The XIII-XIV centuries are the time of further development of the Kazakh language and the approach of literary languages ​​to the folk one. The Mongolian language did not become widespread in Kazakhstan, and already under Monk and Batu Khan, all state and official documents were kept in Turkic languages. Among the popular dialects, the Kipchak (Old Kazakh) language, which consists of several dialects, continues to dominate. In addition, in the settled regions of Crimea and Southern Kazakhstan, the languages ​​of the Eastern Turkic groups, Oguz and Uyghur-Karlyk, were preserved, and the Khazar and Sogdian languages ​​gradually fell out of use.
Significant changes are taking place in literary languages. The single literary Turkic language of the 11th-12th centuries, “Türks”, is divided into two variants - Karlyk-Uighur and Oguz-Kypchak. The first becomes widespread in the possessions of the Shagatai and is therefore sometimes called by scientists the “Shagatai” language. Almost all Turkic literary works are written in this language of this period Transoxiana and Mogulistan. Oguz-Kypchak literary language takes shape simultaneously in two centers - Ulug Ulus and Egypt, in which the dominant position was occupied by the Kipchak nobility - the Mamluks. In Ulug Ulus, this language was formed in Crimea and Khorezm, where the Kipchak and Oghuz languages ​​were equally widespread, due to which a synthetic literary dialect arose.
Writing. Before the adoption of Islam as the state religion, mainly two writing systems were used in Kazakhstan - the traditional runic script and the Uyghur alphabet brought by the Mongols. Until the beginning of the 14th century. all state and official documents were written in the Uyghur script. However, from the beginning of the 14th century. The Arabic alphabet is becoming increasingly widespread.
At the same time, it was significantly changed and adapted to the norms of Turkic speech. The centers of distribution of Arabic writing in Ulug Ulus were Bulgar and Khorezm, where Islam took strong roots back in the 10th-11th centuries. In some centers of Ulug Ulus, where there were large Christian communities, there were attempts to adapt the Kipchak language to the Latin script, but it did not become widespread. The most striking monument of the Kipchak language in the 13th century. is the “Code Cumanicus” (Book of the Cuman, i.e. Kipchaks). The manuscript was discovered in Petrarch's library and is now kept in Venice, in the Church of St. Brand. The Code was written in 1303 in Crimea, so the language of this book has a strong Oghuz influence from the southern Crimean Turkic dialect.
The book consists of two main parts. The first contains a Latin-Persian-Kypchak dictionary, the second contains a Kipchak-German-Latin dictionary, a short essay on grammar, Christian religious texts in the Kipchak language. To convey the Kipchak language, the compilers used Latin script.
The main purpose of the Code was practical: for missionaries to study the Kipchak language and to introduce the population of Ulug Ulus to Christianity. The book contains the texts of the main prayers in Kipchak and notes for chants. At the same time, the Code conveyed to us a large number of folk proverbs and riddles, surprisingly similar to modern Kazakh ones.
Kipchak dictionaries. The earliest monument of the Kipchak language is the Arabic-Kypchak dictionary “Terjuman Turki wa Arabi”, written in 1245 in Arabic script in Egypt. Despite the name, this work included, in addition to Arabic-Kypchak, Mongol-Persian and Arabic-Mongolian dictionaries. In total, the dictionary contains about 2.5 thousand words.
The work of Asir Ad-Din Abu Hayyan Al-Garnati (Andalusian) “Kitap al-Idrak-li-Lisan al-atrak” (Explanatory book on the Turkic language) was of purely practical importance. Its author was a native of African Berber and lived in the cultural center of Arab Spain - Grenada. At the end of the 13th century. Al-Garnati moved to Cairo, where he taught philology at a madrasah. Here he wrote several books on grammar, phonetics and vocabulary of the Kipchak language. Only one of his works, written in 1312, has reached us.
The work of Jamal ad-Din Muhammad Abdullah at-Turki “Kitap bulugat al-Mushtaq fi lugat at-Turk val-kypshak” (A book written for those who want to study the Turkic and Kipchak languages ​​well) was also purely practical. The peculiarity of this work is that in a short preface to the dictionary the author gives a list of works he used that have not reached us. Among them, the book “Al-Anwar al-Mudia” (The Shine of Light) by Ala ad-Din Beylik Al-Kypchaki, written in the 14th century, is mentioned. in Syria.
In addition, there are many other works devoted to the study of the Kipchak language. So, in Egypt in the 14th century. the work “Kitab at-tuhfa az-zakiya fi lugat at-turkiya” (A special gift written about the Turkic language) was written. Here at the turn of the XIV-XVI centuries. the book “Ak Kavanin al-kulliya li-dabt al-lugat al-Turkiya” ( Complete collection, written for students of the Turkic language), consisting of two parts - a grammar and a dictionary.

An excerpt characterizing the Kipchak languages

I. Introduction

From the time of the appearance of the “European” Huns and until the fall of the Genghisid khanates, the Black Sea-Caspian steppes, and, accordingly, the neighboring settled communities, of course, to varying degrees, were under the rule of a number of nomadic peoples, or were doomed to close interaction with them . Although the Scythian and Sarmatian tribes, representing the Iranian family, ruled here for a whole millennium preceding the Huns, and even later the Iranian elements, both retaining independence and being part of other formations as substrates, continued to play important role In the ethnogenesis of the peoples of the region, most of the nomads who became the masters of these beautiful steppes, or at least that part of them that exercised political leadership, were of Turkic origin. In the period from the Turkic conquest of Eastern Europe in the late 60s of the 6th century to the campaigns of the Genghisids, all Turkic communities in this region were, in one way or another, generated by the Turkic Khaganate.

But of all these peoples, only the Khazars, the direct political heirs of the Turks, created a kaganate of the classical Turkic type. The rest, for various reasons, remained mainly confederations of tribes and did not feel the desire to create a more durable political entity - the state. Those of them who were forced out of the steppe zone into the zone of sedentary or semi-sedentary farming, for example, the Hungarians (a mixed Ugro-Turkic group of tribes that experienced strong Khazar influence) and part of the Oguzes, led by the Seljuks, created states, but either according to the Christian (Hungary, Danube Bulgaria), or according to the Islamic (Seljuk power) model. And all these Turkic communities, including both the full-fledged state of Khazaria and the tribal unions of the Pechenegs, Western Oguzes (Torks of Russian sources) and Kuman-Kypchaks (Cumans) - no matter how great their military achievements were and the high level of trade development, they were not very then they advanced in the creation of literary monuments based on their own linguistic tradition. From the Khazars, for example, although they undoubtedly needed writing, only documents in Hebrew remained, which is a consequence of the Judaization of the ruling class. While their native language, regarding which there are still many unresolved questions, is known mainly from the toponyms and personal names of the famous Khazars, mentioned in the chronicles of neighboring settled peoples. The Balkan Bulgars, who lived in territorial proximity and under the cultural influence of Byzantium, and ruled the Slavic majority, into which they eventually dissolved, left only scattered Bulgaro-Greek (and in Greek letters) and Slavo-Bulgar inscriptions.

Their fellow tribesmen on the Volga, who converted to Islam in the 10th century (922), left a number of grave inscriptions (dating mainly from the Genghisid era, 13th–14th centuries), written in Arabic script, in the highly developed Arabo-Bulgar language. Undoubtedly, Volga Bulgaria, as an Islamic center, used Arabic to communicate with the outside world. But the written material, although this may be disputed, testifies to a stable Bulgarian written tradition. True, Volga Bulgaria in this regard, as in many others, is not a typical case, since it arose in the forest-steppe zone with a significant Finno-Ugric population, and has gone far from the classical nomadic way of life.

It is interesting to note that, unlike the Turkic peoples of Central and Inner Asia (Turks, Uyghurs, Karakhanids), the Western Eurasian Turkic peoples did not write down significant literary monuments either in Turkic runes, although they used several variants of this script, or with the help of any any other written language at their disposal (Greek, Arabic, Hebrew, Georgian). This apparent lack of literary ambition (which, however, can still be refuted by archaeology) is most likely due to the weak expression political organization among such peoples as the Pechenegs, Western Oguzes (Torks), Kuman-Kypchaks (Cumans). So we should not be surprised that the most significant monument associated with the language of one of the most powerful tribal confederations - the Codex Cumanicus - is not, in general, a Cuman (Polovtsian) work proper. But before we get into the Codex itself, we should talk a little about the people whose language it is dedicated to.

A very complex knot of problems that has formed around the question of the ethnogenesis of the Kuman-Kypchaks (Polovtsians) still remains unraveled. Even the true name of this confederation of tribes remains not entirely clear. Western (Byzantine and Latin), and occasionally Russian sources call them Comani , Cumani , Kumani - Cumans, Komans. The medieval Hungarians, with whom they had strong ties and to whose lands they fled to escape the Mongols, knew them by the name coons (Kun). This name can undoubtedly be correlated with the ethnonym Qun Muslim authors (such as al-Biruni and al-Marwazi, remarks on this subject by Yakut and al-Bakuwi are apparently borrowed from al-Biruni), who, according to al-Marwazi, becomes famous due to the migration of the Cuman-Kypchaks (Cuman- Qipcaqs) to the west. However, it is unclear whether the term Qun, in turn, can be correlated with the ethnonym - Hun (*un) = Xun/Qun - a people who were part of a confederation of tribes Tele/Tokuz-Oguz (T‘ieh–le/Toquz Oguz – Tokuz–Oguz – lit. 9 tribes – ancient Uyghurs).

Ancient Turkic sources call the elements from which the Cuman-Qipcaq tribal union was formed by Kybchak, and, possibly, some other names. The same ethnonym - Qibcaq– was chosen by Muslim authors (for example in the forms Xifjax, Qifjaq, Qipcaq etc.) and Transcaucasian sources (for example, Georgian - Qivc'aq-, Armenian – Xbsax). In translated form, it was also borrowed by some other neighboring sedentary peoples. Namely: in Russian - Polovchin, Cumans(> in Polish, Czech – Plauci, Hungarian – Palocz), in Latin – Pallidi, in Germanic and Germanic-Latin sources – Falones, Phalagi, Valvi, Valewen etc., in Armenian – Xartes– all these names are considered to be translations of Turkic qu / *qub or another similar form - “pale, yellowish, yellow-brown, faded.” In turn, a number of other sources no less confidently call these people kangli (Qangli), the name by which the easternmost - Central Asian - branch of the Cuman-Qipcaq confederation of tribes was known.

These tribes included Turkic, Mongolian, as well as Iranian elements that preceded them (in these steppes). However, the language of intertribal communication - the lingua franca - of the confederation became a certain Turkic dialect, which we now call the Kipchak (Qipcaq) language, some dialects of which are reflected in the Codex Cumanicus.

The Cuman-Qipcaqs ruled the steppe, stretching from modern Ukraine to Central Asia, where they formed a significant part of the population and played a prominent role through marriage ties with the ruling dynasty of Khorezm. To no lesser extent, they were connected with Russia (with which they often fought), with Georgia (where many of them moved and where they converted to Christianity), with Hungary and the Balkans, where later, under the patronage of the Mongols, the Cuman Terterid dynasty was created (Terterids).

Kuman-Kypchak hegemony also covered most of Crimea. As in other areas, their interests in Crimea were predominantly commercial. In the pre-Chingizid period, they collected tribute from Crimean cities. Sudak, an ancient trading center, was perceived by Ibn al-Athir (beginning of the 13th century) as

“the city of the Kipchaks (Qifjaq), from which their wealth stems. It is located on the shore of the Khazar (i.e. Black) Sea. Ships come there loaded with fabrics. The Kipchaks (Qifjiqs) buy (from n) them and sell them concubines and slaves; Burtas (Burtas - people who lived on the middle Volga) furs, beavers, squirrels... This is the city of the Kipchaks (Polovtsians), from which they receive their goods, because it (lies) on the shore of the Khazar Sea, and ships with clothes; the latter are sold, and girls and slaves, Burtas furs, beavers, squirrels and other items found on their land are bought with them.”

Thanks to the political dominance of the Cumans, their language became the lingua franca of the region. It spread among other nationalities living there. Thus, the Crimean Armenian and Karaite (Karaite Jewish) communities adopted this language and preserved it for centuries even far from Crimea, which they were forced to leave as a result of the Mongol conquest of the Kipchak lands, which ended in the late 30s of the 13th century. Some Kipchak tribes (primarily led by Khan Kotyan (Kten)) then migrated to Hungary. Most of them became part of the Mongol Empire. Thus, the empire of the Turks, which once united all nomads (pan–nomadic empire of the Turks), was recreated, and even on a larger scale. Kipchak language at the same time, it did not at all recede into the background, on the contrary: over the century (after) the Great Conquest, it turned into a language of interethnic communication for the western part of the Genghisid state. Therefore, the Mamluk (i.e. Egyptian) scholar al-'Umari (d. 1348), noted that the Tatars (i.e. Mongols), whose numbers (in Europe) were already small, and in whose The ranks already included numerous Turkic elements from Inner and Central Asia, actively intermarried with the local Turkic population and, as a result, became Kypchakized.

In the second half of the 13th century (starting from the 60s), when the Chingizids began to squabble over territory, the Juchids, whose residence was the city of Sarai, fought with the Iranian Hulaguids, found valuable allies in the person of the Mamluk rulers of the Egyptian Sultanate, with whom they continued supply slaves (Mamluks) through the ports of Crimea. The spread of Islam among the Mongols (in the Jochid state), which began under Khan Berke (1257–1266) and culminated under Khan Uzbek (1313–1341), contributed to the strengthening of this alliance.

II. Dating and origin of the document

Codex Cumanicus, which is currently in the library of St. The stamp in Venice (Cod. Mar. Lat. DXLIX) is not one whole (single), but several unrelated (if not considered in a broad sense) works, which, however, were united under a common cover. The Codex can be divided into 2 clearly independent parts:

1. a reference book on the Cuman language, consisting of Italo (Latin)-Persian-Cuman dictionaries of terms compiled by topic and area of ​​application;
2. a collection of religious texts, linguistic information, materials on folklore (Polovtsian riddles) by several different authors, with translations into Latin and into the medieval dialect of Eastern Middle High German. It is also clear that additions have been made to both parts several times.

Scientists have christened these two clearly different parts simply: Italian and Germanic, which is undoubtedly true in relation to the ethno-linguistic origin of the authors of these parts and their environment. But Ligeti’s definition, who called the first part the Interpretor’s Book and the second the Missionaries’ Book, seems more accurate and closer to the truth.

The first mention of the Codex, according to which it was once in the library of Petrarch (1304–1375), the great Italian humanist, dates back to the 17th century. However, this statement was later recognized as erroneous. Dates and places of creation of various sections of the Codex Also long disputed, Bazin, who studied the calendar data particularly carefully (CC, 72/80–81), concluded that the Interpreter's Book was most likely compiled between 1293 and 1295. Drüll ), meanwhile, even suggested a slightly earlier date - 1292–1295. The date found in the Venetian list (Venice ms.) “MCCCIII die XI Iuly” (1303, July 11th.) (CC, 1/1) should be considered as the date of creation (or beginning of creation) of the first copy. The Venetian copy, as shown by analysis of the paper on which it was written, was made no earlier than the middle of the 13th century (date of production of the paper). Missionaries' Book ), combining several sources at once, was compiled approximately 1330–1340. There are other elements in it, most likely added later. The names of its authors are unknown, but most likely they came from the Franciscan community. The German Franciscans, who played an important role in the creation of the Book of Missionaries, came from a background that spoke an Eastern High Germanic dialect.

The Interpreter's Book was compiled by Italian merchants (Venetians or Genoese) or their scribes in Solxat (Eski Krim - Old Crimea southwest of Kafa and northeast of Sudak; until the end of the 14th century it was called Solkhat, then Crimea, and from the 17th century Old (Eski) Crimea or in Kaffa (Feodosia).There is reason to assert that in the process of preparing and translating the Persian and Cuman parts of the trilingual dictionary, more than one person (but most likely many) participated different people). The first copy (1303) is supposed to have been made in the monastery of St. John near Sarai. A later copy surviving in Venice, dating from around 1330–1340, most likely comes from the Franciscan monastery. It also most likely brought together separate, previously unrelated sections of the Codex. Then, somehow these parts again fell into Italian hands, this time in Venice. Thus, this document represents a mixture of fragments of different sizes and created or compiled for different purposes. The Interpretor's Book was largely, although not exclusively, practical, commercial in nature. The Missionaries' Book, in addition to its purely linguistic purpose, contains sermons, psalms and other religious texts, and also a selection of Cuman riddles.

The Venetians and Genoese actively participated (while being competitors) in the Crimean trade. This trade, as we know, thanks to the testimony of contemporaries such as Pegolotti, proceeded in stages: from Tanais (Azov - the main transshipment point for goods heading from Asia to the Crimea) to the lower Volga (Astrakhan-Saray), and from there to the Urals and Khorezm, and from there, finally, to China. They traded a very wide range of goods, for example: wax, metals (including precious ones), spices and other foodstuffs, silk and other fabrics, valuable furs, etc. The Italian trading colonies in Crimea, of course, had regular contact with Tanais (Azov). There were also contacts with Iran by the Ilkhans through Trebizond. True, Drüll proves that the author(s) of the Latin-Persian-Cuman dictionary included in the Interpreter's Book was most likely a Genoese(s) who worked in Caffa , since only the Genoese had connections with merchants from both the Jochid power (Golden Horde) and the Ilkhan power (Iran). Although Italian traders did not participate in the Mamluk slave trade with Egypt, this activity had a long history in Crimea. What is still evidenced by the modern Kazakh proverb: uli irimga, qizi Qirimga ketti - “The son was taken hostage, and the daughter was taken to Crimea (i.e., into slavery).” The above-mentioned trilingual dictionary also covers this area of ​​trade, along with an extensive list of other consumer goods.

III. Languages ​​in CODEX CUMANICUS

The Latin language of the Codex is presented in two variants, indicating the ethno-linguistic affiliation of the authors, as well as their level of education. The Latin of the Interpreter's Book is folk Italian-Latin (Vulgar Italo-Latin), while The Missionaries' Book presents more "correct" language, reflecting the theological training of the Franciscan authors. The Persian material of the Codex has been the subject of two recent works. Daoud Monchi-Zadeh argues that the Persian material has passed through a peculiar Cuman filter: was translated by Cuman-speaking intermediaries. On the other hand, Andras Bodgrogligeti suggests that the Persian language served as the international language (lingua franca) of eastern trade, as a result of which it was subjected, to varying degrees, to standardization, influence of other languages, simplification. Some the words in it are archaic and some are unusual.In short, it does not seem like a living language native to its speaker, but rather like some kind of simplified Koine.

Codex Cuman (CC) also represents a kind of lingua franca that was understood throughout Central Asia. However, its display in the Code (CC) is not entirely correct, since it (CC) was compiled, as we remember, by non-Turkic-speaking authors who spoke the language to varying degrees. There are quite a lot of “wrong” syntactic constructions, as well as grammatical, phonetic, and translation errors. Some of them are the result of misconceptions about the language or copyist errors. Other deviations from the Turkic “norm” can be attributed to literal (word-by-word), literal translation. This method of translation is very characteristic of the Middle Ages, especially when it comes to the translation of sacred, religious texts. For example, in the Karaite language, the closest relative of the Cuman language of the Codex (CC), we find the following sentence: kisi edi yerind'a Ucnun, Iyov semi anin da edi ol kisi ol t'g'l da t'z, qorxuvcu t'enrid' n (There was a man in the country of Uz, whose name was Job, and this man was impeccable and honest and fearing God. Book of Job, 1), word for word repeating the Hebrew (i.e. biblical) text. Some forms that do not have a completely Turkic appearance can be attributed to the influence of the compilers of the Code, whose native languages ​​were Italian/Italo-Latin and Germanic. Many of these forms have an unclear origin, however, since a similar phenomenon is observed in other Turkic languages, it is quite possible that in this case it is the result of the influence of Indo-European languages.

Much more interesting, although hardly unexpected (considering how many authors contributed to the document), is the fact that the lexical material of the Code covers several Kipchak dialects at once. This is especially noticeable when comparing the spelling of the same words in two main sections:

In some cases, several dialects are presented in the same part, for example in the Interpretor’s Book (CC, 52/57, 57/61): Lat. similo, p ers. chomana mecunem(homana mekunm “I resemble” - I resemble, remind) godfather. oscarmen (osqarmen ); (CC, 76/86) lat. similtudo, Persian. manenda godfather oasamac (or oosamac what Grnbech reads as oqsamaq) and in the Missionaries’ Book (CC, 141/199) ovsadi (“resemble, was like” – resembled, was similar), (CC,162/226) ovsar "enlich"; (CC, 131/183) job sgn (ypsengenca ) “sin quod tu approbas, (what you tried, approved)” (CC, 140/195), iopsinip (ypsinip ) : ypsen -/ypsin - “billigen, genehmigen, gutheissen” - to approve.

The well-known alternation of sounds in the Kipchak languages g > w/v manifests itself very clearly in the Missionaries’ Book. The same can be said about another characteristic Kipchak alternation q > x. (For example, yoqsul > yoxsul « arm "hand", mettellos"). But the Interpreter’s Book presents an older and more conservative dialect.

It may also be noted that in cases where the Missionaries Book conveys sound j in words of non-Turkic origin with the letter g(For example, gahan = jahan "world/universe », gan = jan « soul », gomard = jomard « generous" (all borrowings from Persian), in the Translator's Book it is either j, or y. Perhaps this indicated pronunciation through y(although in the Persian forms themselves j often turns into i): jaghan= yahan or jahan, jomard, jomart= yomard or jomard, joap= yowap or jowap(< араб. jawab"answer") and yanauar= yanawar or janavar. This alternation j > y at the beginning of a word is also known in some (modern) Kipchak dialects, especially in borrowed words, for example, in the Bashkir language yawap- answer, yemeyt– society, community (< араб. jam'iyat), yihan- Universe (< перс. jihan, jahan).

Finally, v/w in intervocalic position, which Grnbech usually transcribes as v, may well represent sound w eg: (CC, 65/72) youac = yovac or yovac – opposite (CC, 102/121); culgau = culgav or culgaw – foot wraps, leg wraps (CC, 90/105); carauas = qaravas or qarawas – servant, slave (CC, 139/192); koat = qovat or qowat (< араб. quwwat) – power, authority (CC, 109, 113/130,134); tauc , taoh = tavuq or tawuq , tavox or tawox - chicken.

Many private spelling features (for example, s can be expressed in letters s, z, x, sch, that's the word bas“head” in the Interpreter’s Book is written (CC, 29,86, 94,/30,99,109) bas , bax ; and in the Missionaries Book (CC, 121,126,128/161,171,175) bas, basch, baz /// basqa “except, separately” in the Interpretors’s Book (CC, 64/70) bascha, and in the Missionaries’ Book (CC, 121,123,138/158,163,189)baska, baschka, bazkaclearly indicates that the Codex consists of many documents by different authors, as well as insufficient efforts in overall editing. So, many reading options should be considered conditional.

The translator's book consists of 110 pages (CC,1–110/1–131). Pages 1–58/1–63 contain a series of verbs arranged alphabetically (according to the Latin alphabet) in Latin, Persian and Cuman. It starts with the verb audio. Examples of some forms of this verb are given below:

auditrem"were I to hear" (if I had to hear)
// ysalla mes(i)nde(isalla mesinidm “if I should only hear” - if I should only hear)
// chescha esitkaedim (keske esitqayedim/esitkeyedim );

audiuisse(m)“If had heard” (if I heard)
// y sinada budim(isalla sina budim “if I had only heard” - if only I heard)
// esitmis bolgayedim (keske esitmis bolgayedim );

audiam"if I should hear"
// y besnoem(isalla besnowm “if I should only hear”)
// esitchaymen (keske esitqaymen / esitkeymen "would that I hear");

auditre(m)"were I to hear"
// zonchi mesnide(m)(conki mesinidm “since I hear”)
// esittim essa (esittim ese );

auditres"were you to hear"
// z mesnidi(conki mesinidi “since you hear”)
// nezic chi esiti(n)gassa (necik ki esiting ese"lorsque tu as entendu");

audiueim(=audiverim) “were I to have heard”
// z s(.)ndidem(conki sinidm “since I heard”)
// esittim ersa (esittim erse );

auditire"to listen"
// sanadae(n) (sanadn)
// esitmaga, yzitmaga (esitmege, isitmege ), – hear, listen;

audiences"he who hears, listener"
// sanoenda (sanownda"he who hears")
// esattan (esatgan = esitgen ) – listener;

auditurus“one who will hear, is about to hear”
// ghoet sinidn (xoht sinidan"he who wants to listen")
// esitmaga cuyga (esitmege kyge « the one who intends to listen, to hear") - the future (probable, possible) listener.

None of the other verbs are discussed in as much detail. In most cases, 3–5 conjugation forms are given, for example (CC, 5/6):
adiuuo // yari medehem (yari medehm) // boluzurmen (bolusurmen ), “I help” – I help;
adiuuaui // yari dadem (yari dadm) // boluztum (bolustum ), “I helped” – I helped;
adiuua // yari bide (yari bideh) // bolus (bolus ) "help!" - help!
adiutorium // yari (yari) // bolusmac (bolusmaq ) “help, aid” – help, assistance.

Some Latin verbs are translated into two Cuman verbs at once, for example:
(CC, 6/7) albergo hospito “I lodge – I receive, accommodate guests, show hospitality”
// ghana kabul mecunem (xana qabul mekunm)
// conaclarmen vel condururmen (qonaqlarmen or qondururmen )
(CC, 9/10) balneo aliquid “I’m washing something – bathe something”
// tarmecunem (tar mekunm) “I wet - I wet (make it wet)”
// us etarmen vel iuunurmen (us etermen or yuvunurmen ).

In some cases, in addition to verb forms, verbal nouns are given, for example: (CC, 12/13)
coquo “I cook (food)” // mepaxem (mepazm // bisuturmen (bistrmen );
coqui “I cooked (food)” // pohten (poxtm) // bisurdum (bisrdm )
coque “cook (food)!” // bepoh (bepox) // bisur (bisr )
bagerzi (bagirci< baqir"copper" cf. with Nogai baqirsi bala “a young man serving people as a cook at a copper cauldron”);
coquina "kitchen" // muthagh (= mutbax "kitchen") // as bisurgan eu (as bisrgen ew (lit. “house where food is prepared”).

Compound Verbs

(From this point on, the Persian form will be omitted except in cases where it explains the Cuman, and the Cuman form will be given in transcription):

yk tsrrmen "I'm unloading"
tinimdan kecermen "I'm desperate (I'm desperate)"
(CC, 19/21 eligo “I choose”) kngl icinde ayturmen "I choose (lit. " I say what’s in my heart (i.e. what my heart tells me))”
eygirek etermen "I'm improving"
(CC, 35/37, nauigo “I am sailing on the sea on a ship” // dar driya merowm “I am traveling on the sea”) // tengizda yrrmen ("I'm traveling by sea")
qulluq etermen « I serve (work/am a servant)"

Compound verbs with Arabic elements also well presented. Moreover, these elements are not always present in the corresponding Persian compound verbs:
(CC,20/21) denpingo (sic) “I draw” // naqs mekunm // naqslarmen (< араб. naqs"drawing"),
(CC, 23/25) expendo “I spend” // xarj mekunm // xarj etermen etc.

But, for comparison:
(CC,44/47–48) quito “I’m leaving (I quit)” // raha mekunm // tafs termen (< араб. tags“flight, escape, salvation (by flight)”).

Compound verbs with Persian elements . In many cases, it is quite possible to assume that Arab elements entered Cuman through Persian mediation. Here are words whose etymology is purely Persian.
(CC,23/26) estimo"I appreciate"
// baha mekunm“I estimate (guess, estimate price)”
// bacha ussurmen (baha usurmen « I’m estimating (guessing, estimating the price)”,
KWb., p.266 reads it as baha ur- "schtzen bewerten - to evaluate"< paha"price";
(CC, 42/454) penito“I repent” // pesman m , pesman bolurmen < перс. pesman"penitent".

The verb "to have" comes in three forms: (CC, 29/30–313)
habeo"I have" mende bar;
habui"I have taken possession of (have taken possession of)" tegdi (< tag– “treffen – to hit the target, to overtake, to meet; berhren – ...; erreichen- to reach something, to achieve; gelangen- to hit, to reach, to achieve; zuteil werden- fall to someone else's share");
habeas“you have! “Get it!” dar"have! - Have it! saga/sanga bolsun « may you have! “You can have it!”

Adverbs

The section on verbs (CC, 59–65/64–72) is followed by a section on adverbs (many of which are in postpositive forms), for example:

(CC, 54/61) ante"before, before" eng borun or ilgeri

ab"from, from" idan

aput"near, about, nearby" qatinda (< qat« seite der raum neben oder bei etwas")

brevitur"soon, soon" terklep

bene"Fine" yaqsi or eygi

benigne"graciously, cordially" xos kngl bile (lit. " with a good heart")

com"with (possessive)" birle , bile

(CC, 61/66) hodie"Today" bu kn

(CC, 61/67) ideo“therefore, for this purpose, in view of this” aning cn

jam"now, already" saat

digar"immediately, immediately" bir anca or imdi

(CC, 62/68) multum"much" kp

malicioxe"maliciously, insidiously, maliciously" yaman kngl bile (lit. “with a bad (bad, evil) heart”)

non"No" yoq

nihil"nothing, nothing" hec-neme-tagi

(CC, 62/69) postea"later, after" songra

(CC, 63/70) quid"What?" ne

(CC, 64/70) sane"healthy (good for health)" sagliq bile (lit. “with health”).

Personal pronouns

(CC, 66–68/72–74) follow a list of adverbs, for example:

ego "I" men

mei "me (genus)" mening

michi "me" manga

me "me (vin.p.)" meni

ame "from me" menden

nos "we" biz etc.

(CC, 68/74) (Latin) ipse met "himself" anlar ox (anlar z?) “they themselves.”

This section also includes a number of indeclinable names ( indeclinable nouns), For example:

alius"other (than)" zge

(CC, 69/74) omnis"All" tagme or barca

solus"alone, alone, alone" yalguz

talis“such (of this type/kind)” falan

qualis"Which? (what type/kind?)" qaysi

And basic adjectives , For example:

ulu « big"
/// kici "small"
/// yaqsi or eygi " good"
/// yaman "bad"
/// yngl "easy"
/// agir "heavy".

Dictionary of religious concepts

(CC, 70/77) Tengri "God" (lit. "sky" (Mongolian))
/// Maryam qaton « Queen (<небесная) (Дева>) Mary” – Mother of God – mater dey (Latin) / friste “angel”
/// paygambar « prophet"
/// ari , algisli "holy, sacred" santus (lat.)
/// xac « cross"
/// bapas " priest"
/// tre « law"
/// yarligamaq « mercy, mercy"
/// bazliq « peace (tranquility)"
/// tengri svmeklig "love of God" , mercy (caritas (Latin), dosti–i xuda (Persian)).

4 Elements

(CC, 71/78–79): hawa "wind" and salqon "wind" (compare with Mongolian salkin"wind" and ancient Turkic salqim“cold, frost, frost” in Siberian Tatar (Siberian Turkic) salqin"strong, cold wind») /// su "water" /// yer " Earth" /// ot "fire".

Body parts

(CC, 71/79): qan " blood" /// balgam mucus "phlegm ( qursaq "belly" /// sari “bile (yellow)” (lit. “yellow”, cf. Pers. safra (< Ar. safra «желтый») /// sauda « melancholy, despondency, melancholy» (compare with Pers. sauda < Ar. sauda"black (bile)").

Terms that describe the passage of time (i.e. related to the measurement of time) (CC, 71–72/78–81): yil "year", ay “moon, month (calendar based on the lunar cycle – 28–29 days)”, kn " day", kece or tn " night". This very complete section also contains the names of the days of the week (mostly derived from Persian), as well as the names of the months of the year:

tu–sanbe (

se–sanbe (

caar–sanbe (< Pers.) «Среда»

pan–sanbe (< Pers.) «Четверг»

ayna (

sabat kn" Saturday" ( sabat originally comes from Hebrew sabbath. This word can also be found in Karaite (sabat kn, which is not surprising), Armenian-Cuman (sapat’ k‘un) and Karachay-Balkar ( sabat kn) languages ​​– these are all Western Kipchak languages, descended from Cuman. This cultural word (culture-word) was also included in Chuvash ( samat, samat kun) and into the Volga Finnic languages ​​(Cheremis/Mari sumat, Votyaks/Udmurts sumot), probably through the language of the Volga Bulgars. But in all these cases, the common source should most likely be considered the Khazar language.)

ye-sanbe"Sunday"

aybasi"first day of the month" (calendar).

The following is the Cuman calendar (3) (with Latin (1) and Perso-Islamic (2) equivalents):

(The combination of the months of the Christian (Julian) and Muslim calendars in this section gives rise to the calculation of the date of its compilation. It is believed that the closest matches occur in 1227, 1259, 1292, 1324, 1357).

5 senses

CC, 72/81): kormek " vision" /// esitmek "rumor" /// tatmaq " taste" /// iylamaq "smell" /// tutmaq "touch".

A few more words related to nature, cardinal directions (CC, 73/81–82): kun towusi " East", kun batisi "west" yarix, yariq "clear (pure), bright" bulud "cloud" (given as a correspondence to the Latin nubiloxum "cloudy"), etc.

Antonyms

(CC, 73–74/83–84):

jift “similar, similar, pair (paired)” /// par, hamta, taq "unlike, different (from)"

behamta, dispar, btn " whole" /// sinuq "broken"

tatli " sweet" /// aci "bitter"

sismis “swollen, swollen (bump!)” /// sisik ketken “the swelling has passed and subsided” (compare with Pers. amah raft- “(swelling) has passed, fallen away).

Item properties

(CC, 75–77/85–88): eygilik "goodness"

Sometimes these words are given in pairs of antonyms, for example:

yaqsi or eygi “good, kind”< >yaman "bad, evil"

korkul "beautiful"< >korksuz "ugly"

uzun "long"< >qisqa "short"

jigit "young, young man"< >abusqa or qart "old, old man"

tiri "live"< >"dead"

Objects of the surrounding world

(CC, 78–79/88–90):

jahan "world, universe"

tengiz "sea"

tag "mountain"

yol "road"

tos/toz “dust, powder”

terek (ancient Turkic “poplar” in Kipchak began to mean “tree” in general)

yemis "fruit, fruit"

sa(h)ar or kent “city”

qala/qalaa “fortress, castle”

xala "village"

saray "palace"

ev/ew "house"

kebit or tugan “shop (trading)”

kopru "bridge".

Commerce, product names and related terms

(CC, 80/90–91):

saraf "banker"

tarazu "scales"

bitik or taftar (lat. cartularius“ledger, calendar”, pers. taqwim"calendar")

naqt or aqca "money"

borclular "debtors"

bitik “letter, letter” (lat. litera, pers. xat) etc.

More extensive lists of titles follow. goods and handicrafts (CC, 80–86/91–99) and titles professions related to them. Many of these words are "international", often of Indian origin, but filtered through Persian and Arabic (i.e. languages):

atar (< Араб. ‘attar) «торговец пряностями»

comlek "saucepan, pot"

sakar/seker "sugar" (< среднеиранск. sakar < санскрит sarkara)

bal "honey"

burc "pepper" (< санскрит marica через иранский)

jinjibil "ginger" (< араб. zinjibil < санскрит sringgavera),

darcini "cinnamon" (< перс.),

nil "indigo (blue fabric dye)" (< перс. nil < Санскрит nili),

qondroq "incense, incense" (< перс. kundurak «мастика (смола мастикового дерева)»

baqam « fernambuco (Brazilian beech), ? maybe just beech or mahogany or redwood in general?” (< baqqam)

tutiya "zinc" (< Араб. tutiya’ < Санскрит tuttha) и т.д.

oglanlar "servants"

otlar “herbs (especially medicinal)”

maajunlar “healing powders, powdered (or dissolved to a pulp) medicines (< Араб. ma‘jun)»

altunci "jeweler, goldsmith"

temirci “blacksmith (temir – iron)”

caquc "hammer"

temir "iron"

kmis "silver"

altun "gold"

baqir "copper"

qalaj, aq qorgasin “tin (aq qorgasin – lit. white lead)”

qorgasin "lead" (< монг. qorgaljin?)

kmr "coal (stone)"

kre "blacksmith's forge"

tonci "furrier, furrier" (< язык саков (Saka) – thauna «одежда»)

igine "ig(o)l(k)a"

bicqi "saw"

oymaq "thimble"

ip "thread"

tlk "fox(its)a"

teyin "squirrel"

qara teyin “black squirrel (i.e. caught in winter, when the squirrel’s skin is dark gray)”

kis "sable"

silevsn (< монг. silegsn),

teri ton "fur coat"

derzi (< перс.), cekmen « шерстяная одежда (чекмень?)»

qipti "thin stockings"

arsun, qari "yard"

tsek "mattress, sofa cushion"

etikci "shoemaker"

basmaq "shoe"

balta "axe"

burav "fortune teller, predictor (augur)"

trg "chisel, chisel, cutter"

toqmaq “wooden hammer, mallet”, etc.

Shaving, barber's tools

(CC, 86–87/100)

ylci "barber, barber"

ylngc "razor"

saqal "beard"

kzg "mirror"

tas "barber's basin(!)"

snglce “lancet” (a surgical instrument used in the Middle Ages for therapeutic bloodletting (to reduce blood pressure), which was included in the list of barber services)

bilev "grindstone"

ot (cf. otlar above and otaci below)

malahan (< перс.malaham < араб. marham) "healing ointment"

Professions

CC, 87–90/100–104):

qlic ostasi "master who makes swords (blades)"

eyerci "saddle maker"

ygenci "bridle maker"

otaci “doctor (therapist and surgeon rolled into one)”

xkmci (Arabic hukm) “lawyer, lawyer, judge”

siqriq "messenger, courier"

yalci "pommel-maker"; pommel – 1) front pommel of the saddle; 2) hilt (saber, dagger, etc., i.e. the manufacturer of either the first or the second

astlanci "reseller, broker"

talal, miyanci (< араб. перс.) «брокер»

br(k)ci “hat maker – a master who makes hats”

naqslagan (Arabic) naqs) "artist"

qulluqci "servant"

julaxak (< перс. jullahak) «ткач»

yaqci "master who makes bows (for shooting)"

qobuzci “musician (probably a kobuz/komus player)

bitik ostasi “scholar (scribe)”, etc.

The following words have been added to this list: etmek « bread", urluq « seed, grain" tb « root", olturguclar « seats (seats, maybe even chairs)", is « Job", kc « labor" (probably the labor of a nomad - koch), etc.

Political titles, positions and related terms

(CC, 90/104–105):

qan "khan"

soltan (< араб.) «султан»

beg "run, back"

bey

ceribasi "commander, commander of an army"

elci "messenger"

yarguci "judge (lat. potestas, pers. sana < араб. sahna"prefect")

seriyat (< араб. sar‘iyyah «исламский закон»), «судья» (лат. consul, pers. qadi(cadi)

bogavul / bogawul “servant in court, judicial servant” (lat. placerius, pers. tatawul) < мong. buqawul(see below)

atlu kisi "mounted warrior"

qan qatuni “wife of the khan, khansha”

evdegi / ewdegi epci "maid"

tilmac “translator (interpreter)”, etc.

Bazaar, goods

(CC, 91–92/105–108):

bazargan "merchant, shopkeeper"

satuq "craft, trade"

alici "buyer"

satugci / satuqci "seller"

behet (< араб. bai‘at «коммерческая сделка» ) “cash contribution, contribution, payment in cash”

tlemek "(o)payment"

naqt (Arabic) naqd) "money"

kendir "hemp, hemp"

skli "linen"

fanar (< греч.) « лампа, фонарь»

qoz "nut"

cuz “light (thin) taffeta”

g yungi “owl feather (brush?)” (for example, in Russian villages a dried (and unplucked) chicken wing was used as a brush)”

baliq "fish"

brinc "rice"

ipek "silk"

frangi suf "Western European (Frankish) wool (yarn), fabric for sifting, straining"

isqarlat (Medieval Latin scarlata< араб. перс. saqallat) "scarlet (color)"

kvrk "sulphur"

jonban ketan "linen from Champagne"

Rusi ketan “Russian linen”

alamani ketan "German linen"

orlens ketan “linen from Orleans”, etc.

Colors

(CC,92–93/107–108):

aq “white” /// qara “black” /// qizil “red” /// qrimizi “raspberry (cf. crimson)” /// kk “blue” /// sari “yellow” /// yasil “green” /// ipkin “purple”, etc.

Gems

(CC, 93/108=109):

yaqut (< араб.) «рубин»

laal (< араб.) «бадахшанский рубин» (ср. со старорус. lal)

kabut, yapqut "sapphire"

zmurut (probably from zumrut, zumurut< перс. араб. zumurrud < греч.) «изумруд»

yalmas (< Перс. almas < Греч.) «алмаз, бриллиант»

ingc (< китайск.) «жемчуг» и т.д.

Man, body parts

(CC, 94–96/109–113):

azam (< араб. adam), kisi "man, person (in general)"

epci "woman"

bas "head"

elat (< араб. axlat) "humors"

alin, manglay (< монг.) «лоб»

qas "eyebrow"

kirpik "eyelid"

qulaq/qulax "ear"

kz "eye"

kz yaruxi “light of the eye (eye white, eye shine)”

burun / burin "nose"

yangaq "cheek"

tis "tooth"

til "language"

qursaq "belly (stomach)"

kngl "heart"

icex, sucux “gut(s), intestines”

teri "skin"

qol "hand (whole)"

qoymic "coccyx"

tamar "vienna"

qan "blood"

el, qol “hand”

barmaq "finger"

ayaq "foot(s)"

tin "soul", etc.

Family, relatives

(CC, 97/113–115):

at(t)a "father"

anna "mother"

er "husband"

epci "wife"

ogul "son"

qiz "daughter"

qarandas "brother"

qiz qarandas "sister"

ul(l)u at(t)a « grandfather" (lit. big father)

qayin "father-in-law"

kyeg "son-in-law"

abaga "uncle (< монг.)»

ini "nephew"

ortaq,nger(< монг. (нукер), «друг, товарищ»

qonsi "neighbor", etc.

Good qualities of people

(CC, 97–98/115–116):

tkel "safe and sound"

yaqsi, eygi "good"

barlu kisi "rich (person)"

ustlu, aqil (< араб.) «умный, смышлёный»

krkl "attractive, beautiful"

kn "legal, legal"

xalal ogul "legitimate son"

zden "noble (noble), free (not a slave)"

erdemli "virtuous, chaste"

kcl "strong"

tanur kisi "experienced person"

sver kisi “kind (friendly) person”

erseksiz "chaste"

qiliqli "honest", etc.

Human flaws

(CC, 98–99/116–117):

yaman "bad"

yarli, yoqsul "poor"

qart, abusqa “old (person)”

teli, aqmaq (< араб. ahmaq) "crazy, stupid"

soqur, calis "oblique, strabismic"

kzsiz (lit. without eyes)

kr "blind"

tvlk "blind"

kniden towgan "bastard, bastard"

aqsax "lame"

tasaqsiz “castrated (lit. without tasaq)”

qaltaq "pimp"

qulaqsiz “deaf (lit. without ear)”

tilsiz “mute (lit. without tongue)”

trkci "liar"

yazuqlu "sinful, sinful"

egri kisi “false person”, etc.

Items related to military affairs

ceri "army"

sancis "war"

sagit (< ?) «оружие (arms)»

sirdaq (compare with Mongol. siri-deg “gesteppte Filzdecke – felt blanket of the steppe people, saddlepad – blanket,” siri- “quilt, line clothes with cotton”) “coat, quilted outerwear”

tovulga/towulga “helmet”

kbe "chain mail"

btlk "cuirass (armor that protects the back and chest)"

qlic “sword (sword – sword, epee, rapier, saber – all types of blades)”

bicaq "knife", etc.

Home related things

izba (East Slavic languages) "room"

boxorik (< перс.) «печь»

yuzaq "castle"

acquc "key"

qadav/qadaw "nail"

olturguc “a seat, a place where one sits (nomads usually did not have chairs, but in the yurt there were places where one sits,” etc.

Sewing, clothes

(CC, 101/119): opraq “clothing” /// teri ton “fur clothing” /// tvme/twme “button” /// yeng “sleeve”, etc.

Construction

(CC, 101–102/119–120): tb “foundation” /// tas “stone” /// kirec “limestone (stone)” /// qum “sand” /// su “water” /// taqta, qanga " floor" /// tik agac "column" /// kerpic« baked brick" /// aginguc« ladder (additional)”, etc.

Some items of clothing and travel equipment

(CC, 101–102/120–121):

kvlek/kwlek “shirt”

kncek "pants"

qur, beli-gab “belt (clothing)”

yanciq “wallet (English text – purse – i.e. wallet in the form of a belt pouch)”

kepes, brk "hat"

calma "turban, turban"

etik "book"

basmaq “footwear (shoe, boot), shoe”

tizge "garter"

artmaq "saddle bag"

yasman "flask"

catir "tent, pavilion"

qamci "whip"

araba “cart (with a van), cart”, etc.

Horse breeding

(CC, 102–103/121–122):

at "horse"

naal (< араб.) «подкова»

ayran "stall"

eyer yabogi "saddle pad"

tizgin "reins, reins"

aguzluq " bit, mouthpiece"

zengi "stirrup"

kmldrk "breast decoration on a horse" (lat. pectoralis)

yingircaq “pack saddle (on which luggage is attached)”, etc.

Bedroom and bedding

(CC, 103–104/123): tsek “bed, bed” /// tsekning ayagi “tripod” /// yastuq “pillow” /// yorgan “blanket” /// kilim “carpet, plaid” /// gali/qali, kvz/kz “carpet” /// ksegen “curtains above (in front of) the bed”, etc.

The table and what's on it

(CC, 104/123–124): tastar, sarpan “tablecloth” /// yiltrin, size (< перс.) «бутылка» /// piyala (< перс.) «кубок, бокал (пиала)» /// bardaq « кружка, кувшин» /// ciraqliq « канделябр» /// as « еда» и т.д.

Kitchen and kitchenware

(CC, 104–105/124–125): qazan “saucepan, cauldron, pot - cauldron” /// cmic “ladle, ladle” /// qasuq “spoon” /// cmlet/cmlek “pan for cooking” /// yaglav/yaglaw “frying pan” /// qavurqina/qawurqina “a type of frying pan” (tianus (Latin), tawa (Persian)) /// ttn “smoke” /// yirgaq “krew(cho)k” /// tepsi (< среднекитайск.*deptsi) (см. ниже заимствования из монгольского: куманское tepsi“plate, dish” (in many Turkic dialects), Mong. tebsi “large oblong plate, wooden plate, tray, feeding trough”< китайск. tieh–tzu средне-китайск. dep tsi).

Trees and fruits

(CC, 105–106/125–126): terek “tree” /// butaq “bough, branch” /// yabuldraq “leaf” /// agac “tree, wood” /// klege “shadow” /// / yemis “fruit” /// kiras “cherry” (< греч.) /// armut (< перс.), kertme « груша» /// alma « яблоко» /// catlavuq / catlawuq « орех обыкновенный (лещина)» /// qoz «орех» /// saftalu (< перс.) «персик» /// erik « слива» /// limon (сравни с итал. limome < араб. перс. laymun) "lemon" /// pistaq (< греч.) «фисташки» /// qovun « дыня» и т.д.

Herbs and vegetables

(CC, 106–107/126–127): sadaf (< перс.) «рута душистая (растение)» /// yisqic « мята» /// ispanaq (< перс. < греч.) «шпинат» /// marul (< греч.) «салат-латук» /// qabuq «корка, кожура» /// cgndr « морковь» и т.д.

Animal names

(CC, 107–108/127–129): janavar "beast (wild animal)" (< перс.) /// at « конь» /// astlan « лев» /// qistraq «кобыла» /// qatir « мул» /// esek « осёл (ишак)» /// tonguz «свинья» /// keyik tonguz « дикая свинья – кабан» /// kz, sigir « бык, вол» /// inek « корова» /// buzav / buzaw «телёнок» /// tisi qoy « овца» /// qocqar « баран» /// qozi « ягненок» /// ecke « козёл» /// it « собака» /// maci «cat" /// pil (< перс.) «слон» /// sazagan "dragon" /// ayu "bear" /// qoyan " hare" /// br "wolf" /// sicqan“mouse” /// boga “bull”, etc.

Names of reptiles, reptiles and insects

(CC, 108–109/129): qurt “worm” /// sazagan “snake” /// yilan “snake” /// cibin “fly” /// bit “flea” /// qandala (

Birds

CC, 109/129–130): cipciq “bird” /// qaraqus “eagle” /// balaban “falcon” /// qarciga “hawk” /// qirqiy “sparrow-hawk” /// turna “crow” /// yabalaq “barn owl (screech-owl)” /// sigirciq “dove” (?), etc.

Grains, dairy products and other products

(CC, 110–130–131): boday, bogday “wheat” /// arpa “barley” /// tuturgan, brinc “rice” /// marjumak (< перс.) «чечевица» /// bircaq «овощи» /// un « мука» /// st « сладкое (некислое) молоко» (lac dulce(lat.), sir(Persian) /// yogurt “sour milk (yogurt, yoghurt)” (lac acer (Latin), mast (Persian) /// kptelk “dish of flour and meat (dumplings?)" (granum marcengum (Latin .), koptaluk (pers.), etc.

The Missionaries’ Book (CC, 111–164/132–235) consists of several sections, very different from each other (including, undoubtedly, by authorship). In addition, this is clearly an unfinished work, and at the time when the copy known to us was made, work on it was apparently still ongoing. The book includes several vocabulary-type lists (but not in alphabetical order), notes on grammar, verb conjugation anglarmen “intelligo” (CC, 129–134/177–180), a section of Cuman (Polovtsian) riddles, several religious texts and scattered poetic inserts in Italian. It all starts with verbs seskenirmen , elgenirmen "ich irschrake" (East Middle High German translation) and several other verbs and phrases, e.g. yiti bicaq « sharp knife" satov etermen « ich kouflage", yp yp ulu bolur « is wirt y lengir y grossir. “Some of them have been translated not only into Eastern Middle High German, but also into Latin, e.g. it redir "d'hunt billit canis latrat" it ugrayadir « d'hunt gru(n)czet", qoy mangradir « ouis balat", kisi incqaydir "d' menche brehtit" (Grnbech, KWb., p. 273, reads it as "der mensche krHcit"), ucamda yatirmen « ich lege uf dem rucke”, etc. Then, without any introduction, on pages CC, 117/141 there is a short religious text, beginning with the words: bilge tetik kisiler menim szm esitingler eki yolni ayringlar (“Wise and intelligent people, listen to my words, choose from two roads...”).

Due to the scattered and fragmentary nature of the texts of the Book of Missionaries, we ( P.Golden) we will not review it page by page (as we did before), but we will select texts and sections that give the best idea of ​​​​the nature of the Book as a whole.

Polovtsian riddles

(CC, 119–120/143–148)

These riddles represent a very important source for the study of early Turkic folklore. After all, this is the oldest documented material on Turkic riddles that we have. As Andreas Tietze noted in his brilliant work, this "early versions of the types of riddles that represent the common heritage of all Turkic-speaking peoples". Some of the riddles have clear, easily identifiable modern equivalents, for example:

(CC, 119/144): Kecak ut(a)hi kegede semirrir. Ol huun which Tietze reads as: Kkce ulaxim kgnde semirir. Ol xowun(melon) //« My greenish lamb (on a leash) is getting fat. Melon". Wed. with a modern Kazakh riddle: Kk lagim kgende turup semirgen. Qarbiz// “The green lamb grows fat while lying on a leash. Watermelon" or Ottoman (Turkish): Gk oglak kkende bagli. Karpuz// “A greenish (bluish) lamb is tied to a rope. Watermelon".

Cuman: Оlturganim oba yer basqanim baqir canaq(Kuun: Tietze reads camek as ck, and Grnbech, KWb., p. 73, as canaq, which seems more correct). Ol Zengi. “Where I sit is a hillock (i.e. the horse’s back). Where I step is a copper cup (i.e. a copper stirrup). Stirrup". Wed. with a Kazakh riddle: Оtirganim oba zer basqanim baqir sanaq. Uzengi.

(CC, 120/145) Yazda yavli/yawli toqmaq yatir. Ol kirpi-dir. “In an open field (on a plain) there lies a thick club. This is a hedgehog." Compare with Khakass: Cazida caglig toqpag cadir. Cilan. “In an open field (on a plain) there lies a thick club. Snake". Kazakh: Dalada zabuli toqpaq zatir. Kirpi. “In an open field (on the plain) lies a club covered with a blanket. Hedgehog".

In other cases, close structural and semantic parallels are also clearly visible, for example (CC, 119/143): Aq kmening avzu yoq. Ol yumurtqa“The white vaulted building has no mouth/entrance. This is an egg." Compare with Kazakh: Auzi biten aq otau. Zumirtqa“White yurt – mouth/entrance closed. Egg". Tatar (Qazan Tatar): Ber aq y bar, kerege isegi yuq. Yomirtqa“There is a white house, but there is no front door. Egg".

(CC,120/145) Burunsizbuz teser. Ol qoy bogu. “Noseless (he has no nose) breaks through the ice. It's sheep dung." Wed. from Tatar (Qazan Tatar): Borinsiz cipciq boz tis. Tamci. Bashkir (Baskir): Boronho turgay bo tisr. Tamsi. Kazakh (Qazaq): Murinsiz muz tesedi. Tamsi. “A sparrow without a beak breaks through the ice. A drop".

(The riddle about bird's milk: Sende, mende yoh(you, I don’t have (it); sengir tavda yoh(in the sky-high mountains there is no (him); u:tlu: tashda yoh(in the beaten paths (processed on stone (Roman) roads in cities (stone as a building material) - there is no (it); kypchakda yoh(the Kipchaks (even the Kipchaks!) do not have (it). The answer is: bird's milk).

Religious texts

At the time of the creation of the Missionaries’ Book, attempts to convert the Cumans (Cumans) to Christianity already had a significant history. The Cuman episcopate (episcopatus Cumanorum) appears to have already existed around 1217–1218. Particularly interested in this appeal, for a number of foreign and domestic political reasons, were the popes and the Hungarian kings. The Dominican and Franciscan monastic orders were involved in the program. The Cuman mission received a new impetus after the appeal in 1227 of one of the Polovtsian leaders named Borc/Bortz , and his son Membrok "and also a significant part of their fellow tribesmen. Robert, Archbishop of Esztergom (Hungary), received the pope's blessing to travel to Cumania for this purpose (with the goal of converting the Cumans). This missionary activity did not fade even after the Mongol invasion. By 1287, the Franciscan mission flourished under the patronage of the Genghisids. They had a church and a hospice house in Kaffa and their own chapel in the administrative center of Crimea Solkhat. She was baptized in it Yaylaq, wife of Nogai (the rebellious Mongol Temnik, the most powerful ruler of the Black Sea steppes at the end of the 13th century). From Crimea, missions were sent to the more northern Kipchak-Tatar regions.

The religious texts of the Codex contain sermons that could be useful to new converts: the 10 Commandments, the Creed, various psalms. Here is a selection for illustration (CC, 132/184–185): Tengrini svgil barca stnde « Love for God is above all» /// Tengrining ati bile anticmegil"N Do not take the name of the Lord in vain» /// ulu kn avurlagil « Remember the Sabbath to keep it holy» /// atangi anangi xormatlagil“Honor your father and mother” /// kisini ltrmegil“Thou shalt not kill” /// ogur bolmagil"Don't steal" /// (h)ersek bolmagil « Don't commit adultery» /// yalgan tanixliq bermegil“Do not bear false witness” /// zge kisining nemesi suxlanmagil“You shall not covet your neighbor’s house,” etc.

The commandment “Thou shalt not make for yourself an idol” strangely missing. But there are a number of others, for example: sevgil sening qarindasin sening kibi « Love your brother as yourself."

(CC,124/167) “Ari Augustus alay aytir: yazuqlu kisi, kim tiler kensi yazuqin aytma(ga), necik Tengri tiler daxi, sening janing aringay, anga kerek trt neme burung qaygirmax kerek kirti kngl bile kensi yazuxung cn... " // " St. Augustine says this: a sinful person who wants to confess his sins, as God pleases, and so that his soul can be cleansed, needs (to do) 4 things. First, you need to repent with all your heart of all your sins.”

(CC, 121/158) “Kim egi kngl bile bizim yixvge kelse ulu kn agirlap anga bolgay alti yil bosaq” // “Whoever comes to our church with a good heart and honors the Sabbath is granted forgiveness for 6 years... "

(CC, 137/186, Psalm Father, gates of heaven...):

"Ave ucmaqning qabagi
tirilikning agaci
yemizing bizge teyirding
Yesusni qacan tuwurdung"

"Father, gates of heaven,
tree of life,
you gave us your fruit,
when he gave birth to Jesus."

(CC, 124/164, “Parable of the Lepers”): “Kristus alay aytti kelepenlerge: barungiz krngiz papazlarga. Ol szin Kristus bugn aytir barca yazug(li)larga kim kerti kelepenler Tengri alinda” // “Christ said to the lepers this: go, show yourself to the priests. Christ speaks these words today to all sinners who are truly lepers before God.”

(CC, 126/171, "Our Father "): "Atamiz kim kte sen. Algisli bolsun sening xanliging bolsun sening tilemeging necik kim kkte alay yerde. Kndegi tmekimizni bizge bun bergil daxi yazuqlarimizni bizge bosatgil necik biz bosatirbiz bizge yaman etkenlerge" //« Our Father who art in heaven. Hallowed be your name. May my kingdom come. Thy will be done on earth as it is in heaven. Give us this day our daily bread. And forgive us our sins, just as we forgive those who have done us harm.” This can be correlated with a somewhat distorted version of the Lord's Prayer, preserved in the Hungarian Cumania (CC, XLIV–XLV): “Bezen attamaz kenze kikte, szenleszen szenadon, dsn szenkklon, nicziegen gerde ali kekte, bezen akomazne oknemezne ber bezge pitbtr kngon...” = “Bizim atamiz kim sen kkte, sentlessen ading, dznsen kngln nicekim zerde alay kkte, bizim ekmemizni ber bizge...kngn...”

And finally, the Creed (CC, 148/211–212): “Inanirmen barcaga erkli bir ata Tengrige kkni yerni barca krnr krnmezni yaratti dey. DAGI BIR Beyimiz Yesus Kristusga Barca Zamanlardan Burun Atadan Tuwgan Turur (Kuun: ATA TUUPTRUR = ATA Towupturur), Tengri Tengriden, Yarix Yarixtan, Cin Tengri (Bog) CIN TEN TENGRI Engrideen, Etilmey Ataga Tzdes Twupturur, Andan Ulam Barca Bolgan-Turur Kim Bizamlar cn dagin bizim ongimiz kkden enip ari tindan ulam erdeng ana Maryamdan ten alip kisi bolup-turur..." // "I believe in one God, the Father almighty, who created heaven and earth, and all things, visible and invisible, and in one Lord Jesus Christ, the Only Begotten Son of God, who was born of the Father before all time, God from God, Light from Light, uncreated, born of the same essence as the Father, through You all things were created, who is for us, people, and our salvation descended from heaven and through the Holy Spirit and from the Virgin Mary acquired flesh and became a man...”

There are many other aspects of SS for further research. However, being limited in space, we will only touch on a few of them here.

Loan words

The SS widely represents the vocabulary of international trade that developed in the eastern Mediterranean and western Eurasia. This is especially true for the trilingual Translator's Book. The terms in this dictionary, as we have already seen, are mostly of Persian and Arabic origin, many of them, in turn, having been previously borrowed by these languages ​​from Indian and Greek. And judging by the SS, one may get the impression that foreign words have penetrated into all spheres of life of the Cumans (Polovtsians). Therefore, it is important to keep in mind that the vocabulary of the Cumans - urban residents - was saturated with such terms to a much greater extent than the vocabulary of their steppe fellow tribesmen.

The multiethnic composition of the population of Crimean cities undoubtedly added “foreign” elements to the local speech of the Cumans. Moreover, the compilers of the SS, given their own origins, were inclined to use precisely such words, and therefore included these elements of the lingua franca in their vocabulary.

Greek elements

Bapas, papas, papaz "priest"< есть также в караимском (Qaraim), армяно-куманском (Armeno-Coman), мамлюко-кыпчакском (Mamluk Qipcaq), балкарском (Balqar) и турецком (Ottoman). Скорее всего, в язык куманов это слово попало непосредственно из греческого, вероятно, благодаря православным миссионерам и торговцам, бывавшим в Крыму.

Fanar "lantern, lamp"< ср. также с османским (турецким) fener. Также есть в русском (фонарь), языке казанских татар и карачаево-балкарском.

K(i)lisia “church”< ср. с караимским kilise, карачаево-балкарским klisa, османским (турецким) kilise.

Limen "port"< ср. с османским liman.

Mangdan "parsley"< >Arab. maqd-nis/baqd-nis, cf. also with Ottoman maydanoz > modern Greek. (Mod. Gr.)

Marul "lettuce"< < лат. amarula (lactuca), ср. с османским marul, мамлюкско-кыпчакским (Mamluq Qipcaq) marul.

Timean "incense, incense"< возможно благодаря восточнослав. timian (тимьян).

Trapes "table".

East Slavic loanwords

Izba “room, chamber” (CC, 100/119 camera (Latin), hujra (Persian))< изба «дом, баня»

Ovus "rye"< древнерус. ov’s, рус. «овёс» ср. с караимским uvus.

Pec "oven"< печь, ср. с караим. pec.

There are many other, later, borrowings from modern Russian in the Turkic languages.

Samala "resin"< смола, ср. с мамлюкско-кыпчакским (Mamluk Qipcaq) samala, samla, salama.

Salam "straw"< soloma, сравни с мамлюкско-кыпчакским (Mamluk Qipcaq) salam, kk salam – saman, есть также в караимском, карачаево-балкарском, в языке казанских татар и в венгерском – szalma. Связь этого слова с исконно тюркским saman «солома» неясна.

Some words are problematic, for example terem “chapel, chapel (tent, biblical tabernacle)”, and in Old Russian terem “high house, courtyard (court), dome, watchtower”; in Russian “room, a special form of building” – Greek. "room". But in Sagay Turkic there is trb “yurt - yurt”, cf. from Mong. terme "wall". Also, bulov “some kind of weapon, probably a club (compare with Mamluk-Kypchak (Mamluk Qipcaq) bulav, bula’u) possibly comes from the East Slavic - mace, although it is also possible that the borrowing occurred in the opposite direction.

Loanwords from Mongolian

The Codex (CC) contains a number of words borrowed from Mongolian. Given the historical contacts between the Turkic and Mongolian peoples, not to mention the much debated issue of the Altaic family (of languages), the dating and origin of these words is highly problematic. In addition, the task is complicated by the fact that even before the onset of the 13th century, many Mongol-speaking or Mongol- and Turkic-speaking tribes (Mongolian tribes that underwent Turkization) joined the Kuman-Kypchak confederation. Other Mongol influences are associated, of course, with the era of Genghisid hegemony. There are many layers reflecting the Kuman-Kypchak-Mongolian linguistic interaction, some of the most ancient of them are not at all easy to identify. A comprehensive study of these words was carried out by N.N. Poppe. Here is just a small selection of the most obvious of them:

(here you can see a table comparing some modern Turkish and Mongolian words).

Among the controversial words one can note the Cuman word bagatur , pers. bahadur, Mong. bagatur"hero", which Poppe considers originally Mongolian. Clauson, however, believes that this is a very ancient Inner Asian cultural word, going back to the language of the Huns (Hsiung-nu). Kumanskoe qarav, qarov “compensation, reward, retribution” (CC, 43/46 premium (Latin), jaza (Persian) and qarav berrmen “I forgive, release from (obligation)”; (retribuo (lat.), miamorzm (pers.), compare with Karaite qaruv"answer", Mong. qarigu, xarigu"response, return, retribution, retribution." Kumanskoe tepsi “plate, dish” (in many Turkic dialects), Mong. Tebsi"large oblong plate, wooden plate, tray, feeding trough"< китайск. tieh-tzu, Central Chinese dep tsi. The origin of the word is also unclear (CC, 90/105) bogavul/bogawul "servant, servant in court" placerius, tatawul , compare with an official position in the state of the Ilkhans (Iran) bukawul/buqawul "possibly the chief treasurer."

Arabic elements

Arabic elements, as we have already seen, are well represented in all sociolinguistic categories of the Interpreter’s Book, as well as in the Codex as a whole. This is one of the consequences of the strong Muslim political, commercial and cultural-religious influence in Crimea. The fact that the use of these words was not limited to the Muslim population of the region is evidenced by their presence in the Karaite and Armenian-Cuman languages, despite all religious differences. Particular attention in this work is paid to Arabic words that entered the Cuman language through Persian mediation. Here are some examples: alam "banner"< араб. ‘alam, albet "of course, definitely"< араб. albatta, azam " Human"< adam, seriat " judge"< аrab. sar'iyyah"Islamic law, law." This use of specific Muslim terms within a broader category is also noticeable in " Interpretation of the Polovtsian language» (Tolkovanie jazyka poloveckogo) (XIII century? See below): alkoran « law"< al-qur’an (Коран), elfokaz "teachers and great interpreters (tolkovnici)" (< al-fuquha"lawyers specializing in religious law"). Xukm « judgment, decision" (< араб. hukm), hakim, xakim « doctor" (< аrab. hakim), aziz, haziz « rare, valuable, pilgrim, holy, sacred" (< араб. ‘aziz), nur « light" (< араб. nur), safar " journey" (< араб. safar), seir « poet" (< араб. si'r"poetry", sa'ir"poet"), tafariq (CC, 132/184, tafsanyt)"difference, difference"< (араб. tafriq, plural tafariq"separation, distinction")

Persian elements

The Persian language, which played an important role (lingua franca) in interethnic communication in the Muslim East, is also present in the CC. Many of them have already been indicated in the previous text, so here is only a short selection: daru " medicine" (< перс. daru), drust "true, faithful" (< перс. drust, durust), bazar "bazaar, market" (< перс. bazar), bazargan "merchant, merchant"< (перс. bazargan), hergiz, herkiz "never" (< перс. hargiz"always, constantly") Jahan, Jehan "world, universe" (< перс. jahan, jihan), jigar " liver" (< перс. jigar), piyala "cup, glass" (< перс. piyala) etc.

Jewish, Syriac (Syriac) and other elements

As noted earlier, the Cuman sabat kn "Sabbath" ultimately comes from the Hebrew sabbath, however, most likely through Khazar mediation. Name (CC, 143/202) Hawa/Hava"Eve" in its Hebrew form (Hava) is used more often than the more expected Eva. It is interesting that the word Messiah (“Messiah” - Anointed One) appears in its Syriac (Syriac) form, or in a form derived from it: (CC, 138/189) misixa < сир. Mesiha.

There are also a number of words of uncertain origin. Among them (CC, 160/222) kesene "grave mound", preserved in Karachay (and Balkar): k'esene, kesene"cemetery, tomb." Ligeti suggests a Caucasian origin, but provides no other evidence. Zayonchkovsky agrees with Pelliot's version of an older, Persian etymology: kasana"little house". But it is not entirely clear how the Cuman form could have originated from the Persian.

The authors of the Missionaries’ Book created or developed a special Christian dictionary. Certain religious terms were, of course, known to the Cumans, given their Inner Asian historical heritage and long contacts with various religions.

Yes, words tamu, tamuq, tamux "a d" ucmaq "rai", borrowed from the language of Sogdians ( tamw, ‘wstmg) or some other Iranian language were already well known and understood, so there was no need for a special Christian form. These and some other ancient Turkic words received a special Christian connotation of meaning, for example bitik (< biti- «писать» < средне-китайск. piet“a brush (apparently, with which hieroglyphs were written)”, “something written, a book” now also meant “Book (with a capital letter)” i.e. Bible, Holy Scripture. Other Christian terms were translated literally into Turkic, e.g. Bey(imiz) Tengri "Dominus Deus (Almighty God)" clk "Trinity" ari tin " Holy Spirit", kktegi xanliq « Kingdom of Heaven”, etc. Interesting how the (non-originally Cuman) use of the word yix v (< iduq ev « holy, sacred house") "church" (present in Karaite as yeg'v"church") reveals a semantic parallel in Hungarian egyhaz"church", lit. "holy house") The concept of “savior” was literally translated into Turkic: (CC, 122/160) “Yesus Christus bitik tilince, tatarca qutqardaci, ol kertirir barca elni qutqardaci” // “Jesus Christ, in the language of the Bible, in Tatar – qutqardaci (Savior) , which means Savior of all people.”

The Cuman calendar (see above) shows the absence of both Christian influence and the influence of the Sino-Turkic 12-year animal cycle. This archaic system seems to be typical of the northern part of the Turkic world, from which the Kipchaks originate.

Another example of the manifestation of a more ancient Turkic culture can be considered the word qam "witch"< qam"shaman, sorcerer, fortuneteller, wizard."

Cuman documents, modern CC

Several Kipchak-Arabic grammars/dictionaries (sometimes containing other languages) appeared in the Mamluk lands in the 14th–15th centuries. They are close in content to CC, although they differ from it in format:

• Kitab al-Idrak li'l-Lisan al-Atrak (1313 or 1320), written by Abu Hayyan (1286–1344);
• Kitab Majmu‘ Tarjuman Turki wa ‘Ajami wa Mugali wa Farsi (now dating from 1343);
• Kitab Bulgat al-Mustaq fi Lugat at-Turk wa'l-Qifjaq, written by Jalal ad-Din Abu Muhammad ‘Abdallah at-Turki (which can be dated no earlier than the end of the 14th century and certainly no later than the mid-15th century);
• At-Tuhfah az-Zakiyyah fi’l-lugat at-Turkiyyah unknown author (written before 1425)
• Al-Qawanun al-Kulliyyah li-Dabt al-Lugat at-Turkiyyah, written in Egypt during the era of Timur (second half of the 14th century).

To this list we can probably add the so far only partially published 6-language Rasulid Hexaglot(dating from 1360), which contains dictionaries of Arabic, Persian, two Turkic dialects (one of which is definitely Oghuz, the other considered to be Kipchak or a mixed East Oghuz-Kypchak dialect), Greek, Armenian and Mongolian.

There are also fragments of Cuman-Russian dictionaries, such as: "Behold the Tatar language", which was discovered in the Novgorod chronicle collection of the 15th century* and "Interpretation of the Polovtsian language", found in Chet'i-Minea of ​​the 16th century**. Although their creation undoubtedly dates back to an earlier period.

*The Russian-Tatar dictionary “Se Tatar language”, containing 27 words, 6 phrases and 18 numerals, is part of a collection of the 15th–16th centuries that once belonged to the library of the St. Sophia Cathedral in Novgorod.

**In the manuscript of the “Cheti-Minea” of 1559, which belonged to Metropolitan Macarius, on the back of 603 pages there is a text called “Interpretation of the Polovtsian language. The first ones are in Polovtsian, and after that they are Russian” and containing 17 words.

Finally, it should be said about the translation into Kipchak of Saadi's poem Gulistan, carried out by Sayf Sarai in Cairo in 793/1390–1391.

The meaning of KYPCHAK LANGUAGE in the Modern Explanatory Dictionary, TSB

KYPCHAK LANGUAGE

(Cuman, or Polovtsian), the language of the Polovtsians, or Cumans, Kipchaks. Belongs to the Turkic languages ​​(Kypchak group). The largest monument of the Kypchak language is “Codex Cumanicus” (13th century, published in 1828).

TSB. Modern explanatory dictionary, TSB. 2003

See also interpretations, synonyms, meanings of the word and what the KYPCHAK LANGUAGE is in Russian in dictionaries, encyclopedias and reference books:

• KYPCHAK LANGUAGE
  (Cuman or Polovtsian), the language of the Cumans, or Cumans, Kipchaks. Belongs to the Turkic languages ​​(Kypchak group). The largest monument of the Kypchak language is “Codex...
• KYPCHAK LANGUAGE in the Great Soviet Encyclopedia, TSB:
  language (Cuman, or Polovtsian), the language of the Cumans, or Cumans, Kipchaks, the main core of the union of tribes that appeared in Eastern Europe in ...
• LANGUAGE in Wiki Quotebook:
  Data: 2008-10-12 Time: 10:20:50 * Language is also of great importance because with its help we can hide our...
• LANGUAGE in the Dictionary of Thieves' Slang:
  - investigator, operative...
• LANGUAGE in Miller's Dream Book, dream book and interpretation of dreams:
  If in a dream you see your own tongue, it means that soon your friends will turn away from you. If in a dream you see...
• LANGUAGE in the Newest Philosophical Dictionary:
  a complex developing semiotic system, which is a specific and universal means of objectifying the content of both individual consciousness and cultural tradition, providing the opportunity...
• LANGUAGE in the Dictionary of Postmodernism:
  - a complex developing semiotic system, which is a specific and universal means of objectifying the content of both individual consciousness and cultural tradition, providing...
• LANGUAGE
  OFFICIAL - see OFFICIAL LANGUAGE...
• LANGUAGE in the Dictionary of Economic Terms:
  STATE - see STATE LANGUAGE...
• LANGUAGE in the Encyclopedia Biology:
  , an organ in the oral cavity of vertebrates that performs the functions of transportation and taste analysis of food. The structure of the tongue reflects the specific nutrition of animals. U...
• LANGUAGE in the Brief Church Slavonic Dictionary:
  , pagans 1) people, tribe; 2) language, ...
• LANGUAGE in the Bible Encyclopedia of Nikephoros:
  like speech or adverb. “The whole earth had one language and one dialect,” says the writer of everyday life (Gen. 11:1-9). A legend about one...
• LANGUAGE in the Lexicon of Sex:
  multifunctional organ located in the oral cavity; pronounced erogenous zone of both sexes. With the help of Ya, orogenital contacts of various kinds are carried out...
• LANGUAGE in Medical terms:
  (lingua, pna, bna, jna) a muscular organ covered with a mucous membrane located in the oral cavity; participates in chewing, articulation, contains taste buds; ...
• LANGUAGE in the Big Encyclopedic Dictionary:
  ..1) natural language, the most important means of human communication. Language is inextricably linked with thinking; is a social means of storing and transmitting information, one...
• LANGUAGE in the Modern Encyclopedic Dictionary:
  
• LANGUAGE in the Encyclopedic Dictionary:
  1) natural language, the most important means of human communication. Language is inextricably linked with thinking; it is a social means of storing and transmitting information, one...
• LANGUAGE in the Encyclopedic Dictionary:
  2, -a, pl. -i, -ov, m. 1. Historically developed system of sound, vocabulary and grammatical means, objectifying the work of thinking and being ...
• LANGUAGE
  MACHINE LANGUAGE, see Machine language...
• LANGUAGE in the Big Russian Encyclopedic Dictionary:
  LANGUAGE, natural language, the most important means of human communication. Self is inextricably linked with thinking; is a social means of storing and transmitting information, one...
• LANGUAGE in the Big Russian Encyclopedic Dictionary:
  TONGUE (anat.), in terrestrial vertebrates and humans, a muscular outgrowth (in fish, a fold of the mucous membrane) at the bottom of the oral cavity. Participates in …
• KYPCHAK in the Big Russian Encyclopedic Dictionary:
  KYPCHAK LANGUAGE (Cuman, or Polovtsian), the language of the Polovtsians, or Cumans, Kipchaks. Belongs to the Turkic languages ​​(Kypchak group). The largest monument to K.Ya. is “Codex...
• LANGUAGE
  languages"to, languages", languages", language"in, language", language"m, languages", language"in, language"m, languages"mi, language", ...
• LANGUAGE in the Complete Accented Paradigm according to Zaliznyak:
  languages" to, languages", languages", language" in, language", languages"m, languages"to, languages", language"m, languages"mi, language", ...
• LANGUAGE in the Linguistic Encyclopedic Dictionary:
  - the main object of study of linguistics. By Ya, first of all, we mean natural. human self (in opposition to artificial languages ​​and ...
• LANGUAGE in the Dictionary of Linguistic Terms:
  1) A system of phonetic, lexical and grammatical means, which is a tool for expressing thoughts, feelings, expressions of will and serves as the most important means of communication between people. Being...
• LANGUAGE in the Popular Explanatory Encyclopedic Dictionary of the Russian Language.
• LANGUAGE in the Dictionary for solving and composing scanwords:
  "My Enemy" in...

Known in several phonetic variants ( kypchak, kyfchak, kyvchak, kypshak, kypchakh, hypchakh, hybchakh, khpchakh, khbchakh, in traditional inaccurate Russian transcription - Kipchak), has at least three main meanings.

Firstly, this is one of the oldest tribal names, common among many modern Turkic ethnic groups. An outstanding representative of this family among the Kazakhs was the legendary batyr Koblandy, who belonged to the Kara-Kypchaks.

Secondly, the scientific ethnonymic term Kipchak is used to generically designate peoples and, mainly, languages ​​included in the Kipchak subgroup of Turkic languages.

The Kipchak languages, forming several divisions, are part of the Turkic subgroup of the Altai linguistic community, or Altai family of languages. This family also includes Mongolian, Tungus-Manchu, Japanese and Korean. Turkic, Mongolian and Tungus-Manchu languages ​​form one subgroup (the Altai languages ​​themselves), and Japanese and Korean form another.

Kypchak-Polovtsian languages

Armenian-Kypchak

Karaite

Karachay-Balkarian

Crimean Tatar (Kypchak dialects) – Crimea; Dobruja, Romania; Türkiye

Krymchaksky

Kumansky (Polovtsian, Kipchak-Polovtsian)

Kumyk

Tatar

Urum (Kypchak dialects)

Kazakh

Karakalpak

Crimean Tatar (Nogai dialect)

Nogai
Kyrgyz-Kypchak languages

Altaic

Kyrgyz
Kipchak-Bulgar languages

Bashkir

Tatar (Volga region, Astrakhan, Siberia, Kazakhstan)
Thirdly, historical science understands the Kipchaks as a powerful union of Turkic tribes, which was headed by the Kipchaks and which in the middle of the 10th century ousted the tribal union led by the Pechenegs from South-Eastern Europe. The unification of the Kipchak turned out to be so strong that the huge territory controlled by them received the name Desht-i-Kipchak - Polovtsian steppe. The power of the association was recognized by the broadest masses of people. Indicative in this sense is the riddle from the Codex Cumanicus about bird's milk: Sende, mende yoh, sengir tavda yoh, otlÿ tashda yoh, kypchakda yoh“Neither you nor I have it, nor in the sky-high mountains, nor in the beaten stones, nor among the Kipchaks.”

The Kipchak union of tribes left an indelible mark on the ethnogenesis, political, economic, cultural life of the peoples of Europe, Transcaucasia and North-East Africa, and influenced the formation and development of the spiritual values ​​of the region, which is recorded by numerous monuments of material culture and writing. The rich cultural heritage of the Kipchaks and the ethnic groups and states associated with them arouses keen interest among a wide range of researchers and lovers of antiquity. Scientific discussions continue around many issues, including the content of the scientific concept itself. Kipchaks and its equivalents - Cumans, Polovtsians, Kuns, Khons, around the mysteries of the rapid emergence of the Kipchaks in the political arena of Eurasia, the triumphal march for the West, the rapid decline of Desht-i-Kipchak, an unexpected new flourishing in the lands of ancient Egypt and, as it seemed, a traceless dissolution in multi-ethnic South-Eastern and Central Europe, Africa and others regions.

In the post-Soviet period, when a simplified publication procedure allowed pseudoscientific publications to absorb the information space and push fundamental science to the margins of public opinion, opuses interpreting the problems of Kypchak studies in an extremely arbitrary manner became widespread. Some authors have gone so far as to attribute to the Kipchaks the gigantic statues of Easter Island, the writing of ancient Sumer, the Gothic art of Western Europe, and many other far from Turkic phenomena. The absurdity of such statements is obvious, but, nevertheless, in Kazakhstan, opuses of this kind were included in the lists of scientific literature recommended for use in history lessons at school.

At the same time, the works of famous scientists of the former USSR, Turkey, Western Europe, and the USA, who have a deep knowledge of the subject and use scientific research methods, discovering more and more invaluable sources, remain the property of quiet, unclamorous armchair science. Although, in terms of their heuristics and persuasiveness, they should rightly evoke the admiration of the educated public. Unfortunately, these works did not become the property of the masses, and the works of many of the most authoritative researchers who passed away during the years of stagnation, perestroika and subsequent crisis remained in their original handwritten form, such as the fundamental comparative dictionary of written monuments of the Kipchak-Oguz language of the Golden Horde Emir Najip (transferred by the widow of the deceased from Moscow to the Institute of Linguistics of the National Academy of Sciences of the Republic of Kazakhstan).

Kypchak scholars today face the following fundamental research questions.

I. Kipchaks and the Golden Horde. What was the Kipchak tribal union, how was it formed and what tribes were included in it? What are the actual historical and geographical boundaries of Desht-i-Kipchak? What relation do modern Kazakhs, Crimean Tatars, Karaites, Krymchaks, Karachais, Balkars, Kumyks, Tatars and other peoples have to the medieval Kipchaks of the Polovtsian steppe?

II. Were the Chingizids of the Golden Horde really a model of religious tolerance? The state of affairs with religion and interfaith relations in Dasht-i-Kipchak. What religions did the Kipchaks and their allies profess? When and which branches of the Kipchaks adopted Islam? Among which branches of the Kipchaks and their allies did Christianity spread? How were former pagan beliefs reflected in the newly adopted religious cults, and their traces in the language of Islamic and Christian written monuments? When and on what territory did the “Polovtsian bishopric” exist, or were there several such bishoprics - at different times and in different places? From the point of view of ethnogenesis, who are the Karaites and Krymchaks - Jews, Khazars or Kipchaks?

III. Kipchaks and Jews. Orthodox Jews and Karaite Jews in the Khazar state. Krymchaks (Crimean Jews) and Karaites as the heirs of these two branches of Judaism. The influence of the spiritual culture of the Jews on the development of cultural values ​​of the Kipchaks. Jewish Torah and tsrd - law, law, court, code of laws among the Kipchaks. The Bible in the spiritual life of various branches of the Kipchaks. Kipchak translations of biblical texts as a reflection of three arc principles - Judaism, Tengrism and Islam as a religion derived from Judaism.

IV. Where, by whom and when was the famous “Codex Cumanicus” compiled? What Turkic dialects are reflected in it? Did the Kipchaks of that time have their own writing and literature, or were brilliant translations of Christian texts their only literary experience? Were there any Kipchaks among the missionaries? Or were these translations carried out not by the Kipchaks, but by Italians or Germans who labored among them, who studied the Kipchak language so well as to flawlessly translate the Holy Letter, the Apostolic Creed, canons and hymns into it?

V. Kipchaks and peoples of the Caucasus. Do the Kipchaks have anything to do with the runic monuments of the Caucasus? Did the Kipchaks assimilate to the state ethnic groups at a time when their tumens (tens of thousands of warriors) were hired for military service by Georgian and other rulers? Turkic-speaking Gurjis of Crimea, who founded the Urum village of Gurji in the Azov region in 1779 - who are they? What is the further historical fate of the Kipchaks, who settled forever in Armenia, adopted religion, founded the village Hpchakh and built a monastery there Khpchakhvank in 1206? How did entire colonies of Kypchakophone Armenians arise in Crimea, Moldova and Wallachia, in Ukraine and Poland? Were there among them the descendants of the Kipchaks who adopted Armenian-Gregorin Christianity back in Armenia or in other Armenian colonies? Why did the Kypchak-Armenians of these colonies recognize them as native ( bizim tilimiz“our language”) is a Kipchak language, not Armenian, although they called themselves ermeni- Armenians? Why the name Khypchakh Tili“Kypchak language” in monuments of religious content is often designated by the term Tatarcha“in Tatar”, “in the Tatar language”? Why are there many elements of Oghuz (Turkish) phonetics in translated monuments? What was the “re-Armenization” of the Kipchak-phone Armenians on the eve of the union of Lvov Armenians with the Roman Catholic Church at the beginning of the 17th century and what were the historical consequences of this union? Were there any Armenians evicted in 1778-1779? from Crimea to Don (Rostov-on-Don) Kipchak-speaking?

VI. Kipchaks in Crimea. The role of the Kipchaks, Nogais, Oguzes and Turks in the ethnogenesis of the Crimean Tatars and other peoples of Crimea. Did some of the Crimean Greeks really accept the Kipchak language of the local majority, or did some of the Kipchaks convert to Byzantine Christianity? What is the role of the slave Esirs in the formation of the Urum ethnos - Turkic-speaking Greeks as a special nationality? What historical information is hidden in the message: “On the same day, the servant of God Almalchu, son of Samak, alas, a young man, stabbed to death by the Cossacks, died,” attributed on May 17, 1308 on the Greek synaxar from the Crimean city of Sugdei (Sudak)? Can this message be considered the first mention of the Kazakh ethnonym?

VII. Kipchaks of the Golden Horde and Mamluk Egypt. The role of the Kipchaks in the history of this state. Was Sultan Baybars really a native of the Kazakh steppe? To what extent did the mixed Oguz-Kypchak (Kypchak-Oguz) literary language of the Golden Horde and Mamluk Egypt reflect the living speech of the people? What is common between the language of the Kipchaks of Mamluk Egypt and the Kazakh language, as well as other Turkic languages? What is the contribution of the Oguzes to the Turks - the literary language that united the Turks until the mid-nineteenth century?

VIII. Kipchaks in Hungary. Were there Cumans in Hungary before the Mongol invasion? If the 40,000-strong Polovtsian army, after the treacherous murder of Khan Kotyan, “went to the Balkans, sweeping away everything in its path,” then which Cumans remained in Hungary and where did this huge army dissolve? What were the historical regions of Hungary, Lesser and Greater Cumania, like ethnically? What is the cultural heritage of the Kuns of Hungary and what are the features of their language?

IX. Kipchaks-Cumans-Polovtsians and Kievan Rus. Traces of the Polovtsian language in the literary heritage of Kievan Rus and in modern East Slavic languages. Did numerous representatives of the Oguz and Kipchak tribes disappear without a trace among the Rus of the Dnieper region? Badjanak-Pechenegs, Berendeys, Boats (Moguts), Kaepichi, Kovui, Torki, Turpei, Black Klobuki, Anjogly, Burdzhogly, Burn, Burly, Juzan, Durut, Etebichi, Iety, Itlari, Itylyi, Kangarogly, Kanougly, Karabarogly, Kulyoby, I will unlock, saxia, targolove, tortoba, toksoba, ulich, uglich etc. Isn’t it hidden in the name Gzak Burnovich modern ethnonym of Kazakhs?