types of fir-spruce forests in connection with the natural renewal of one of the mountainous regions of Georgia - Racha, located in the upper reaches of the river basin. Rioni.

PARJANADZE Types of fir-spruce forests in the basin of the river.<...>PARJLIADZE Types of fir-spruce forests in the basin of the river.<...>The study of the course of growth of spruce and fir undergrowth has shown. that both "trustworthy" and "unreliable<...>The regularity of the quantitative transition of seedlings in undergrowth 42

FORESTRY RESEARCH OF THE FOREST TYPE SPRUCE-BLUEBERRY ABSTRACT DIS. ... CANDIDATE OF AGRICULTURAL SCIENCES

LENINGRAD ORDER OF LENIN FOREST ACADEMY NAMED AFTER S. M. KIROV

The objective of this work was to study and understand the nature and silvicultural properties of the spruce-blueberry forest type and its complex relationships with the environment.

Studies of the quality of spruce undergrowth showed that 10-35% of it belongs to the category of "trustworthy<...>This guarantees the formation of a new generation of forest "with a predominance of spruce, even if during felling part of the spruce<...>Studies of young stands have shown that in most cases the formation of new spruce stands<...>With a canopy density of 0.6, the illumination under the canopy of a mature spruce stand was 736 lux, .<...>In order to accelerate the formation of spruce and spruce-leaf. venous forest stands in clear-cutting areas, it is necessary

43

On the method of assessing the natural renewal of the Schrenk spruce in the conditions of the mountain forests of the Northern Tien Shan [Electronic resource] / Mambetov [et al.] // Izvestiya vysshikh uchebnykh zavedenii. Forest Journal.- 2018 .- No. 4 .- P. 63-69 .- DOI: 10.17238/issn0536-1036.2018.4.63 .- Access mode: https://site/efd/665857

Mountain forests - forests located within mountain systems and individual mountain ranges with fluctuations in the relative heights of the terrain of more than 100 m and an average surface slope from the foot to the top of mountain ranges or to the border of treeless spaces of more than 5 (individual sections of the slope may have a steepness of less than 5 ), as well as forests on mountain plateaus and plateaus, regardless of the slope of the terrain. These do not include forests on hilly elevations that are not part of mountain systems. Mountain forests occupy about 40% of the total forest area of ​​Kazakhstan. In the mountain forests of the Northern Tien Shan, the main forest-forming species is the Schrenk spruce, which naturally grows at an altitude of 1500...2900 m above sea level. On the northern, northwestern and northeastern slopes of the Northern Tien Shan in spruce plantations at an absolute height of more than 2200 m, the issue of choosing the composition of tree species is not relevant, since the growth of other species is difficult due to harsh climatic conditions. The purpose of the study is to select and substantiate a methodology for assessing the natural renewal of Schrenk spruce in the mountain forests of the Northern Tien Shan based on literary sources and our own research. All self-seeding and undergrowth of spruce is divided into three altitude groups. The study of the success of the natural regeneration of spruce, accounting for self-seeding and undergrowth should be carried out by height groups, the final assessment should be given by the number of reliable undergrowth above 50 cm. Accounting for regeneration under the forest canopy indicates that the high density of plantations is not a limiting factor for the appearance of self-seeding spruce, but hinders the survival of older undergrowth. In closed plantations, spruce undergrowth is confined to gaps in the tree canopy with a diameter of 14–18 m, since the main limiting factor for its survival in this case is light. In spruce plantations of the Northern Tien Shan, with a decrease in the density of plantations, the age of reliable undergrowth increases. The competition of mature plants and the ground cover have a negative effect on the survival of undergrowth.

Northern (Arctic) Federal University named after M.V. Lomonosov

The method of combined reforestation is considered, in which it is proposed to combine felling and reforestation operations. Undergrowth is dug out from the areas of its guaranteed destruction and planted in safe areas. It is noted that at present there is no methodology for substantiating the performance of sets of units involved in combined reforestation operations. Recommendations on the formation of sets of units are given, an analysis of their functioning in various production conditions is carried out. Mathematical dependencies are proposed for calculating the performance of units involved in various operations of the technological process of replanting undergrowth, taking into account their mutually coordinated work. Recommendations are given for the implementation of the technological process of transplanting undergrowth with minimal downtime of machines and mechanisms. The proposed method for calculating the integrated development allows to substantiate the effectiveness of the operation of sets of units under the forest canopy in any production conditions, taking into account a variety of natural and production factors.

Research on the use of natural spruce undergrowth as crops in clearings<...>integrated development of forest fund plots showed good survival rate (96%) of transplanted spruce<...>Experimentally determined the characteristics of spruce undergrowth, which can be transplanted from under the canopy<...>operations: VI - individual digging of undergrowth; VYa - digging holes for planting undergrowth; DTS - delivery<...>undergrowth in a vehicle; DTSK - delivery of undergrowth to a vehicle with simultaneous containerization

46

Ed. Leningrad. s.-x. in-ta Typo-lithograph. Red Typographer

Pasha-Kapetsky forest dacha of Pasha-Kapetsky educational and experimental. Forestry of the Leningrad Agricultural Institute

With a planting density of 0.4-0.6, spruce undergrowth forms a continuous layer with a density of 0.6-0.7.<...>tiers and undergrowth.<...>undergrowth, and with a fullness of 0.6-2500 pcs. undergrowth of different ages (young and old).<...>Although spruce undergrowth survives under the canopy up to 50-70 years. still needs timely and gradual<...>Old spruce undergrowth suddenly exposed to open space dies up to 90 - 100 ° °.

47

Age structure of spruce undergrowth of different phenological forms, depending on the composition and structure of the forest stand [Electronic resource] / Matveeva, Belyaeva, Danilov // Izvestia of higher educational institutions. Forest Journal.- 2018 .- No. 1 .- P. 47-60 .- DOI: 10.17238/issn0536-1036.2018.1.47 .- Access mode: https://site/efd/640797

Northern (Arctic) Federal University named after M.V. Lomonosov

The article discusses the features of the relationship between the canopy of the forest stand and the age structure of spruce undergrowth phenoforms. The analysis was carried out for the conditions of the green moss group of forest types in the forest fund of the Leningrad region. Accounting for undergrowth by a selective-statistical method was carried out on circular sites (10 m2 each), laid at the same distance from each other along a free path. When performing accounting work, spruce undergrowth under the canopy was divided into three groups of heights (small, medium, large) and three phenological forms (early, transitional, late). Studies of the natural regeneration of spruce under the forest canopy were carried out in 2011, 2014 and 2015. on the territory of the experimental forestry "Siverskiy Les" in the Kartashevsky, Orlinsky, Druznoselsky and Ontsevsky district forestries of the Gatchinsky forestry of the Leningrad Region (objects were established in 1929, 1970 and 1980), as well as on the territory of the ecological station located in the Lisinsky district forestry Educational and experimental forestry of the Leningrad region (objects were laid in 1981–1982). The obtained materials indicate that the average age of spruce undergrowth differs in phenological forms. The smallest average age was noted in the undergrowth of the late form; in the undergrowth of the early and transitional forms, the average age is 2–4 years longer. This pattern is typical for both viable and non-viable undergrowth. It has been established that with an increase in the relative density, age and stock of forest stands, the age of undergrowth of all phenological forms increases, regardless of size categories and viability status. The results obtained allow us to conclude that the age structure spruce undergrowth affects the illumination regime under the canopy of the forest stand. The highest age of the young generation of spruce was noted in the conditions of the sour forest type.

The smallest age of undergrowth is under the canopy of spruce stands (Table 4).<...>Spruce 13.6 13.4 Pine 18.0 18.7 Pine-spruce 16.9 17.7 Average 16.2 16.6<...>It was also found that under the canopy of spruce stands, the transitional undergrowth has the greatest age.<...>Regardless of phenoforms and size categories, older spruce undergrowth under the canopy of spruce-birch forest stands<...>, younger - under the canopy of spruce.

48

Guidelines for the implementation of the course project on "Technology and equipment of logging." Specialty 250201 "Forestry" guidelines

M.: PROMEDIA

Pine undergrowth on 40% of the area Cowberry and blueberry pine forests with dense spruce undergrowth under conditions<...>Undergrowth is 60% natural.<...> <...> <...>Undergrowth on 20% of the area.

Assessment of the vital state of coniferous undergrowth

Category teaching aids you can also include books written and published by our friends and colleagues, and sold in our non-commercial online store:

	Organization of research and project activities at school(teacher's manual) Organization of the educational process in a mass school based on design and research activities, which radically changes the function of the teacher, runs into unpreparedness teaching staff to the implementation of innovative ideas. Again the teacher one on one left with serious problems arising in the development of innovations. This teacher's guide aims to explain introduction to the school educational process of such innovative technologies as research and design activities.
	Fundamentals of hydrobotanical research: methodological manual-determinant Teaching aid dedicated theoretical and practical issues related to the organization of hydrobotanical research of students. Recommendations given to the organization (preparation and conduct) of hydrobotanical research and specific methods related to certain areas of hydrobotanical research. Methods developed by leading scientists in the field of hydrobotany, adapted for perception and understanding and imply free mastery of them independently or under the guidance of teachers. Are given keys to identify plants aquatic flora in the field, reference materials on some of the most important areas of hydrobotany.
	From observation to performance. Teacher's Guide The manual tells how you can find yourself in nature, find interesting research objects there, observe them, measure, compare, photograph, arrange the collected material in the form of a report, research work and speak at a conference. Benefit might be helpful young naturalists who are interested in getting to know nature and revealing its secrets, teachers working with schoolchildren in preparation for conferences. The manual will help to interest and organize the children, to form in them a lot of useful and necessary UUD (universal educational activities) according to the Federal State Educational Standard.
	This guide may come in handy leaders of children's tourist circles, and will also be of interest to a wide range of lovers of amateur tourism, as it contains information on the preparation and conduct of not very difficult trips (from weekend trips to multi-day hiking or kayaking). In the book, in addition to special tourist information, described also ways to cook camping food, first aid, games in your free time and much more that may come in handy on a camping trip. This manual contains many useful tips based on years of experience the author, so it is advisable to carefully study it before the trip and be sure to take it with you.

Assessment of the state and prospects for growing spruce undergrowth in different types of forests The work was carried out by: Alina Shilova, a student of the 10th grade of gymnasium 363 and Eremina Anastasia, a student of the 8th grade of school 310 Supervisor: Natalia Nikolaevna Alexandrova, teacher of additional education St. Petersburg 2015 Palace of Children (Youth) Creativity of the Frunzensky District Department of Natural History

Purpose and objectives Purpose: To find the most favorable places for the growth of spruce undergrowth. Tasks: 1. Determine the growth rate of spruce undergrowth in different biotopes. 2. Select the most favorable biotope for the development of spruce undergrowth. 3. Find places where you can massively grow spruce seedlings to restore spruce plantations.

Window dynamics is associated with the death of individual old trees and the formation of gaps in their place in the tree layer (“windows”), which provide light access under the canopy of the forest stand and enable young trees to develop and take their place in the upper layer of the forest stand.

Conclusions The growth rate of spruce undergrowth in different biotopes is determined primarily by the light regime, as well as climatic conditions. The most favorable conditions for spruce turned out to be clay soils, with elements of waterlogging and with a cover of mosses and blueberries. As well as a more open space in the place of a fallen spruce forest, where there are few tall trees and better sunlight.

List of used literature and Internet resources 1. Korobkin VI, Ecology. Textbook for universities / V.I. Korobkin, L.V. Predelsky, 2006 2. Potapov A.D., Ecology / A.D. Potapov, 2000 3. Shamileva I.A., Ecology: Textbook for students of pedagogical universities / I.A. Shamileva, 2004 4. Renewable resources [Electronic resource] - 5. Spruce forest and its undergrowth [Electronic resource] - aspx 6. European or common spruce [Electronic resource] -

7. Norway spruce [Electronic resource] - %EE%E2%E5%ED%ED%E0%FF 8. Forests of Russia [Electronic resource] - html 9. Window dynamics of taiga forests [Electronic resource] - Assessment of the vital state of pine undergrowth [ Electronic resource] - ref.ru/04bot/podrost.htm 11. Recommendations for reforestation and care of young forests in the North-West of Russia [Electronic resource] - _id= Coniferous forests [Electronic resource] -

Since ancient times, people have been using the wonderful property of plants - to give food and warmth. But in addition to these properties, people noticed that plants can influence the fate of a person, as well as heal him from illnesses, both physical and spiritual. Since ancient times, people have revered trees and sacred groves. They came to be treated, pray, ask for protection or love. From time immemorial, magical powers have been attributed to trees. It was believed that the guardian spirits of man live in them. Many signs, beliefs and rituals are associated with trees.

A tree in the folk culture of the Slavs is an object of worship. In ancient Russian monuments of the 11th-17th centuries. it is reported about the worship of the pagans "growths" and "trees", about prayers under them ("growth ... zhpyakhy"). Judging by everyone, these were, as a rule, fenced-in areas of the forest. The groves were considered reserved, they did not cut down trees, did not collect firewood. Among the Slavs, many groves and custom-made forests have “sacred” names: “god”, “gay-bog”, “god”, “holy forest”, “svyatibor”.

The category of revered and sacred trees also included individual trees, especially old ones, growing alone in a field or near healing springs. People came to these trees to get rid of diseases, the evil eye, infertility and other misfortunes. They brought gifts and sacrifices (hung towels, clothes, rags on trees), prayed, touched the trees. Through the hollows and crevices of such trees, the sick climbed, as if leaving their illnesses outside this hole. When Christianity appeared in Rus', in order to attract people to temples, churches were built right in the sacred groves. Numerous traditions, legends and apocryphal tales testify to this, about the construction of churches near revered trees. Various rituals were performed near the sacred trees.

The Southern Slavs practiced the custom of "marrying" the young around a tree (or precede this action with a wedding ceremony). Among the Serbs, Bulgarians and Macedonians, many ceremonies and celebrations took place on the "record" - a sacred tree (usually an oak or a fruit tree). Festive meals were also arranged here, sacrificial animals were slaughtered, bonfires were lit at Shrovetide; oaths were taken near the "zapische", courts were held, etc. the arrival of Christianity, trees were a link between God and people (the world of people and the world of gods). Oaks, elms and other large trees were reserved. It was forbidden to kill them and cause any harm at all. Violation of these prohibitions led to the death of a person, the death of livestock, and failure to harvest. Such trees were considered patrons of the surroundings - villages, houses, wells, lakes, protected from hail, fires, natural disasters.

A tree as a metaphor for a road, as a path by which one can reach the afterlife - a common motif of Slavic beliefs and rituals associated with death.

Characteristic ideas about the posthumous transition of the human soul into a tree. So, the Belarusians believed that in every creaky tree the soul of the deceased languishes, which asks passers-by to pray for her; if, after such a prayer, a person falls asleep under a tree, he will dream of a soul that will tell you how long it has been and why it has been imprisoned in this tree. The Serbs believed that the soul of a person finds peace in a tree growing on his grave; therefore, one must not pluck the fruits from the cemetery trees and break the branches. Slavic ballads about people sworn into trees are connected with the circle of these beliefs. Such folklore stories usually refer to people who died an untimely death before their allotted time; their interrupted life, as it were, tends to continue in other forms. A tree, like a plant, generally correlates with a person by external signs: the trunk - the body, the roots - the legs, the branches - the arms, the juices - the blood, etc. There are "male" and "female" trees (birch - birch, oak - oak), which differ in shape: y birch branches spread out to the sides, y birch - up. When a child is born, a tree is planted for him, believing that the child will grow in the same way as this tree develops. At the same time, in some beliefs, the growth of such a tree causes exhaustion of a person and leads him to death. Therefore, they tried not to plant large trees near the house.

The tree is closely related to the field of demonology. This is the habitat of various mythological creatures. Mermaids live on birches, witches flocked to giant oaks on the Kupala night, the devil sits in the roots of elderberry, in a hollow willow, pitchforks and samodivas on sprawling large trees, whose branches they play with, often demons live in thorny bushes (hawthorn is a pitchfork tree).

S. Yesenin said: "The Russians have everything from the Tree - this is the religion of the thought of our people." And he explained why and why the tree is usually embroidered only on towels. This has deep meaning. “A tree is life,” the poet writes. Every morning, when we wake up from sleep, we wash our face with water. Water is a symbol of cleansing... Wiping their face on a canvas depicting a tree, our people say that they have not forgotten the secret of the ancient fathers to wipe themselves with leaves, that they remember themselves as the seed of an overworld tree, and, running under its cover, dipping their face in a towel, they as if he wants to imprint at least a small branch of it on his cheeks, so that like a tree he can shower cones of words and thoughts from himself and stream a shadow-virtue from the branches-hands.

tree of life.

The tree generally occupied a special place in the life of the pagan Slavs. A legend has been preserved that a long time ago, when there was still neither sky nor earth, but only the blue sea splashed everywhere, there were two oaks in the middle of it, on the branches of which two doves sat. Once the pigeons fluttered, then dived to the bottom of the sea and brought sand and pebbles from there. From this material the sky with the earth and all heavenly bodies were built.

From those ancient times came the myth and the tree of life. The Slavs believed that it served as the axis, the center of the whole world and, as it were, embodied the entire universe. The roots of this amazing tree, which was called the world tree, embraced the whole earth, reached the depths of the underworld. Its crown rested on the vault of heaven. In it for ancient man ideas about space and time were embodied. It was no coincidence that a riddle arose: “There is an oak tree, there are 12 branches on the oak tree, each branch has four nests, each nest has seven chicks.” This was the mythical image of the year: twelve months, each of them contains four weeks, and a week has seven days. (Then the account was kept by lunar months).

In the folklore of the Slavic peoples - fairy tales, riddles, conspiracies - the image of the tree of life often appears. Most often it is a mighty oak that has lived on earth for several centuries. In one of the famous tales, an old man climbed such an oak tree and reached the very sky. There he saw wonderful millstones - the emblem of a spring thunderstorm that gives people rain and fertility. Yes, and conspiracies from diseases begin most often with a joke that on the sea-okian, on the island of Buyan, where the alatyr stone lies, there is a “damask oak”.

Images of the external and internal world of an ancient person were strung on a tree-axis. It systematized this world, gave it harmony, where each object or phenomenon, each living being had its place.

At the top of the crown sat a deity - formidable, inaccessible. Birds found shelter in the branches. Bees swarmed around the trunk, moose, deer, horses, cows, and sometimes people crowded. The roots gathered snakes, frogs and even fish around them. There were also chained demons and other unclean forces. Fragrance comes from this tree, and twelve springs “flow like milk and honey” from its root. Sometimes the upper deity entered into battle with the "lower tier", stopping the encroachments of snakes and dragons on the "warm-blooded" located near the trunk. According to beliefs, the tree is the path by which the snakes go to the mythical country of the vyrey in autumn.

The tree that connects the earthly and underground worlds also figures in West Slavic mythological stories about children replaced by demons. In order to get her son back, the woman takes the changeling under some tree, and later takes her child from there. Things that needed to be disposed of - sent to the other world (items that were in contact with the deceased, old wedding paraphernalia, etc.) were thrown onto the tree (or attributed to it) things that needed to be disposed of - sent to the next world. water these items.

Cult trees, symbolizing the world tree, have accompanied many important events in human life for centuries.

An indispensable participant in the traditional Slavic wedding was the world tree, its image. Bridesmaids sing about him, promising young people happiness and wealth. And when a new house was being built, it was customary to put a ritual tree in the center of the building. Well, on folk holidays, such as on the Trinity, you can’t do without a birch, all yards, houses and temples are decorated with green branches.

“A Christmas tree was born in the forest” ... Everyone knows this song, from young to old. Leading a round dance around the discharged forest beauty, the children do not even suspect that they are performing ritual actions, part of the myth-making of our distant ancestors. Also, many centuries ago, people gathered near a tree, made sacrifices to its roots, sang, performed ritual dances, in which each movement had a symbolic meaning.

Until now, in some places the following custom has been preserved. If a guy brings a tree dug out in the forest and plants it under the girl's window, this is clearly perceived as a declaration of love, a marriage proposal.

The tree of life was usually depicted with eight branches, four on each side. When depicting it, four colors were most often used: black, red, blue and white. The branches, trunk and roots of the world tree connect, respectively, the upper, middle and nether worlds, and the branches are the cardinal directions.

Oak

since ancient times was among the Slavs sacred tree- the king of the forests. Oak rightfully occupies the first place in the Slavic arboretum. The Russians called it Tsar Oak, and, according to popular beliefs, the king of birds, the eagle, lived on it. God the Father acted under the name or in the form of an oak tree. In folk beliefs, oak acts as a symbol of masculinity, supremacy, strength, power, firmness. It is no coincidence that in conspiracies his constant epithets are “iron” or “damask”, and the proverb says about him: “You can’t knock down an oak at one time.” About strong strong men they say: strong as an oak (oak).

The Slavs, among other trees, especially singled out and revered the oak. Perhaps, at first, in general, they called all the trees with the word "oak". It is no coincidence that the words “club”, “club” originating from him refer not only to the oak club.

Oak was revered as a deity. Sacrifices were made at its foot. Idols were hewn from oak wood. And the fire at the temple could only be “fed” with oak firewood. Among the people, the oak was considered connected by invisible threads with the supreme deity Perun. After all, this tree seemed to attract lightning to itself. And today, in a thunderstorm, you should not hide under an oak tree - it is dangerous. These are echoes of the main myth of the Eastern Slavs about the duel of Perun with the enemy, who is hiding under an oak tree. The Slavs had a ban on growing oak near the house, since, according to legend, thunder strikes the oak first.

Mostly our ancestors attributed to the oak and the legend about the world tree. This is exactly what the oak looks like in the Russian conspiracy: “... There is a holy Akiyan sea, an island on that sea, on that island there is an oak tree, from earth to heaven, from east to west, from the young of the month to the decrepit ...”

Faith and worship of the oak continued for so long that even after the adoption of Christianity by Russia, under pain of a church court, it was forbidden "to Petya's prayer service in front of the oak." After all, just as the gods decided the fate of the whole world and people in particular, sitting under the world tree, so they performed judgment under mighty oaks, believing that the sentences pronounced here were consecrated by a deity. There were entire reserved sacred oak groves. To go into such a walk, and even more so to pick a branch from a tree, was considered blasphemy. For this, the sorcerers-priests could condemn the "blasphemer" even to death.

It was forbidden to cut sacred oaks everywhere. It was believed that any attempt to damage them (cut down, break a branch, peel off the bark, and even use its dry wood for firewood) would result in misfortune for a person or for everyone living nearby. Belarusians believed that if you start cutting down an old oak, then blood will appear from under the ax - the tree will cry with bloody tears.

Archaeological finds also point to the cult role of the oak: in 1975, an ancient oak was raised from the bottom of the Dnieper, in the trunk of which 9 boar jaws were inserted. In 1910, a similar oak was removed from the bottom of the Desna. Apparently, these trees were used in making sacrifices.

Oak groves were open-air sanctuaries.

In Christianity, the veneration of the oak, like many other pagan beliefs, entered as a symbol of the veneration of Christ and the Virgin Mary. The oak, along with the aspen, was one of several types of trees from which, it was believed, the cross of the Lord could be made. Because of its hardness and endurance, the oak has become a symbol of the strength of faith and virtue, as well as the resilience of Christians in the face of adversity.

The Russian apocrypha told how Judas wanted to hang himself on an oak tree, but "By God's command, the oak bowed and was preserved."

The Bulgarian legend told how an oak grove hid God, who was running away from the Plague; in gratitude for this, God made sure that the leaves from the oak fell only in late autumn.

In beliefs, practical magic and folklore, the oak consistently appears as a male symbol. In signs and prohibitions, the oak is compared with the owner of the house, the head of the family. So, for example, the Nizhny Novgorod expression “From oak - bark!” - meaning the order of the husband, so that the wife undresses him, takes off his boots. Water after bathing a newborn boy is poured under an oak tree; when the bride is brought into her husband's house, she first enters there and says to herself: “There are oak trees near the yard, and sons in the house,” if she wants boys to be born to her. In the Vitebsk region, a midwife cut the boy's umbilical cord on an oak chopping block so that he would grow up strong.

In the province of Tver, until the beginning of the 20th century, there was such a custom: as soon as a boy was born, his father went into the forest and cut down several oaks, the logs of which were then taken to the river and immersed in water. There they remained until the son grew up. When he intended to marry, the oak logs, which had already turned into stained wood, so strong that it was impossible to cut it with an ax, were taken out of the water and used as the foundation of a house for a new family.

The inhabitants of Polissya considered it unacceptable for an oak tree to grow near the dwelling: they believed here that if there was this tree next to the house, then there would be no owner in the hut. The Poleshchuks were convinced that if this happened, then as soon as the oak reached a size that would make it possible to make a grave cross out of it, the owner of the house would immediately die. According to local beliefs, the oak, located near the dwelling, generally “survives” men from it.

The oak (like a tree in general) modeled the birth and growth of a child (the custom is to plant a tree at the birth of a baby). Sometimes the child himself planted the oak, then the child’s health was judged by his growth and development: the oak of the lad - the lad will be healthy, the oak does not grow - the lad will get sick.

The Eastern Slavs know a ban on growing oaks from acorns: it was believed that the person who planted the acorn would die as soon as the tree was equal to its height. The role of oak in wedding ceremonies is also known. In the Voronezh province, an ancient custom was respected; leaving the church after the wedding, the young people went to the oak tree and circled around three times.

The strength of the oak led to its widespread use in funeral rites: from ancient times, coffins were made from it, which in former times were a hollowed out block, and grave crosses. This can be seen in the words common in the modern language and stable combinations of words denoting the transition to another world: “look at the oak” - die, “give oak”, “cloud” - die. In Russian riddles, death is most often guessed through the image of an oak:

At the turn of the Tatar

There is an oak tree,

No one will get around, no one will go around:

Neither the king, nor the queen, nor the red maiden.

The properties of oak were taken into account in folk medical practice. In conspiracies from the most terrible diseases, the image of an oak is one of the most common. He was not only addressed in conspiracies, but oak trees were also used in the treatment itself.

If a person has a backache, it is good to lean against an oak trunk at the first spring thunder. There is a well-known East Slavic custom to plug an oak branch into the belt on the back so that the back does not hurt during the harvest, etc. The Poles hung oak wreaths on the horns of cows so that the cows were strong and so that the horns would not break when butting.

IN traditional medicine In the southern Slavs, a popular way to treat childhood illnesses, as well as a way to stop child mortality in the family, was the custom to put the cut hair and nails of a sick child or a thread into the trunk of an oak tree, with which the child was previously measured, and then clog this hole with a peg: when the child outgrows this hole, the disease leave him.

The oak served as an object to which diseases were symbolically transferred. Belarusians poured water under a young oak, in which they washed a consumptive patient; the Poles, with boils in their mouths, spat into a hole dug under an oak tree; Ukrainians, Poles, Czechs, Moravans left the patient's clothes on the oak; Bulgarians, Serbs and Macedonians visited revered oaks and tied ribbons and threads from clothes to their branches. Ukrainians hung towels and skeins of thread on oak trees as a vow.

To relieve a toothache, you need to bite an oak chip with a sick tooth.

Better yet, find an old oak tree in the forest, next to which springs break out of the ground, tear off the bark from the branch and soak it in spring water. If you wear such a charm in an amulet, your teeth will never be disturbed at all.

A sick child can be cured if you split the trunk of a young oak tree in the forest and drag the baby three times between the splits. And then tie the trunk with a rope or a sash.

You can go around the tree with the baby three more times nine times, and then hang a piece of baby clothes on its branches. As the left tissue decays, so the ailment will leave. From this rite, the tradition subsequently arose to decorate trees with rags and ribbons, which began to be perceived as sacrifices to forest spirits.

Oaks were considered the habitat of mythological characters. For example, according to the beliefs of the Eastern Slavs, witches flocked to giant oaks on the Kupala night. Among the southern Slavs, large oaks, elms and beeches were called "Samovil" or "Samodiv" (they gathered samodivs, pitchforks, devils).

Green oak near Lukomorye

Golden chain on an oak tree

And day and night the cat is a scientist

Everything goes round and round

Goes to the right - the song starts.

Left - tells a fairy tale.

There are miracles, there the goblin roams,

The mermaid sits on the branches.

Tells A.S. Pushkin.

The presence of fruits in oak brings its magical properties closer to the magical properties of fruit trees. So, rituals against infertility are usually performed under fruit trees, but sometimes under an oak.

Oak branches were used as a talisman, sticking them into the windows and doors of houses before the Kupala night.

The Slavs made amulets from oak bark.

The ancient sages predicted fate by listening to the rustle of oak branches.

In love magic, in order to bring the guy and the girl together, they used a decoction infused with oak and birch chips, chipped off in the place where these trees grew together.

A love spell on oak was also used. Tied together oak and birch. Having tied the string, they said: “As I tied you together, so I am tied forever with the servant of God (name). Amen". Then they left without looking back, and did not come to this place again.

Birch.

Since ancient times, a slender white-trunked birch has become a symbol of Russia. And although birches grow all over the world, they are not loved anywhere and are honored as they are in our homeland.

It has been so in all ages. After all, birch in Slavic mythology was also considered a sacred tree. Sometimes not only oak, but birch was revered by our ancestors as a world tree. This idea remained in the ancient conspiracy: “On the sea-ocean, on the island of Buyan, there is a white birch with its branches down, its roots up”

Linguists associate the Russian name of birch with the verb to save. This is due to the fact that the Slavs considered birch a gift from the gods, protecting a person.

The Slavic rune is associated with the birch - Bereginya - Birch, Fate, Mother, Earth.

Bereginya in the Slavic tradition is a female image associated with protection and maternal protective principles. In archaic antiquity, under the name of Beregini, Makosh, the Mother Goddess, was in charge of earthly fertility and the fate of all living things. This rune is the rune of fate.

About the origin and natural properties birches tell legends and beliefs, often associated with biblical characters. In folk legends, the birch acts as a blessed tree, as it sheltered the trait of St. Friday, and she also sheltered the Mother of God and Jesus from the weather: therefore, she enjoys the patronage of all three. Or, on the contrary, the birch was considered a God-cursed tree, the branches of which were whipped by Christ. In eastern Polissia there is a legend about the human origin of this tree: birches are the daughters of the first man - Adam - who have grown into the ground with their braids, and birch sap is their tears. White color of the tree trunk is explained in beliefs by the fact that the birch, when Judas wanted to hang himself on it, turned white with fright, but did not accept the traitor ..

In Slavic ballads, legends, fairy tales, it is told that the ruined girl turns into a birch. The Belarusian song sings about a birch that grew on the bride's grave, which was poisoned by the groom's mother.

In traditional culture, birch symbolizes the feminine. In many beliefs, rituals, and ritual songs, in folklore texts, she is opposed to oak as a male symbol.

The tender birch was revered as a female symbol, was considered the patroness of young girls. Brides came to her both in days of joy and in hours of despair. Clinging to a thin white trunk, they dried their tears, as if they were absorbing faith, hope, love.

Any spring holiday in Rus' in honor of the awakening nature could not do without a birch. On Trinity Day, churches and houses were decorated with young birch branches. It was believed that the tree would not be "offended" if it was cut down with love in the name of such a big holiday.

In many Russian provinces, they went to the forest on Semnik, chose a young birch, decorated it, curled wreaths on its branches, arranged a joint feast under it, led round dances, guessed. Then, with a cut birch (which was sometimes called "semik"), they walked around the village and, at the end of the ceremony, threw the birches into the water, into the fire, into the ravine (that is, they "escorted the birch", "buried" it). The girls "smoked" with a birch, asked her for a share, washed themselves with birch sap for beauty and health. This rite survived until the beginning of the 20th century. and maybe somewhere it is being revived today.

Trinity morning, morning canon,

In the grove along the birch trees there is a white chime.

Written by Sergei Yesenin.

There was such a sign: the girl who was the first to sit on the Trinity in the shade of the cherished birch, the first among her friends and get married. It was also believed that if you sit in the shade of the Trinity Birch and make a wish, it will surely come true.

In the mythological ideas of the Slavs, the period of the Trinity and Semik referred to those calendar intervals when the ancestors temporarily left the "other world" and appeared in the world of the living. The place of their stay on earth was the fresh green of birches. Therefore, birch trees were brought from the forest for the souls of the "parents" and installed near the houses. These days they went to the cemetery, brought here birch branches, wreaths, brooms. The main ritual action was the “plowing up” of the graves. They were swept over with birch branches, after which the branches were stuck into the grave ground.

Trinity week was also called "Mermaid": according to legend, only this week mermaids appeared on earth. Birch was considered a favorite habitat of mermaids. In mermaid songs, they appear to be sitting on a green or crooked birch. So, in the Smolensk region they sang:

At the birch gate

Zilina got cold

Vettiky waved;

On that birch bark

The mermaid sat down...

They imagined that mermaids live on weeping birches, swing on their branches or sit under a tree. Especially for the swinging of mermaids, branches were woven on birch trees.

Thus, the use of birch in the Trinity rites was determined by the idea of ​​the image of this tree as the embodiment of fertility, as an object that connects the world of the living and the world of the dead and mythological creatures.

On the Trinity week, the girls performed fortune-telling, most of which was associated with a birch. So, for example, at night they wove birch branches with grass into a braid, and in the morning they looked: if the braid is untwisted, then be married this year, if not, stay in the girls. They also threw woven wreaths on a birch: depending on whether the wreath caught on a tree or fell to the ground, they judged whether the girl would marry in the next wedding season or not. Wreaths of birch branches, which were worn on the head all week, were thrown into the river: if a wreath sinks - to death, if it sinks to its shore - it awaits the continuation of girlhood, if it floats to a foreign shore - it will certainly be married.

Birch in folk beliefs was endowed with protective properties. Birch branches, especially used in Trinity and other calendar rites, were considered a reliable amulet by the Slavs. Shut up under the roof of the house, they reliably protected from lightning, thunder and hail; stuck in the middle of crops in the field protect from rodents and birds; abandoned on garden beds - protect capes from caterpillars. With the help of birch branches, they tried to protect themselves from evil spirits, especially the "walking dead". On the eve of Ivan Kypaly, birch branches stuck in the walls of the barn prevented the witches from milking milk from other people's cows, and harming them in general. On the eve of Ivan Kupala, wreaths of birch branches were put on the horns of cows so that the cattle were healthy and brought healthy offspring.

Among the Western Slavs, a birch broom, leaning against the bed of a woman in labor or the cradle of a newborn, was considered a reliable amulet.

At the same time, birch is often mentioned as an attribute of evil spirits in demonological beliefs and epics. The witch could milk milk from birch branches, she could also fly not only on a broomstick or a bread shovel, but also on a birch stick. White horses, given to the devil as a gift, turned into crooked birch trees, and bread given to the devil into birch bark; a woman in whom a demon "moved" during an attack was "thrown" on a birch.. Recently, during excavations near Novgorod, archaeologists found letters written on birch bark by our ancestors almost ten centuries ago. But birch bark is birch bark. Similar messages, “petitions” to the goblin, the water one, were written by the ancient Slavs on birch bark and pinned to a tree. They prayed not to deprive the hunter of game, to return lost cattle, to guard in the forest or on the river.

The contradictory attitude towards birch is also reflected in popular beliefs.

In some places, it was believed that a birch, planted next to the house, scares away evil and protects from lightning, and it was specially planted with the birth of a child.

In others, on the contrary, they were afraid to plant a birch next to the house, citing the fact that the birch “weeps” a lot and that lightning again strikes it. In Polissya, it was believed that a birch planted close to home causes female diseases in its inhabitants; that growths form on a birch from "women's curses."

In the Russian North, the place where birch trees once grew was considered unlucky; a new house was not built on it. At the same time, sometimes and in many places, birch trees were specially planted near the house for the well-being of the family. A birch branch installed with a front angle during the construction of the house was a symbol of the health of the owner and family. Birch branches were stuck in the field to get a good harvest of flax and cereals. A birch log was buried under the threshold of a new stable, "so that the horses were led." In ancient times, cradles were woven from branches to protect the child from illness. If a red ribbon is tied on a birch trunk, it will protect from the evil eye.

And yet more often the birch was used as a talisman against evil forces.

They turned to birch for help in case of illness. Beat the sick with a birch rod - a better healer will help. And if you pour water under a tree after bathing a sick child and say the right conspiracy, the disease will go to the birch. You just have to remember to say a conspiracy against a disease, like this, from angina pectoris: “I’ll throw a toad under the birch bush so that it doesn’t hurt, so that it doesn’t hurt”

They turned to the birch with a request for healing, they also twisted the branches of the tree over the sick, threatening not to let go until the disease recedes from the person.

In Mazovia, a malaria sufferer had to shake a birch with the sentence "Shake me as I shake you, and then stop."

Birch branches were used to give fertility not only to land and livestock, but also to newlyweds. The Slavs carried children through a split birch trunk in order to save the child from illness (the birch takes it upon itself).

Birch is a “happy” tree that protects from evil. They said about her: “There is a tree: the cry calms, the light instructs, the sick heal.”

A birch growing near the house drives away nightmares.

Buds, branches, leaves, bark, birch sap, growths on the trunk were considered especially healing. Branches consecrated in the church on calendar holidays were whipped to the patient in order to inform him of the power of the plant. Decoctions for various diseases were made from buds, leaves and growths. Birch sap has long been considered a rejuvenating and cleansing agent. In the spring, especially on holidays, girls and women drank juice and washed themselves with it for beauty and health.

Birch was used in folk magic as a love potion. They cut off a birch twig growing to the east, tore off the leaves from it; a twig was placed on the threshold, through which the person they think about should step over, and the leaves, dried and crushed into powder, were placed close to the heart. When the person they thought of came, the powder was mixed into some kind of drink and given to drink. They did it in an inconspicuous way.

In Polissya, in order to bewitch a guy, a girl would take a branch of a birch fused with an oak, quietly bypass the guy with her, or give him a decoction of the bark of this birch to drink.

Birch played a significant role in the rituals of the life cycle. In marriage rituals, she was used as a wedding attribute - a decorated tree, which was a symbol of each particular bride, and the girl's circle as a whole. In the Russian North, birch was an obligatory attribute in preparing the bride's bath: the branches of the tree were stuck into the ceiling and walls of the bath, the road to it was “torn” with twigs, a decorated birch broom was fixed on the top of the bath. For the implementation of the pre-wedding ablution, the bride tried to choose birch firewood.

Her branches were stuck into the wedding loaf so that everyone in the house was healthy.

In the East Slavic funeral tradition, birch was used directly in the preparation of a “place” for the deceased: the coffin was most often covered with birch leaves or brooms, they also stuffed a pillow that was placed under the head of the deceased. Birch was also planted on the grave.

The intermediary role of birch in the mythological picture of the world space explains the contradictory ideas about it in popular beliefs. In any case, numerous descriptions of rituals and actions with a birch testify to the deep reverence for this tree.

Rowan.

In ancient Rus', the mountain ash was considered the personification of the feminine. She was also a symbol of modesty and elegance. Many ritual songs and rituals were dedicated to this tree.

Rowan - the tree of the newlyweds. In the old days, the beautiful mountain ash was addressed to protect the newlyweds: its leaves were spread and hidden in their shoes and pockets. It was believed that they would prevent the evil deeds of sorcerers and witches. And in general, for well-being in the house, they tried to plant a mountain ash near it. The ancient Slavs believed that a person with bad intentions would not enter a house under the windows of which a mountain ash was planted.

In Russian folk calendar there is a day "Peter-Paul Fieldfare". It falls at the end of September - the time of ripening rowan berries. On this day, rowan branches were cut into bunches, hung under the roofs of houses, sheds, and various outbuildings. Branches were also stuck at the edge of each field. This custom is associated with the notion of mountain ash as a tree that can protect against all sorts of troubles.

Rowan was considered a talisman in magic and folk healing. The Slavs said: "Stay under the mountain ash - you will scare away the disease."

With various diseases, a person crawled through a rowan bush three times. The Life of Adrian Poshekhonsky tells that after the martyr's death of the saint (1550), his body was buried in a wasteland where mountain ash grew. Once a year, on Ilyinsky Friday, people from different cities came to this place and arranged a fair; sick people came here - adults and children, who climbed through the branches of mountain ash, looking for healing. According to Russian and Belarusian beliefs, the one who harms the mountain ash will have a toothache. With a toothache, secretly at the dawn of the morning, they knelt before the mountain ash, hugged and kissed it and uttered a conspiracy: “Rowan, mountain ash, take my illness, from now on and until the age I will not eat you,” and then returned home, without looking back and trying not to who not to meet.

If you take out the core from a mountain ash growing on an anthill and say: “Do you, mountain ash, roots or bodies hurt? So the servant of God (name) would not have a toothache forever.

In the collection of conspiracies of the second quarter of the 17th century. from the Olonets region, several texts addressed to mountain ash have been preserved. “A conspiracy from portage, exile, commotion” was pronounced in the spring near a mountain ash standing on an anthill; it was also possible to make a staff from a mountain ash, gnaw it and leave a sliver in the mouth behind the cheek, so as not to be afraid of any "kudes" (witchcraft) during the journey. A conspiracy against fever was pronounced at the root of a mountain ash, and then, having pulled it out of the ground, they laid it on a bed near a sick person. At the beginning of the plot “from a hernia to a baby”, “two mountain ash, two curly” are described, they grow on a white stone in the middle of the sea-ocean, and a golden cradle with a baby hangs between them.

Among all the Slavs, there was a ban on chopping and breaking mountain ash, using it for firewood, picking flowers and even berries. Our ancestors considered the mountain ash a vengeful tree and believed: whoever breaks or cuts it down will soon die himself or someone from his house will die. The mountain ash was not supposed to be chopped, also because the healers transferred the disease from a person to a mountain ash. And if you cut this tree down on you and the disease passed on ... That's such a respectful attitude.

In magic, rowan was used to protect the house from magical attacks and evil spirits. For this, the mountain ash was planted near the porch or at the gate. And a branch of mountain ash with fruits has long been attached above the front door, where it protected both the house and its household from evil spirits. Rowan is a talisman "from dashing people and bad news. If you look closely at the underside of the rowan berry, you will notice that in shape it is an equilateral five-pointed star, and this is one of the most ancient and important pagan symbols - a symbol of protection.

In the Novgorod province, returning from a cemetery, rowan rods were hung over the door so that the deceased would not return home. In the Voronezh province, the matchmaker poured rowan roots into the top of the groom's boot so that he would not be spoiled at the wedding.

There are signs associated with mountain ash: "A large harvest of mountain ash - for a long and frosty winter." "Rowan in the forest is fruitful - by a rainy autumn, if not - to a dry one."

Willow was considered among the Slavs a sacred tree, a symbol of the continuity and constancy of life. It is the willow that symbolizes the ancient Slavic pagan god Yarila. To this day, the custom has been preserved once a year on the night of Ivan Kupala in honor of the sun god, to decorate a willow with flowers, to burn bonfires near it. At the end of the holiday, willow branches were planted in the yards.

In folk beliefs, she belongs to the trees cursed by God. According to legend, the tormentors of Christ made pins from it to fasten the cross. According to another legend, the nails with which Jesus was crucified were not made of iron, but made of willow. For this, the willow, according to popular notions, is defeated by turning by worms, and devils sit in a dry willow. According to Belarusians, on the willow, especially the old one - dry and hollow, From Baptism to Palm Sunday damn sitting. In the spring, the devils warm themselves on the willow, and after they are blessed on a holiday, they fall into the water, and therefore from Palm Sunday to Easter you cannot drink water scooped up under the willow.

Willow in Rus' played the same role as the palm tree, palm branches, with which the people greeted Christ entering Jerusalem. The willow was and is sanctified in the temple with holy water.

Willow was attributed magical power to influence the irrigation of fields and meadows (willow grows in damp places, near water), which means that, the ancestors believed, it contributed to fertility and future harvest. There is a clear connection with pre-Christian rites and beliefs, with the cult of the spirits of vegetation and fertility.

It was also believed that willow had the ability to endow livestock and people with health and sexual energy, protect against diseases and purify from evil spirits. In ancient times, there was a custom: parents who returned from church whipped children with consecrated willow and said: “Willow - a whip! Beats to tears. The willow is red, it does not beat in vain. This was done in order to endow the children with health.

With consecrated willow, young women and girls, as well as newlyweds, were lashed, thereby wanting to make them fertile.

In Rus', it was customary to keep the consecrated willow at home in the front corner behind the icons all year round. And on the very holiday, they whip cattle with willow branches and say: “As the willow grows, so do you grow” - in addition to wishing health to pets, this was supposed to protect them from evil spirits. Sprigs of consecrated willow were strengthened in sheds, barns. Before the first cattle pasture in the field, these branches were fed to the animals.

Willow was also attributed the power to protect houses from fires, fields from hail, stop a storm, recognize sorcerers and witches, discover treasures, etc.

Following the belief that the willow has a universal healing power, our ancestors ate nine cones (earrings) from the consecrated willow, believing that this would protect them from fever. During a thunderstorm, the consecrated willow was taken out from behind the goddess and placed on the windowsill - they believed that this would save them from lightning.

The preparation of willow branches in the cities was a special rite. On the eve of Palm Sunday, in the old days, Russians, without distinction of estates and ranks (from the king to the commoner), went to break the willow on the banks of nearby rivers. In Moscow, for example, in Kitay-gorod and on the banks of the Neglinka, overgrown with willows and willows. Foreigners who visited Moscow in the 16th - 17th centuries left interesting memories of how on Saturday, on the eve of Palm Sunday, before mass, a large tree (willow) decorated with various artificial fruits was taken out of the Kremlin's Assumption Cathedral with a large gathering of people, installed in a huge sleigh and carried, as in the procession.

The Slavs believed that willow amulets hung around the neck protected from hellish visions. Willow branches were hung over the doors of residential buildings, for they promised goodness and happiness. Women injected willow branches into their hair, which protected them from evil spirits, sharpened their eyesight and protected them from blindness.

All Eastern Slavs widely believed that a consecrated branch could protect against thunderstorms, storms, and other natural disasters, from evil spirits and diseases. In the Tambov province, it was believed that a willow thrown against the wind could drive away a storm, and thrown into a fire could pacify it.

In Rus', weeping species of white willow were a symbol of melancholy and sadness. In the old days, willow was called a sadness-tree, which not only sympathizes with pain, sickness of a person, but also takes it all away from the patient. There is a belief that willow has magical properties: it protects people from evil spirits, troubles and accidents. If you carry branches of this tree with you, you can get rid of the fear of death.

In folk medicine of the Slavic countries, willow was used as an anti-inflammatory and anti-febrile remedy for malaria. In the Kuban, willow was used in the treatment of childhood diseases. To do this, early in the morning, before sunrise, they went to the river and cut the willow three times, nine branches each. At the same time, they counted three times from nine to one. Arriving home, they dipped one bunch of nine branches into hot water and bathed the child near the window, from which the sunrise was visible. At noon, they put a second bunch of willow in hot water and bathed the child near the window, in front of which the sun stood at that moment. In the evening, when the sun was setting, the same actions were performed with the last bunch of branches in front of the window looking at the sunset. At the end, all willow branches with water belonged to the river and poured out with a prayer to float on the water. It was believed that the disease would recede.

Willow was fumigated by sick cattle, ground it into powder and covered their wounds, made a decoction from it and drank from various diseases, and also used it as a lotion from tumors and bruises. The consecrated willow was fed to cows and sheep, while they said: “I don’t give, but the willow. Just as the willow does not dry, so do you, my God-given cattle, do not dry.

Aspen- this plant, full of dignity and beauty, is considered in folk beliefs as a cursed tree; at the same time widely used as a talisman.

There is a popular belief that demons live in aspen leaves. In Christianity, it is believed that Aspen is guilty of allowing the tormentors of Jesus Christ to make a cross from his wood on which he was crucified, the nails of the knitting needle with which he was nailed to the cross. The Mother of God or Christ himself cursed the aspen and punished it with eternal fear, from which it trembles to this day. According to another legend, the aspen did not show respect: at the time of the birth of Christ and at his death, it did not calm down and did not bow, but continued to rustle its leaves and tremble. Therefore, it trembles for no reason, does not bear fruit, and cannot cover a person with its shadow. According to other stories, the aspen was punished for betraying the Mother of God, hiding under it with Christ, by the trembling of its branches, during the flight to Egypt. Finally, they say that Judas, tormented by fear and remorse, for a long time could not find a tree that would agree to “accept” him, and only Aspen took pity and allowed him to hang himself on it, for which she was immediately cursed by God.

It was forbidden to plant aspen near houses in order to avoid misfortune, including diseases; they did not use it in construction, did not heat the stove with it, avoided sitting in the shade of a tree, did not bring aspen branches into the house, etc.

In some places among the Eastern Slavs, aspen was also considered a "damn" tree, cf. the characteristic Hutsul name for the feature is "Osinavets". In places where aspen grows, according to popular belief, devils “curl”. The stay of the devil on the aspen is evidenced by the prohibition to hide under the aspen during a thunderstorm, because "the thunder is looking for the aspen." Thunder "beats" the devil in Slavic beliefs.

According to Belarusian beliefs, witches prepared a harmful potion from aspen branches on fire; in order to turn into a wolf or become invisible, the sorcerer had to roll over through five aspen pegs driven into the ground, or through an aspen stump; throwing an aspen branch in front of the traveler, the sorcerer knocked him out of the way. Wanting to make friends with the goblin, the man called him, standing in the forest on fallen aspens.

Aspen was used for magical purposes and divination. To detect a thief, the Poles put a thing into a split aspen that the thief had touched; it was believed that from this he would begin to shake the fever, and the villain would hasten to return the stolen. Aspen was used to recognize a witch: it could be seen if on the night before Ivan Kupala, hide in a barn under a harrow specially made of aspen. To find out which of the women in the village was a witch, Belarusians drove an aspen stake into the ground, cut off chips from it, set fire to them and boiled a filter (a rag through which milk is filtered) on fire: it was believed that the witch would certainly come to ask not to burn it with fire.

In folklore, beliefs and rituals, aspen is an effective tool in the fight against evil spirit, witches, sorcerers and chthonic creatures. After the death of sorcerers, sorcerers were burned on fire from aspen wood so that they would not harm people. In a Russian fairy tale, the heroes defeat Baba Yaga by crushing her with aspen roots; Dobrynya Nikitich hangs the Serpent Gorynych, defeated by him, on a “jagged aspen” (epic “Dobrynya and the Serpent”). According to Russian and Belarusian beliefs, a killed snake must be hung on an aspen, otherwise it will come to life and bite a person. Conspiracies from snake bites are usually read over aspen bark, and then they rub the bitten place with it. A fire made of aspen wood is considered the most effective means of combating evil spirits, hence the proverb: let it burn on an aspen tree!

Among the Eastern Slavs, as well as in Poland, an aspen stake was stuck into the grave of a "walking" dead person or vampire. Often this was done even at the funeral, so that the deceased would not turn into a "walking" dead man. The pointed aspen stake received in the eyes of the people the meaning of Perun's club. To protect the cows and calves from the attacks of witches, aspens are placed on the gates and in the corners of the barnyard, cut down or uprooted; during the plague of cattle, driving away the Cow Death, they beat her (that is, they wave through the air) with aspen logs.

In the rituals of the Eastern Slavs, aspen was used as a talisman. On St. George's and Kupala nights, with the help of aspen branches stuck into the walls of the barn, gates, sheds, they protected cattle from witches who took milk from cows. For the same purpose, at the hotel of cows, a piece of aspen was strengthened on her horn; the first colostrum was filtered through an aspen pipe and given to the cow. If the cow's milk was sour, she was driven through the aspen branches laid along the threshold; a newly bought horse was forced to step over an aspen log placed at the gate of the yard, and so on.

Protecting the fields from witches, aspen branches were stuck into the crops; in the same way, gardens were protected from moles, caterpillars, etc. The healer, destroying the hall on the field, pulled it out of the ground with aspen sticks and burned it on aspen fire.

During the construction of the house, aspen pegs were stuck in the corner of the foundation, protecting the house from any trouble. Defending himself from the goblin, a man, caught at night in the forest, went to bed in a circle outlined on the ground with an aspen stick.

As a saving tool against demonic obsession, aspen can also serve as a healing tool for expelling evil spirits and diseases. They read a plot over aspen rods, which are then placed on the patient. When their teeth hurt, they take an aspen twig and read a conspiracy over it three times: “On the sea in Okiyana, on an island in Buyan, there are three tall trees, under those trees lies a hare; move you, toothache, to that hare! After that, the aspen knot is applied to the diseased teeth.

In folk medicine, various diseases were “transferred” to aspen: during a fever, the cut hair and nails of the patient were put into a hole drilled in an aspen tree, and the hole was clogged with an aspen peg, believing that the fever would not be able to get out of this. Sometimes the patient's belongings were buried in a pit under an aspen tree or the patient was put on a fresh aspen stump, believing that the disease would leave the person in him. “Transmitting” the disease to the tree, they asked: “Aspen, aspen, take my quagmire, give me lightness!”

In some cases, in exchange for health, a person gave a promise not to harm the aspen - not to break its branches, not to chop, not burn .. In childhood epilepsy, cut hair and nails were hammered into the door jamb with an aspen peg at the height of the child's growth: it was believed that when a child outgrow this place, he will recover. With children's insomnia, they made a font for a child from aspen or put aspen in his cradle. With the help of aspen, toothache, hernia, children's fright and other diseases were also treated. When a cholera epidemic approached, cut down aspen trees were stuck into the ground at the four ends of the village, thereby protecting the village from the penetration of the disease.

Broken paralysis, healers advised lying down to rest their feet on an aspen log. The patient recovers if you read the plot over aspen rods and put it on his chest.

Everyone knows that the best way to fight werewolves and vampires is with an aspen stake. Aspen absorbs, takes aside the negative energy of the other world. It was this property that was considered magical in former times. In the aspen grove, psychics and magicians lose their abilities. Here you can also find refuge from magical persecution, protect yourself from an energy vampire, and partially neutralize the effects of induced damage or the evil eye.

Hawthorn. Among the Slavs, hawthorn is a noblewoman, hawthorn and a symbol of chastity.

The ritual functions of the hawthorn are due to its thorniness, which brings this shrub closer to the blackberry, wild rose, blackthorn. In some nationalities, hawthorn is called blackthorn. The hawthorn was one of several plants used to make a wreath for Christ.

The association between its spring bloom and virginity has led to popular belief that it advocates chastity. Hawthorn flowers were used for wedding wreaths. However, the smell of hawthorn flowers could portend death.

With the help of hawthorn, you can prevent the dead from becoming a vampire. To do this, the belly or heel of the deceased was pierced with a hawthorn thorn, and for fidelity, a hawthorn bush was also planted on the grave, and for fidelity, a hawthorn bush was also planted on the grave. The branches of the plant were placed in the chimney if it was suspected that the vampire would enter the house through it. It is believed that a stick from this thorny plant can drive the devil away, and kill with a knife, the handle of which is made of hawthorn. Hawthorn was placed on the threshold of the cow pen in order to prevent witches from entering there.

There is a belief that demons live in thorny bushes, and hawthorn is a pitchfork tree.

Among the southern Slavs, an earthquake is also explained by the shaking or damage to the tree on whose branches the Earth is placed, or the pillar on which it rests. This dog constantly gnaws at the hawthorn, and when there is very little left, he begins to tear with all his might to break it. From this, the Earth shakes, but does not collapse, because it is worth cracking the trunk, like St. Peter baptizes the tree with a rod and the hawthorn becomes whole again.

From the evil eye and damage, its branches were placed under the pillow, at the same time being protected from diseases.

Elder.

In folk beliefs, elder belongs to the so-called cursed, dangerous plants, since the devil lives in it. In Ukraine, for example, they believe that the elder was “planted” by the devil and now constantly sits under it. In the apocryphal traditions of Christianity, the elder disputes the dubious honor of being the very tree on which Judas Iscariot hanged himself.

According to another legend, the devil hung himself on an elder tree, which is why its leaves and berries emit a putrid smell. The Polish legend says that. that the first demon settled in a huge pit and planted an elderberry on top so that she would guard him. The Serbs considered the elderberry bush to be the habitat of the pitchfork.

Perhaps that is why elderberry was not used in family and calendar rituals, but it was widely used in magic, amulets, and healing.

At the same time, it was believed that elderberry was the abode of household spirits, bringing good to the owners, guardians of the economy, etc. In Polish and Ukrainian incantations, elderberry is identified with Adam; they address her with the words "Byzynovy Adame", "Man of God, holy Adam", explaining to him that both elderberry and Adam have existed since the foundation of the world.

Elderberry was forbidden to burn in order to avoid toothache. Children's toys were never made from it, so that children would not have a headache. Among the Poles, Hutsuls, Lusatian Serbs it was forbidden to sleep under the elderberry, urinate under it, climb on the elderberry. Elderberry was not used as fuel, so as not to bring bedbugs and fleas into the houses.

There was a ban on uprooting elderberry (if it was necessary to uproot it, cripples or mentally ill people were specially hired for this work).

Violation of this prohibition, according to legend, could lead to misfortune, illness, for example, rheumatism (“if you chop an elderberry, it will twist your legs and arms”). It was believed that where an elder bush was dug up, nothing would ever grow.

These taboos were lifted if the elderberry was chopped or broken for any specific purpose: as a medicine, for decorating a church or making hedges, for fuel. It was possible to break the elderberry on a certain day (on Good Thursday, before noon).

Elderberry was used for the magical treatment of diseases. Water was poured under the elderberry, in which the sick child was bathed, in the hope that the disease would be taken away by the spirit living under the bush. They tied the elderberry with threads from the clothes of a patient with a fever. Conspiracies were turned to the elderberry, which were read under the plant in the treatment of toothache: “Holy elderberry, I keep you from being burned by fire, and you keep me from toothache.” To protect a child from a headache, the Slovenes buried his cut hair under elderberry, and the Slovaks bathed small children in a decoction of elderberry flowers to ensure their health.

And patients with radiculitis knelt before the elderberry and asked her to take over their illness: “Elderberry! Dazhbog sent me to you so that you could take on my illness!”

Among the southern Slavs, elderberry was widely used for snake, scorpion and wasp stings, and was also used in folk veterinary medicine.

Among Czechs and Slovenes, girls turned to elderberry during fortune-telling about marriage. At Christmas time, the girl went to the elderberry bush, shook it and said: "I'm shaking, I'm shaking the elder, answer, dog, from the side where my dear lives," and listened to where the dogs barked. It was believed that during fortune-telling you can see the betrothed in the elderberry bush.

In Ukraine, conspiracies addressed to the elder are widely known: "from misfortune", "so that the court does not sue", "to gain strength and courage", "to get rid of any misfortune".

Elder branches were used as a universal amulet. They decorated houses, outbuildings, fences to protect against witches on St. George's and Kupala nights, they simply carried them with them. In the Balkans, elderberry branches (along with other plants) were used in rain-making rites. They decorated from head to toe dodol, peperuda, Herman's doll, and at the end of the ceremony they threw the branches into the water.

In Russia, there was a belief that if you set off on a journey with an elder staff, then neither evil people nor wild animals would be afraid. The method of making a cane-amulet can be found in ancient Russian herbalists. At the sight of such a cane, evil spirits run away with all their might.

Spruce. According to legend, the fir hid the Mother of God during her flight with Christ to Egypt. According to another legend, she hid Christ, who was hiding from the plague, for which she received a blessing and was rewarded, remaining forever green.

The thorniness of spruce, as well as a strong resinous smell, determine its use as a talisman. In Ukraine, spruce branches (together with branches of wild rose and nettles) were stuck on the eve of the Kupala night in front of the gate, barn, roof eaves and other places to protect cattle from witches, pigs from diseases. At the first milking, the Poles filtered the milk through spruce branches laid crosswise so that it would not spoil. Spruce branches were widely used to protect buildings and cultural space from bad weather. In Moravia, they decorated crosses with them, which at Easter were stuck in crops from hail. However, spruce branches consecrated at Christmas, Epiphany, Candlemas, Easter or on the day of the Nativity of John the Baptist were considered more effective means. In Belarus, consecrated spruce branches, along with incense, were placed at four corners when laying the House to protect it from thunder. The branches that were stuck into the ice on the sides of the hole for Epiphany were brought home, put behind the icons and stuck into the roof - from wind and thunder; tied to apple trees in the garden to protect the trees from the storm; stuck into the wall, put under the house, in the underground - "so that the storm does not touch."

Spruce is a female tree. It is probably with the “female” symbolism of spruce that the prohibition to plant and generally have a spruce near the house, which supposedly “survives” from the house of men, is connected. According to the beliefs of the Serbs, if a spruce grows near the house, boys will not be born in it. In the Russian North, they did not plant a spruce near the house, fearing that otherwise "the men would not live, they would die, there would be only widows."

The ban on planting spruce near the house can be explained by the fact that spruce belongs to barren trees (according to Bulgarian legend, spruce is “barren”, because it was cursed by the Mother of God). In Belarus, spruce was not planted out of fear that "nothing will be done in the house", "nothing will be born either in the barn or at home." They especially avoided keeping spruce near the houses of the newlyweds, so that they would not remain childless, "so that the family would not be uprooted."

In the beliefs of the Eastern Slavs, spruce is also related to the field of folk demonology. According to the Vladimir bylichka, the brownie lives in a large pine or spruce branch hanging somewhere in the yard. The children of the forest spirits lie in cradles hanging on fir and pine trees, and the children of mermaids lie under the spruce. Through the fir-trees the devils lead the cursed children dragged by them into the forest, under the fir-tree the goblin puts the children who have lost their way to sleep.

According to legend, on behalf of the sorcerers, the cursed children abandoned to them, as well as the devils who demand work from the sorcerers, are counting the needles. There is a conspiracy from childhood insomnia: “Come, dawn, into the forest, sit on the Christmas tree, count your needles. There you have a job, there you have a job. Don't touch my heart child."

According to Slavic beliefs, during a thunderstorm, the devil hides under a spruce, bringing thunder and lightning to himself. This explains the prohibition to be under the spruce during a thunderstorm.

Spruce has found wide application in funeral and memorial rituals. At the Old Believer consent of the runners, it was customary to dig up the roots of a large spruce right in the forest, twist it out of the ground a little and put the body of the deceased without a coffin into the resulting hole, and then plant the spruce in its original place, "as if nothing had happened here for a century." This agrees with the Olonets evidence of the burial of gallows between two fir trees, as well as the motif of burial under a fir tree in Serbian epic songs.

A coffin was often made from spruce (as well as from pine and birch), hoping that it would not allow the deceased to “walk” after death. This was reflected even in Russian carol curses addressed to the owner, who gave the carolers a bad gift: New Year spruce coffin for you, an aspen lid.

Everywhere there was a custom to throw spruce branches on the road to the cemetery, both before the funeral procession and after it. Thus, they “covered” or “sweeped” the way for the deceased, so that he “did not come, did not disturb.”

Among the Western Slavs, they ate branches like an evergreen plant, garlands from it and spruce wreaths are one of the most common grave decorations. Felled spruce (as well as cypress, juniper pine), often decorated with flowers or ribbons, could be installed or less often planted on the grave of a guy or girl who died before marriage.

Spruce also served as a ritual tree, mainly in the Christmas and New Year, Maslenitsa, Trinity and Kupala festivities, as well as at a wedding.

Spruce was considered a symbol eternal life, indestructibility. This is where the custom for Christmas (later - for the New Year) begins to decorate the house with this tree.

There is a sign: “You can’t cut a century-old spruce - to trouble.” - The people believe that the old, centuries-old spruce is the dwelling of the goblin. If it is cut down, then the goblin will begin to take revenge by all means available to him, up to and including arson. And he will certainly start knocking him off the road in the forest, where he is the owner.

viburnum among the Slavic peoples since ancient times it has been a symbol of youth, girlhood, fun and revelry. In folk legends, this is a woman, her fate, her share. It blooms with a delicate white color, shining with the purity of innocence. But then comes marriage. Joy comes in half with grief. A flower quickly fades - feelings quickly fade. A berry is born - not that bitter, not that sweet. Fragile viburnum branches break under rain and wind.

Kalinovye gai have long been called sacred. Near them it was forbidden to graze cows, cut down bushes. According to legend, if you rock a child in a viburnum cradle, he will grow up melodious. The red color of the viburnum has great amulet power, which is why the bride's outfit has always been red in the past.

In the old days, viburnum was always present in the wedding ceremony. It is the main decoration of the bride's wreath, wedding tree, wedding loaf and other wedding attributes. The bride's wreaths were woven from viburnum, periwinkle and other fragrant herbs - this ensured the love of the young for many years.

Kalina is also a symbol of procreation, there is even an expression: "Kalina gave birth to the family."

In Ukraine, when a girl was born in the family, berries and viburnum leaves were placed in the first font so that she would be beautiful, ruddy, happy and healthy. Kalina was hung next to the woman in labor so that she and her child were healthy and happy.

At the same time, viburnum is a tree and funerary, memorable - "you, my sisters, plant viburnum in my head."

In songs, killed, cursed people, lovers who died of love turn into viburnum.

Kalina with drooping branches symbolizes the girl's sadness. Breaking viburnum branches - Symbolized to marry a girl. Collect viburnum, walk on viburnum - look for love or love. In Ukraine, viburnum is attributed a special power: the viburnum flower, plucked and applied fresh to a loving heart, comforts languor.

Of the entire chain of images associated with viburnum, only the “viburnum bridge” correlated with prowess and youth. Walking along the viburnum bridge meant indulging in selfless fun, revelry. In one song, a yearning girl asks the fellows to “build her a viburnum bridge,” that is, to cheer her up, and a woman striving to regain her youth catches up with them on the viburnum bridge with the words: “oh, I caught up with my summers on the viburnum bridge; oh, come back, come back at least for an hour to visit!

Kalina is planted on the grave of a son, brother, young Cossack, and generally unmarried.

Maple .

In the legends of the Western and Eastern Slavs, maple is a tree into which a person is turned ("sworn"). It is for this reason that maple wood could not be used for firewood ("maple went from man"). It was impossible to make a coffin out of its trunk (“it is a sin to rot a living person in the earth”). It was forbidden to put maple leaves under bread in the oven (a palm with five fingers was seen in a maple leaf).

The transformation of a man into a maple tree is one of the popular motifs of Slavic legends: the mother “cursed” the disobedient son (daughter), and the musicians walking through the grove where this tree grew made a violin out of it, which tells about the mother’s wine in the voice of the son (daughter).

In songs about a mother or poisoner's wife, sycamore (white maple) grows on the grave of a murdered son (husband).

And in the South Slavic tradition, where such songs are unknown, maple, nevertheless, is also thought to be involved in human destiny. According to Serbian beliefs, if an unjustly condemned person hugs a dry maple, the maple will turn green, but if an unhappy or offended person touches a maple green in spring, the tree will dry up.

According to an old tradition, when a house was built, a couple of maples were planted on its south side. Since the house was usually built when a new family was created, these trees were called "Groom" and "Bride". But, probably, in the old days, these two maples, under the protection of which the house was all year round, were called the trees of the god and goddess.

Maple symbolized the ability to magical protection, love and material well-being.

Maple was used in the construction of bridges over running water. Running water is an obstacle for the dark forces, and the maple did not allow these forces to use the bridge.

Maple branches covering the barn, or stuck into the walls, protect livestock from the evil eye and spoilage.

Maple was called a good tree, believing that it is the seat of deities or demons.

It was believed that maple brings happiness, protects from lightning, so it was planted near the house.

In Rus', in order to prevent the witch from entering the courtyard and the house, maple branches were plugged into the door. To scare away evil forces, maple fruits were buried under the threshold of the house, a green branch was hung over the bed.

Maple leaves were often depicted on Easter eggs.

The maple arrow is believed to kill the undead.

In agricultural magic, maple branches were used to grow flax. They were stuck into the arable land, saying: "Lord, give us flax, like a maple tree."

There is a belief that there is a very strong connection between a person and a maple that grows near his house. And as long as a person is alive and well, then the maple grows and turns green.

Maple is a melodious tree. “Pull a ringing string on a dry branch of a wedge-tree, sing your daring song to me ...” is a frequent motif of ancient legends. It was from maple that Sadko's harp was made.

Maple branches were used in the rites of the Trinity, Green Christmas time, Ivan's day. In Polissya, Saturday before the Trinity was called “maple”, “maple Saturday”. On a holiday, one or three trees were placed at the doors and windows, decorating the house with branches. It was believed that at this time the souls of deceased relatives come to the house and hide in the maple branches.

After the holidays, trees and branches were not thrown away, they were burned or chopped for firewood.

There are signs associated with maple: “If maple leaves curl up and expose their lower surface to the wind, it will rain.” "Maple sap has gone - the spring frosts are over."

For women, it symbolizes a young man, slender and strong, kind and beloved.

In Ukraine, maple and linden were presented as a married couple, and the fall of maple leaves promised separation from the family.

Linden The name of this tree in all Slavic languages ​​comes from the word "stick" (due to the viscous juice). Softness was attributed to linden, which made it a symbol of femininity, tenderness, the opposite of the "male" tree - oak. Among the Slavs, linden was read not just as a symbol of a woman, but as a “mother of trees”, a giver of life (such an attitude is associated with the role of linden in the material well-being of a person). As the oak was dedicated to Perun, so the linden was the tree of the goddess Lada.

In Russian folk art, a beautiful linden is associated with love with both oak and maple.

Lipa was closely associated with the Orthodox cult and Christian legends. It was she who was considered the tree of the Virgin; they said that the Mother of God rests on it, descending from heaven to earth. Icons and icons were hung on the linden; on the linden, according to legend, miraculous icons appeared (“appeared”) more often than other trees. According to the legends, the linden covered with its branches the Mother of God with the little Christ during their flight to Egypt. Linden is a tree revered as a saint in all Slavic traditions. Among the southern Slavs, old large lindens traditionally grew near churches and temples, especially ancient ones; courts were held under these lindens, holidays and meetings of residents were held. Processions of the cross stopped under the lindens during religious processions through the fields, meals were arranged here, etc.

Linden was also considered a happy tree, which was not afraid to keep near houses and plant on graves. It was also said that it was good to fall asleep under a lime tree. The sacred nature of the tree led to the use of linden wood for carving a “live” fire, with the help of which the fire was renewed annually in the hearths.

In this regard, it was natural to prohibit touching the revered lindens, damaging them, chopping them, breaking branches, administering natural needs under them, etc. It was known that a horse who plucked a linden branch would certainly fall, but if a person returns the branch to its place, the horse will recover. The Poles were also wary of cutting down lindens, believing that otherwise either the person who cut down the tree, or someone from his family, would die.

Ukrainians say about linden that God gave her a special power - to save husbands from the curses that their wives "reward" them with. Linden takes over everything, that's why her trunk is covered with growths. And one more thing: cattle cannot be beaten with linden - they will die.

Linden is used as a universal amulet. It was widely believed that lightning did not strike the linden, so they planted it near houses and were not afraid to hide under it during a thunderstorm. The Russians hung linden crosses around the neck of a person tormented by obsessions. They also stuck a linden branch in the middle of the pasture during grazing so that the cows would not wander far and could not be touched by animals in the forest. Everywhere in Russia it was believed that a witch could be discouraged from becoming a werewolf if she was hit backhand with a bare lime stick. In the same way, brave people drove away the devil that had become attached to them. During the wedding, the inhabitants of Herzegovina held a linden branch over the heads of the newlyweds as a talisman. She decorated houses and pens with cattle on St. George's Day and on Trinity.

Like many other trees, linden played an important role in folk medicine: various diseases were transferred to it everywhere, by hammering pieces of the patient’s clothes, his nails and hair into the tree trunk; fumigated sick people and cattle with smoke from burnt linden wood, etc.

Alder- a tree mentioned in the legends of the Western and Eastern Slavs. They tell how the devil, competing with God at the creation of the world, tried to create a wolf, but could not revive him; by the will of God, the wolf came to life and rushed at the devil, who hid from him on an alder tree. Then the blood from the heel of the devil bitten by the wolf fell on the alder, which made its bark red. According to another legend, God created a sheep, in response to which the devil created a goat and, wanting to brag to God, dragged her to God by the tail. On the way, the goat escaped from the devil and hid on an alder. Since then, the goats have no tail, and the bark of the alder has become red from the goat's blood.

It is also mentioned in the legends about the crucifixion of Christ: alder branches were broken during the scourging of Christ, for which Christ blessed this tree.

Among the southern Slavs Alder is used in folk medicine, "living fire" is carved from it.

In the Russian North, it was customary to leave a sacrifice to the field or forest spirits on an alder - usually in the form of bread and salt.

Because of its red color, alder has become a magical amulet. Like everything bright, red bark attracts the eye and, accordingly, protects from the evil eye.

Even if the bark is hidden in a pocket, a person is reliably protected. Hence the popular sign of putting pieces of alder in the pockets of the newlyweds in order to protect the newlyweds from spoilage. Its branches are stuck along the edges of the field to protect against hail and bad weather; they bathe in the water that bathes the roots of the alder in order to protect themselves from diseases.

When you have a fever, you need to go to the forest and sit on a freshly cut Alder stump, and then the fever will pass into the tree. The Poles believed that the water washing the roots of Alder turns black; if you bathe in such water, the body will turn black, but at the same time the person will be saved from all diseases.

In Poland, on Trinity, Alder branches were used to decorate houses to turn away thunderstorms and hail. The Poles stuck Alder branches into barley crops so that moles did not tear the soil, and also placed Alder branches under sheaves to protect them from mice. Belarusians believed that Alder could protect households from visiting the "walking dead", since it had "the red blood of Satan." For the same reasons, in Polissya, people planted Alder near their houses, so that "the devil would not become attached" to a person. The Slovaks put a piece of alder leaf in the shoes of newlyweds going to the crown.

hazel the western and southern Slavs have a sacred tree. Hazel belonged to the “blessed” trees, in which “thunder does not strike”: during a thunderstorm they hid under it, branches. Crosses made of hazel were used to decorate houses, stick them into fields and outbuildings, especially on St. George's Day, on Ivan Kypaly; it was believed that a thunderstorm would bypass the places protected by hazel. At the same time, it was believed that thunder and thunder, not having power over the tree itself, had a detrimental effect on its fruits. Nuts deteriorate, blackening, as if burning from the inside. Due to its status, hazel was widely used as a talisman against evil spirits. Demons. Bulgarians expelled those who sent insomnia to children, bypassing the cradle of a child with a lit walnut branch. Branches of hazel were protected from pysalok. Hazelnut was an effective amulet against snakes and mice. The Bulgarians believed that snakes are not only afraid of hazel, but also die from it. Czechs and Slovaks planted branches of hazelnuts in barns, beat them on the walls of houses and storerooms, thus driving mice out of there.

The southern Slavs did not plant hazel, believing that when its trunk is equal to the neck of the person who planted it, it will die.

Slovenes during Christmas fortune-telling, calling evil spirits to the crossroads, outlined a magic circle around themselves with the help of a hazel branch. Therefore, on the eve of Trinity, people avoided picking hazel branches, fearing to disturb the souls of the dead. On Ascension or Spiritual Day, they decorated houses with hazelnut branches, laid them on the floor in the house and in the church, knelt down on them, prayed, and, pressing their ears to the hazel branches, listened to them. It was believed that in this way you can hear the dead and even talk to them. At the end of the day, these walnut branches were taken to the cemetery, they swept the graves with them, so that in the “other world” the soul of the deceased could hide in their shadow.

Christmas divination speaks about the connection between the hazelnut and the cult of ancestors. It was believed that an empty nut portends death and a hungry, lean year, and a full one - well-being and health.

Rosehip protected the newlyweds from the action of harmful forces. In Croatia, three rosehip thorns were stuck into the groom's hat, which protected him from the evil eye; after the wedding, the bride's veil was thrown on a wild rose, to which she bowed nine times.

In Serbia, to protect a child from a witch, the rose hips were sewn into his clothes, placed next to him; In Bulgaria, it was forbidden to dry the diapers of a newborn on a wild rose, so that the Samodivas living under it would not harm him.

In Croatia, rose hips were kept in the house so that the plague would not enter it. So that the witch would not take away the milk from the cows, on St. George's Day, they decorated the doors of the house with rosehip branches, stuck them in front of the entrance to the house and into the barn. Rosehip protected both people and livestock from snakebite, for example, the Poles fumigated cattle and shepherds with smoke from rosehips before being pastured to pasture.

It was believed that rose hips give fruitful power, so rose hips often performed in ceremonies in tandem with fruit trees. In Poland and Slovakia, as many rose hips were baked into Christmas bread as the number of heads of cattle the owner had: it was believed that the animals would not get sick, and the cows would give more milk. In the Czech Republic, cattle were fed rose hips at Easter.

The Kuban Cossacks have a legend that rose hips grew out of the blood of a girl who, not wanting to marry the unloved, stabbed herself with a dagger. In autumn, this bush dressed in an outfit of red berries, but only a kind person. If an evil person approached him, the bush bristled with thorns and did not let him pick a single berry.

In folk medicine: diseases were referred to him, water after treatment was poured under a wild rose bush. At the same time, the rosehip could give health, for which an exchange was made between the patient and the rosehip bush: the patient took away the red thread that hung on the rosehip during the night, and entangled the bush with a yellow thread that hung around his neck for a day and said: “I give you a yellow thread , and you give me a red thread. The disease passed to the wild rose, and the life-giving power of the wild rose - to the patient. In Bulgaria, a patient with epilepsy was measured with a rosehip rod, which was buried in the place where the seizure occurred. In gratitude, the sorceress hung a red thread with coins strung on it on a wild rose and left a cake, wine, oats and three horseshoes under a bush. In Serbia, a sick person, in order to get rid of the disease, crawled through a split rosehip rod, which was then tied with a red thread.

Rejuvenating apples, according to Russian legends, had great power: they could not only give health and youth, but also restore life to the dead. They grew up in a distant land, and were guarded by evil giants or dragons. In Slavic mythology, griffins and basilisks guard all approaches to the Iry garden, the Alatyr mountain and the apple tree with golden apples. Whoever tries these golden apples will receive eternal youth and power over the Universe. And the apple tree itself with golden apples is guarded by griffins and the dragon Ladon himself.

It has been known since ancient times that the apple tree is a tree of female power. The fruits of the apple tree have long been used as a love spell.

Apples and branches of an apple tree play an important role in the wedding ceremonies of the Slavs. Apple acted in function love sign: a guy and a girl, having exchanged fruits, expressed mutual sympathy, publicly declared their love. An apple accepted by a girl during the matchmaking is a sign of consent to marriage. The southern Slavs are invited to a wedding, bringing apples home

An apple branch is used in the manufacture of a wedding banner, a tree; apples are strengthened in the bride's wreath. Belarusians, Poles and Ukrainians stick branches of an apple tree into a loaf, and Russians into a baked wedding chicken. Among the southern Slavs, going to a wedding, the bride took an apple with her; in the church after the wedding, she threw an apple behind the altar in order to have children.

Apples were given to newlyweds so that they would have many children; on the wedding night, one apple was placed under the feather bed, and the second was broken in half, and each of the newlyweds ate half. An apple is a symbol of the bride's chastity: it was placed on a wedding shirt or instead of it in a sieve. Under the apple tree, the southern Slavs performed a ritual shaving of the groom before the wedding; when changing the headdress of the bride to the headdress of a married woman, the veil was removed from her head with an apple branch and thrown on the apple tree.

Among the southern Slavs, on Christmas and New Year's, the youngest member of the family brought an apple tree branch into the house, it was stuck into the Christmas roll; all households and cattle were hit with an apple twig, and then they were thrown onto an apple tree.

The apple is the embodiment of fertility: it was placed in the seed grain so that the wheat was born large, like apples, and to protect the crops from being stripped.

The last Apple was not plucked from the tree: it was left on a branch so that next year there would be a harvest.

In Slovakia, a young housewife, having come to a new house, turned over a basket full of apples so that there would be abundance in the household.

From infertility helped the apple, which was born after the secondary flowering of the apple tree, or the first on young tree, and also hung on an apple tree for a long time.

The apple is associated with the world of the dead and plays a significant role in funeral rites: it was placed in a coffin, in a grave, so that the deceased would take it to the "other world" to their ancestors. In Bulgarian beliefs, Archangel Michael took the soul to heaven only with an apple. The apple on the table on Christmas Eve was intended for the dead, so in Poland, fearing the revenge of the ancestors, it was forbidden to take apples from the Christmas tree.

The apple tree acts as an intermediary between the two worlds, as a link in bringing the soul to the world of the ancestors. In Serbia and Bulgaria, a small apple tree was carried in front of the coffin, planted on the grave (instead of a cross), so that the dead could communicate with the living through it. It was believed that the tree was on the way with the deceased until his very transition to the “other world”. When the apple tree withered, it meant that the soul had reached paradise.

It was believed that before the Apple Savior, i.e. before the consecration of apples, mermaids live on the apple tree, damn. Apples were consecrated in the church on the Transfiguration ( Apple Spas) and only after that they were allowed to eat.

In addition, apples are used to remove warts, rather by magical than medical methods. A five-pointed star is visible in an apple cut horizontally in half, and the wood and flowers of the apple tree are used in love witchcraft.

At the same time, the pear was treated as a habitat for evil spirits: in Macedonia, a wild pear is included in a number of trees called “Samovils”, it was forbidden to sleep, sit, tie a cradle to it, etc. under it. In Polissya, they were afraid to stand under a pear tree during a thunderstorm. According to Serbian beliefs, on the Pear (growing in the field, with a dense crown, crooked), veshtitsy and challahs lived, witches gathered at night, strigs danced; during the ritual expulsion from the village of Chumy, a victim was left for her on an old pear tree. Under the pear tree lived a grass snake that sucked milk from a cow every evening. The treasure was buried under a pear or a pear was planted in the place of the buried treasure. In many Slavic zones, a dry pear, like a willow, was considered the habitat of the devil, so old trees were not cut down for fear of incurring a loss on the farm.

In the Ukrainian spell tradition, the pear is associated with the world tree (oak) and is the tree of the anti-world, the tree of evil and barrenness, and is opposed to the apple tree.

Branches, fruits, wood, ash from a pear served as a talisman and were used in producing magic. The shaft of the wedding banner was made from the bough of a pear, the Ukrainians stuck a pear branch into the wedding loaf. When the bride was driving to the crown, dried pears were scattered at all crossroads; in Polissya, the mother showered the groom with pears so that he would be rich; in Plovdiv, it was believed that a barren young woman should have eaten a pear that hung on a tree the longest. In order for the newborn to be healthy, pear branches were placed in the first font, water was poured after bathing under the pear tree. The first fruits were consecrated and distributed to neighbors for the mention of the soul.

In calendar rituals, branches and a pear tree were more often used. In southwestern Bulgaria, in Macedonia, a pear was cut down for a badnyak, sometimes wild - because of its abundant fruiting, so that the house was prolific and rich. With a pear branch, the polyaznik stirred the fire in the hearth, pronouncing good wishes; the hostess took her to the chicken coop so that the chickens would rush well.

In Serbia, warts and abscesses were treated by rubbing them with the fruit of a pear, after which they were thrown onto the road with the words: “Whoever takes me, who bites me off, on that illness, on me health.” The disease was “hammered” into the pear in a hole drilled in the trunk; in northern Bulgaria, under a pear tree, the shadow of which does not fall on other trees, the childless were treated. To ensure their health for the whole year, on Midsummer's Day they crawled through a wreath twisted on a pear branch.

The Slavs treated fruit trees with special trepidation, since in the folk tradition they were the focus of fruit-bearing power.

The fruit tree often acts as a mythological double of a person. In ancient Slavic traditions, the custom is known to plant a fruit tree at the birth of a child so that it grows and develops like a tree, and the tree, in turn, will bring a rich harvest of fruits. In the event of a child’s illness, this tree was used to guess about his fate: if the tree began to dry, the child could die and vice versa.

An apple tree uprooted in the garden foreshadowed the death of the owner or mistress. In Polissya, after the death of the owner, it was customary to cut down a pear or an apple tree.

Almost everywhere, the fruit tree was associated with the feminine. This is even evidenced by the fact that in the Slavic languages ​​all fruit trees are feminine in the grammatical gender of their names.

According to beliefs, in order to get rid of infertility, a woman had to eat the first buds, flowers or fruits from a fruit tree, and also crawl under branches bent to the ground, saying at the same time: “Just as you are not barren in your kind, so I will not fruitless in her

A pregnant woman was forbidden to climb trees, pick fruits, or even touch a fruit tree, otherwise the tree, according to legend, could dry up.

Water was poured under the fruit tree, in which the woman in labor washed herself; it was she who was tried to be treated with the first fruits of the new harvest.

All Slavs know the ban on felling fruit trees. Cutting them down was considered a sin. Violation of this rule could cause death, injury, drought.

Fruit trees were practically not used in healing magic, in particular, illnesses and “lessons” were not “transferred” to them.

The wood of fruit trees was widely used for the manufacture of amulets.

In general, we can say that all fruit trees have a positive effect on a person.

Information about the magical properties of trees was preserved in the minds of the Slavs only in echoes. They can be found in fairy tales, epics, warnings. Sometimes you can hear: “Do not hide under a tree in a thunderstorm!”, “Do not dry laundry on the branches of a tree!”, “Do not break a tree!”. The warnings are still alive in our memory, but why one should not do this or that, no one or almost no one knows. Under the influence of Christianity, some ideas about the magical properties of plants and the causes of these properties have changed, some have been lost. Therefore, in this chapter, I pursued the goal of collecting information about the magical properties of trees in the life of the ancient Slavs, and tracing the role that they played in the life of our ancestors.